May 17, 2024

Are ?community-based correctional/treatment programs more effective than ?incarceration?? Explain your reasoning and provide supporting evidence ?for your argument.? Finally, pro

Are community-based correctional/treatment programs more effective than incarceration? Explain your reasoning and provide supporting evidence for your argument. Finally, provide an example of an evidence-based practice in community-based programming or in a correctional institution that supports your side of the argument.

Chapter 5: Developmental Views of Delinquency: Life Course, Latent Trait, and Trajectory

Developmental theories focuses on the onset, continuity, and termination of a delinquent career

Three independent yet interrelated views:

Life-course theory:

Focuses on changes in criminality over the life course

Latent trait theory:

A stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition that makes some people delinquency-prone over the life course

Trajectory theory:

There are multiple independent paths to a delinquent career, and there are different types and classes of offenders

Development Theories

LO1. Compare and contrast the three branches of developmental theory.

According to life course view:

Children as young as toddlers begin relationships and behaviors that will determine their entire life course

Disruptions in life’s major transitions can be destructive and ultimately promote criminality

The Life Course View

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

Photo: Donald Iain Smith/Getty Images

A positive life experience may help some kids desist from delinquency for a while, whereas a negative one may cause them to resume their activities

Delinquent careers are also said to be interactional because people are influenced by the behavior of those around them

Life course theories also recognize that as people mature, the factors that influence their behavior change

The Developmental Process

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

One of the cornerstones of recent course theories has been renewed interest in the research efforts of Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck (at Harvard University in the 1930s)

Focused on early onset of delinquency as a harbinger of a delinquent career

The most important factor was family relationships

Others include physical and mental factors such as intelligence, mental disease, and physique

The Glueck Research

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

Age of onset

Problem behavior syndrome

Continuity of crime and delinquency

Life course concepts

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

Photo:

How early is too early for the onset of delinquency?

Here, Salecia Johnson, age 6, is shown at her home near Milledgeville, Georgia, on April

16, 2012. Police in Georgia handcