Researchers must consider both internal and external validity when conducting studies to ensure dependable and applicable.

215 dis 3 1- Researchers must consider both internal and external validity when conducting studies to ensure dependable and applicable. It is crucial for researchers to be aware of potential errors, some of which are as follows: Internal Validity Errors • Selection bias: is the systematic variation in participant characteristics between groups that skews the findings. • Maturation: Individual changes that occur over time and are not connected to the intervention or therapy. • History: It is challenging to assign effects exclusively to the treatment due to outside events or factors influencing the result. • Testing Effects: Prejudiced outcomes may arise from measuring participant performance or responses. • Instrumentation: Modifications to measurement equipment or protocols may result in systematic error. • Regression to the Mean: Treatment effects may be overestimated or underestimated based on extreme pretest scores. External Validity Errors • Sampling bias: inaccurate representation of the target population. • Setting Generalization: It is impossible to extrapolate findings from one context to another. • Experimenter Effect: Participants’ expectations of the researcher have an impact on study results. • Demand Characteristics: Cues that cause a change in behavior that is consistent with the expectations of the researcher. • Time-Related Factors: Variables may vary over time, which complicates generalization. • Effects of Novelty: participants may react in ways that aren’t typical of their reactions. The researcher can reduce these inaccuracies and improve the accuracy of the information given by cooperating with the user in a discussion. The researcher can increase the precision and dependability of the study by actively include the user in the conversation. References Faust, D., Arkes, H. R., & Gaudet, C. E. (2023). Applying decision research to improve clinical outcomes, psychological assessment, and clinical prediction. Oxford University Press. done 2 hours ago 2- When conducting a research study, researchers should pay close attention to internal and external validity errors to ensure the credibility and generalizability of their findings. Internal Validity Errors: Selection Bias: Occurs when the sample selection process is flawed, leading to a non-representative sample. First is internal validity errors : Selection Bias: Occurs when the sample selection process is flawed, leading to a nonrepresentative sample. Confounding Variables: Factors other than the independent variable that may influence the results, leading to inaccurate conclusions. History Bias: Changes that occur during the study that are not a result of the independent variable but can affect the outcome. Testing Bias: Participants may change their behavior simply due to being tested or observed. Instrumentation Bias: Changes in measurement tools or procedures during the study that can affect results. Second is external validity errors: Population Validity: Ensuring that the results can be generalized beyond the study’s specific sample to a larger population. Temporal Validity: Ensuring that the results hold true over time and are not limited to a specific period. Cross-cultural Validity: The ability to generalize findings across different cultural contexts. Interaction Effects: Considering how different factors may interact in varied settings, affecting the study’s external validity. Sampling Bias: Ensuring that the sample used in the study is representative of the population of interest. 215 dis 4 1- the main points to consider regarding internal and external validity errors in research studies: Internal Validity Errors: 1. Selection Bias: Occurs when participants are not randomly assigned to groups, leading to differences between groups that may confound the results. 2. Maturation, History, and Testing Effects: Threats to internal validity that can influence participants’ responses or behavior over time or due to external events. 3. Measurement Bias: Refers to errors in the measurement instruments or procedures used, which can lead to inaccurate or inconsistent data 4. Attrition Bias: Occurs when participants drop out or are lost to follow-up during the study, potentially biasing the results if their characteristics differ from those who remain. External Validity Errors: 1. Sampling Bias: Arises when the study sample is not representative of the target population, limiting the generalizability of findings 2. Interaction Effect of Selection and Treatment: The effectiveness of a treatment may vary depending on the characteristics of the participants, compromising external validity. 3. Contextual Bias: Refers to the influence of specific environmental or cultural factors on the study’s outcomes, making it challenging to generalize the findings to other contexts 4. Time-Related Bias: The relevance and applicability of the findings may diminish over time due to changes in societal, done 2 hours ago 2- internal and external validity errors that researchers should focus while conducting a research study. Internal Validity: Definition: Internal validity refers to the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship. It assesses how well the study is conducted and how accurately its results reflect the studied group. Importance: Once internal validity is established, it allows researchers to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding. For example, if a smoking cessation program leads to improvement in subjects, internal validity ensures that this improvement is due to the treatment administered and not other factors Criteria for Cause and Effect: The cause precedes the effect in terms of time. The cause and effect vary together. Factors Improving Internal Validity: Blinding: ensuring that participants (and sometimes researchers) are unaware of the intervention they receive (eg. using placebos) to prevent knowledge bias Experimental manipulation: actively manipulating an independent variable (e.g., providing a cessation program) rather than merely observing associations. External Validity: Definition: External validity relates to how applicable the study findings are in the real world. It addresses whether the results can be generalized beyond the specific study context Generalization: Researchers aim to generalize their findings to other populations, settings, or situations. External validity ensures that outcomes apply to practical scenarios and can be translated into different contexts. Balance with internal Validity: While internal validity focuses on the study’s structure, external validity considers the universality of the results. Achieving both is essential for robust research. references: Arlin Cuncic, M. (2022, October 17), Understanding internal validity and external validity. Verywell Mind. 215 dis 5 1- ABDULLAH ALHARBI “internal and external validity errors that researchers should focus while conducting a research COLLAPSE Controlling the factors affecting external validity and internal validity in scientific research is one of the most important things that the researcher must be aware of, so that he can move his scientific research towards safety. Internal validity is defined as the ability to attribute the difference between the control group and the experimental group to the independent variable, and the effect that this variable has on the dependent variable, without there being any impact of other variables on the result of the research. Therefore, internal validity is that the results that The researcher’s findings came as a result of the action that the researcher took, and not as a result of anything else. As for external validity, it is defined as the researcher’s ability to generalize the results of the scientific research he arrives at outside the study sample, in another society and under similar circumstances. Controlling the factors affecting the internal and external validity of scientific research is one of the most important things that the student must know, and throughout this article we will talk about these factors. Factors affecting the internal validity of scientific research: – The date factor: This factor refers to the occurrence of incidental events or a set of external influences that are unrelated to the treatment and have a potential impact on the dependent variable. – The maturity factor: This year indicates the mental and physical changes that may occur to those examined over time. – The measurement tool factor: This factor indicates the use of a measurement tool that does not have validity, and this factor is controlled by the researcher’s keenness to use a measurement tool that has validity. (Halperin D, 2018) Factors affecting the external validity of scientific research – Controlling the interactive effects of the pre-measurement: This factor is considered one of the most important factors through which factors affecting the external validity of scientific research can be controlled. – Controlling for the effects of interaction between bias, selection, and the experimental variable: In order for the researcher to be able to control this factor, he must select the study sample randomly, in order to be able to apply treatments to them. – Adjusting interference in processors: This factor means that the effect is transferred from previous treatments to subsequent treatments, so that it is difficult to give an estimate of their effectiveness. (Eldridge D, 2020) References: Ashby F Eldridge D. (2020). Internal and external validity of cluster randomised trials: systematic review of recent trials. Pyne B Halperin D. (2018). Threats to internal validity in exercise science: a review of overlooked confounding variables. done 2 hours ago 2-17 hours ago ALI ALANAZI The answer COLLAPSE Validity errors are a common problem for many research investigations as they progress. The degree to which the findings accurately represent the sample population is referred to as internal validity. Internal mistakes can be caused by confounding circumstances and instrumentation. Cuncic (2022) asserts that instrumentation error can arise from modifications to observers or measuring devices, which alter the results because the research design may alter or because participants, if any, would respond differently to the modifications, resulting in a variance in the result. Contrarily, confounding variables are uncontrollable, extraneous factors that surface during the investigation and are not taken into consideration; they impact dependent variables in conjunction with other independent variables. These distracting factors have an impact on the entire study as well as the study’s conclusion. On the other hand, outside reliability denotes how well the study’s findings match actual circumstances and the real world as a whole. The Hawthorne effect, in which subjects behave differently from usual or alter their behavior because they are being investigated, can lead to errors. Research findings are impacted by these factors (Rodrigues & Ferreira, 2020). The novelty effect, which describes how a novel intervention or therapy affects participants and yields outcomes that vary over time, is another element. An illustration would be using a novel approach to learning that the students embraced at first but whose influence waned over time. One could argue that the outcome of this experiment is non-exclusive. Because of this, it’s critical that researchers carefully plan their studies, taking blinding and control groups into account, and exercise caution when extrapolating results to other populations or environments. References: Lanthorn, H., & Harvard, T. H. (2016). External validity clues in development: On what to look for and how. Working paper: External validity clues in development—On what to look for and how. Heukelom, F. (2009). Origin and interpretation of internal and external validity in economics. 215 dis 6 1- iscuss internal and external validity errors that researchers should focus on while conducting a research study. Internal validity • Internal validity errors refer to problems inside the audit design and implementation that can impact the accuracy and reliability of the results. A common error is selection bias, which occurs when the participants in a survey are not representative of the larger population. This can lead to biased or skewed findings that may not be relevant to the broader population. Another error involves perplexing factors, which are elements that can influence the relationship between the factors under investigation. If these factors are not properly accounted for, they can distort the true cause and effect relationship (Esterling, et al., 2023). External validity • Outer validity errors arise from the lack of generalizability and relevance of the research findings to real-world situations. An important concept to consider is the representativeness of a test. If the sample used in the study is not diverse or representative of the larger population, the findings may not be applicable to a broader context. Another viewpoint to consider is the concept of natural legitimacy, which refers to the extent to which the findings of the review can be applied to real-world situations. If the examination is conducted in a controlled laboratory setting that does not accurately replicate the complexities of everyday life, the results may not align with what would be expected in practical situations (Slough, & Tyson, 2023). References Esterling, K. M., Brady, D., & Schwitzgebel, E. (2023). The necessity of construct and external validity for generalized causal claims (No. 18). I4R Discussion Paper Series. Slough, T., & Tyson, S. A. (2023). External Validity and Meta‐Analysis. American Journal of Political Science, 67(2), 440-455. done 25 mins ago 2-18 hours ago KHALID ALKHATEEB Internal and External validity discussion. COLLAPSE Today let’s discuss an infamous topic in research design, That is, Ineternal and External validities, but first, lets’s define what those terms even mean. Culturally, the common definitions of these two types of validity within the research community is often: Internal Validity refers to how attributable and accurate the study reflect the subjects, it’s more of a measure of how well-designed a study is. External Validity refers to how accurately the study results reflect the real-world, and how applicable the findings are. This helps to determine whether a study is meaningful or not. Errors regarding the validity of a study will undermine it’s result within the scientific community, thus, it’s very important for any researcher to pay attention to this aspect of his studies, but alas, many researchers often find themselves falling into a validity misdemeanor way after the research has already been conducted. Common Internal Validity errors researchers often fall into includes integrity neglection, that is, since Internal Validity is concerned about how accurately the studied subject reflects the target population, errors in this regard will therefore be about mistakes that will prevent accurate sampling, for example, poor randomization practices that will make the subject sample biased into a specific category, and the study will be then reflecting biased results. Lack of blinding or experimrntal manipulation, as well as wrong practices that results in to many confounding factors, attrition (participation drops), or diffusion (undesirable interactions between subjects) are all common internal validity errors as well. Common External Validity errors on the other hand will include factors or practices that affect the experimental field and replicability of the study, such as badly assigned inclusion/exclusion criteria, bad calibration of tools and statistical methods, and inconsideration of pre/post research effects (what happens at time intervals outside the scope of the study), External Validity is often limited by the study’s method, so what if there were actully situational inherent within the original study that it affected its results? (such as time or place of the study) Those are all factors that need to be considered during the process of study design. References: Cuncic, Arlin, “Internal Validity vs. External Validity in Research: Both help determine how meaningful the results of the study are”, at VeryWellMind.com. (Oct 17, 2022) link: https://www.verywellmind.com/internal-and-external-validity-4584479 215 dis 7 1-Amid the course of conducting a inquire about think about, analysts ought to be careful of potential blunders related to inside and outside legitimacy. Inner legitimacy alludes to the degree to which a ponder precisely measures the impact of an free variable on a subordinate variable. Analysts ought to carefully control for bewildering factors, guarantee arbitrary task, and execute fitting blinding strategies to play down inside legitimacy mistakes. Disappointment to do so may lead to wrong or onesided conclusions. On the other hand, outside legitimacy alludes to the generalizability of investigate discoveries to the broader populace. Analysts ought to consider the representativeness of their test and point for a differing and well-defined populace. Moreover, think about conditions ought to take after real-world settings as closely as conceivable to upgrade outside legitimacy. To dodge inner legitimacy mistakes, analysts ought to prioritize thorough ponder plan, fitting measurable examination, and cautious thought of potential dangers to inside legitimacy. To address outside legitimacy mistakes, analysts ought to center on testing strategies, consider settings, and the consideration of differing members. By being careful of these potential blunders, analysts can upgrade the legitimacy of their inquire about discoveries and guarantee that their conclusions are solid and appropriate both inside and past the limits of the think about. done 4 hours ago 2- SUB: INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY ERRORS THAT RESEARCHERS SHOULD FOCUS WHILE CONDUCTING A RESEARCH STUDY To guarantee the validity and generalizability of their findings, researchers must be watchful for both internal and external validity errors when performing a study. Internal validity errors are study-related issues like measurement error, selection bias, and confounding variables that may produce incorrect conclusions. Researchers should carefully account for these variables using rigorous data collection techniques, randomization, and appropriate study design. whilst, problems related to external validity pertain to the degree to which the results may be extrapolated outside of the particular study setting.. If the study conditions do not closely resemble realworld circumstances, or if the sample is not representative of the target population, these errors may occur. Researchers should aim for representative and varied samples and take the ecological validity of their study design into account in order to resolve concerns about external validity. Prioritizing both internal and external validity helps researchers make their study findings more credible and applicable, which helps them make informed decisions and make significant contributions to their profession. 215 dis 8 1- Internal and external validity errors are crucial aspects that researchers should focus on while conducting a research study. Internal validity refers to the confidence that a researcher can have in the conclusion that a cause-and-effect relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables, while external validity deals with the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other settings, • populations, times, or measurements Errors that affect internal validity include confounding variables, maturation, testing effects, single-group threats, and instrumentation. Confounding variables occur when there are other variables that could influence the outcome of the study and should be controlled for. Maturation refers to changes that naturally occur over time, such as age, which could impact the results. Testing effects and instrumentation can also cause errors in internal validity as they can introduce bias into the study External validity errors include sample characteristics, temporal validity, test-treatment interaction, and interactive arrangements. Sample characteristics refer to whether the sample is representative of the population being studied. Temporal validity is the extent to which the results can be generalized across time. Testtreatment interaction refers to the fact that the treatment effect mav he different for nretested done 1 hour ago 2- Sustaining a high level of both internal and external validity in research studies is essential to the validity and relevance of the results. The veracity of the cause-and-effect relationship within the study is known as internal validity. (Khorsan, 2014) It guarantees that the observed outcomes are the product of the experimental treatment and not of extraneous variables. Measurement mistakes, selection bias, and confounding variables are common hazards Confounding variables are unmeasured elements that could affect the result and distort the treatment’s true effect. When participants are not randomly assigned to groups, selection bias takes place, which may lead to uneven groups and nongeneralizable results. Internal validity can be seriously harmed by instrumentation mistakes, which occur when measurement instruments are inconsistent or inaccurate. (C. M. (2005) Researchers can use blinding, randomization, and established measurement tools to reduce these On the other hand, external validity concerns how well the study’s conclusions apply to different contexts, groups, or eras. The Hawthorne effect, in which participants alter their behavior just inconsistent or inaccurate. (C. M. (2005) Researchers can use blinding, randomization, and established measurement tools to reduce these On the other hand, external validity concerns how well the study’s conclusions apply to different contexts, groups, or eras. The Hawthorne effect, in which participants alter their behavior just because they are aware that they are being studied, sampling bias, in which the sample is not representative of the population meant to be analyzed, and ecological validity, which raises the question of whether study conditions accurately reflect the real-world scenario the researcher wants to generalize to, are some of the challenges to external validity. (A. K. (2008) Furthermore, extremely controlled lab settings might not accurately represent real-world settings, which could restrict how broadly applicable the findings Anderson-Cook, C. M. (2005). • Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference Akobeng, A. K. (2008). Assessing the • validity of clinical trials. Journal of 215 dis 9 1- HISSAH ALSABR Researchers must balance internal and external validity when conducting a study to ensure the study’s INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY ERRORS : JA Internal validity refers to the accuracy of research results in resembling the target population, avoiding results have significant ramifications Researchers should prevent these mistakes to maintain internal validity. External validity assesses a methodological errors. Common threats include measurement errors and participant selection, study’s applicability to patients in routine clínical practice, particularly for the sample’s intended determining if the findings apply to patients in a different context. A triats internal validity is crucial for population. Once internal validity is established, researchers can assess external validity by external validity, as it indicates the study’s findings are true and can’t be inferred from the results. Lack the research population, potentially leading to a decrease in the frequency of treatment adoption by of external validity suggests that the trials findings may not be applicable to patients not included in strategies and sample size, are essential for increasing internal validity, Broad inclusion criteria and other physicians. Careful study planning quality control, and execution tactics, such as recruiting selecting practically applicable therapies can also improve external validity Arlin Cuncic, M. A. (2019, February 25), Internal validity vs. External validity in research. Verywell Mind, Patino, C. M., & Ferreira, J. C. (2018). Internal and external validity: can you apply research study results https://www.verywellmind.com/internal-and-external… /Pneumologia e Tisilogia, 44(3), 183183. https://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC61886… to your patients? jornal Brasileiro de Pneumologia: Publicacao Oficial Da Sociedade Brasileira de done 2 hours ago 2- ZAHRA SHARIFI Researchers should be aware of both external and internal validity flaws when performing a study in DISCUSSIONT N order to guarantee the validity and generalizability of their conclusions. Confounding variables can skew the connection between the independent and dependent variables, and selection bias can occur when the sample is not representative of the target population. These are examples of internal validity mistakes. Internal validity can also be jeopardized by measurement flaws, such as inaccurate data collection methods or skewed measurement tools. Furthermore, maturation effects—which are defined as normal changes that could take place in participants over time-should be taken into account and managed by researchers The degree to which the results can be extrapolated to different groups or situations is known as the external validity errors. Due to a non-representative sample, sampling bias may restrict the external Reference Trochim, W. M., & Donnelly: ). P. (2008). The research methods knowledge base (3rd ed.), Atomic Dog: Publishing 215 dis 13 1- Internal validity errors refer to factors within the study that could influence the accuracy of the results. These errors might include issues like confounding variables, selection bias, or measurement errors. Researchers should be mindful of these factors and take steps to control or minimize them to ensure the study’s internal validity. On the other hand, external validity errors relate to how well the findings of a study can be generalized to a larger population or real-world settings. These errors could occur if the sample used in the study is not representative of the target population or if the study conditions differ significantly from real-life situations. Researchers should consider the external validity of their study by using appropriate sampling techniques, considering the ecological validity of their methods, and acknowledging any limitations in generalizing the findings. Researchers should pay attention to both internal and external validity errors during a research study. By addressing internal validity errors, they can enhance the accuracy and reliability of their results within the study itself. By considering external validity errors, they can improve the generalizability and applicability of their findings to real-world contexts. done 3 hours ago 2- Internal and external validity are crucial considerations for researchers when conducting a research study. Internal validity refers to the extent to which the study accurately measures what it intends to measure without the influence of confounding variables. Researchers should focus on minimizing internal validity errors by carefully designing the study, controlling for extraneous variables, using reliable measures, and ensuring the validity of the study results. On the other hand, external validity relates to the generalizability of the study findings to other populations or settings. Researchers should pay attention to external validity errors by selecting a representative sample, considering the ecological validity of the study design, and replicating the study in different contexts to assess the consistency of the results. By addressing internal and external validity errors, researchers can enhance the credibility and applicability of their research findings to the broader scientific community and real-world scenarios. 215 dis 18 1- When it comes to selection bias, which occurs when participants are picked who might not be representative of the target community, researchers must exercise caution when it comes to internal validity. Additionally, they must be aware of any confounding variables or measurement flaws that can affect how accurate their conclusions end up being. Researchers should take the generalizability of their findings into account for external validity. A representative and varied sample that is indicative of the greater population of interest is crucial. To make sure that the findings can be applied to actual circumstances, the study’s background should also be taken into consideration. Researchers can improve the dependability and relevance of their study findings by addressing these internal and external validity problems. Daji, X. (2020). Doing research in the real worldDavid Gray. Amizone. https://www.academia.edu/42696794/Doing_res earch in the_real world_ David_Gray. done 2 hours ago 2- Discuss “internal and external validity errors that researchers should focus while conducting a research study”. Internal validity errors that researchers should focus on include selection bias. It occurs when the sample chosen for the study is not representative of the target population (Grimes & Schulz, 2002), and confounding variables, which are variables that can affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables (Polit & Beck, 2017). Researchers should aim to minimize these errors to ensure that their findings accurately represent the causal relationship between variables within the study. External validity errors that researchers should focus on include generalizability bias. It occurs when the findings of the study cannot be generalized to the broader population due to a non-representative sample (Grimes & Schulz, 2002), and ecological validity, which refers to the extent to which the findings can be applied to real-world settings (Polit & Beck, 2017). Researchers should be cautious of these errors to ensure that their study’s findings have applicability beyond the specific sample and setting. 215 dis 19 1- HANOUF ALGARNI DISCUSSION BOARD : To guarantee the validity and applicability of their findings, researchers must be watchful for both internal and external validity flaws when performing a study. Internal validity flaws are study-related issues such measurement inaccuracy, selection bias, and confounding variables that could result in incorrect conclusions. By using appropriate study design, randomization, and strict data collection techniques, researchers should carefully account for these External validity flaws, on the other hand, are related to how much the results may be applied outside of the particular study setting. If the study conditions do not closely resemble real-world circumstances, or if the sample is not representative of the target population, these errors may occur. The ecological validity of the study design should be taken into account, and researchers should aim for representative and diverse samples to allay worries about Enhancing the credibility and relevance of research findings to guide decision-making and make a significant contribution to their field can be achieved by researchers by placing equal emphasis on internal and external Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and QuasiExperimental Designs for Trochim, W. M. (2006). Research Methods: The Concise Knowledge Base, Atomic Dog Publishing. done 2 hours ago 2- REEM ALHARBI Researchers must pay attention to the internal and external errors that may occur and ensure accuracy in the INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY data, variables, and data collection methods to ensure the validity of the resülts given during their research study. give an incorrect conclusion to the researcher, which causes a bad result for the research. As for external validity Validity errors are usually due to internal causes, such as selection bias or complex variables, for example, which does not represent the targets or their true reality. Therefore, the researcher must maintain his attention while errors, they are related to the selection of the sample and the conditions of the study. For example, the sample When the researcher pays attention to internal and external validity, the research results will be similar in honesty selecting samples, as they are diverse and similar to the objectives around which the study was created and accuracy :Reference Reichardt, C. S. (2002). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. By William R. Shadish, Thomas D. Cook, and Donald T. Campbell. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002. Pp. 623, the Social Service Review Social Service Review, 76(3), 510-514. https://dol.org/10.1086/345281 215 dis 20 1- Internal and External Validity Errors in Research Study In any research design, checking the reliability and validity of the research findings is crucial in ensuring the research study’s integrity and accuracy. Errors may, however, be present, necessitating researchers to be aware of the potential variances that may occur and how to mitigate them. One internal validity error that may occur in a research study is maturation, which, according to Siedlecki (2020), refers to changes that occur in participants over time due to age, which may alter the outcomes of some research studies. Another internal validity error is repeated testing, which may improve participants’ performance or cause fatigue, altering the final findings External validity errors, on the other hand, include sample selection bias that may result from picking a sample that is not a complete representation of the real population (Findley et al., 2021). Some research done in highly controlled laboratories may also have ecological errors as they may not represent realworld settings. Another error includes situational factors that surrounded the study. For example, the location of the study may have been unfavorable due to noise, bad weather, and researcher characteristics Researchers must take into account all factors influencing their research to avoid and reduce any internal or external validity errors in their study Findley, M. G., Kikuta, K., & Denly, M. (2021). External Validity. Annual Review of Political Science, 24(1), 365-393. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719Siedlecki, S. L. (2020). Quasi-Experimental Research Designs. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 34(5), 198-202 done 2 hours ago 2- RAHAF BADRAH internal and external validity errors that researchers should focus while conducting a research study Defnition: Internal validity refers to the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause and effect relationship. It assesses how well the study is conducted Internal Validity Importance: Once internal validity is established, it allows researchers to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding. For example, if a smoking cessation program leads and how accurately its results reflect the studied group to improvement in subjects, internal validity ensures that this improvement is due to the treatment administered and not other factors Criteria for Cause and Effect The cause precedes the effect in terms of time The cause and effect vary together Factors Improving Internal Validity Blinding: ensuring that participants (and sometimes researchers) are unaware of the intervention they receive (e.g., using placebos) to prevent knowledge bias Experimental manipulation: actively manipulating an independent variable (e g., providing a cessation program) rather than merely observing associations External Validity Definition: External validity relates to how applicable the study findings are in the real world. It addresses whether the results can be generalized beyond the specific study context Generalization: Researchers aim to generalize their findings to other populations, settings, or situations. External validity ensures that outcomes apply to practical scenarios and can be translated into different contexts Balance with Internal Validity: While internal validity focuses on the study’s structure, external validity considers the universality of the results. Achieving both is essential for robust research references Arlin Cuncic, M. (2022, October 17). Understanding internal validity and external validity. Verywell Mind What is the difference between internal and external validity?. Scribbr. (2022, October 10) Team, D. E. (2023b, March 18). Internal validity vs external validity Similarities and differences. Internal Validity vs External Validity: Similarities and Differences 215 dis 25 For a research study to be credible and have findings that can be applied broadly, internal and external validity are crucial factors to take into account. Below is an explanation of each kind of inaccuracy and the reasons why it is important for researchers to concentrate on them: Internal Validity Errors: Selection Bias: A phenomenon that results in biased findings when the study’s sample is not representative of the population. History Bias: Occurrences that took place during the research period might have an impact on the results regardless of the experimental modification. Maturation Bias: Over time, participant changes may have an impact on the results, particularly in longitudinal research. Instrumentation Bias: Modifications to measurement tools or protocols may impact how consistently and dependably the data are produced. External Validity Errors: Sampling bias: The results’ ability to be applied broadly may be limited by the sample’s potential misrepresentation of the larger population. Ecological Validity: The study’s conditions and setting might not be representative of realworld circumstances, which would restrict how broadly the results can be applied. Temporal Validity: The results might only be relevant for a certain amount of time and might not be valid at other times. Interaction Effects: It may be difficult to extrapolate the study’s findings to other contexts or scenarios because they may rely on particular circumstances. Researchers can strengthen the robustness and applicability of their findings and increase their credibility as sources for theory, policy, and practice by addressing these internal and external validity issues. Reference Smith, J. R., & Johnson, L. K. (2020). Ensuring internal and external validity in research studies: A comprehensive review. Journal of Research Methods, 15(3), 210-228. 2-When performing a research study, investigators ought to concentrate on various internal and external validity flaws. Confounding variables, which alter the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, and selection bias, which happens when the sample is not representative of the target population, are examples of internal validity problems. Inconsistent data collection or malfunctioning devices can lead to measurement error, which can potentially jeopardize internal validity. Biases can be introduced through Hawthorne effects and experimental demand, in which subjects change their behavior as a result of being watched or examined. Errors related to external validity encompass sampling bias, which occurs when a sample is not representative of the broader population, and ecological validity, which occurs when the study conditions are markedly different from real-world environments. In addition, experimenter effects—in which the actions of the researchers affect participant responses—and time-related validity—which establishes the applicability of results throughout various time periods—should be taken into account by researchers. Researchers can improve the internal and external validity of their research study by addressing these mistakes through suitable study design, cautious measurement methodologies, and a variety of sample strategies.

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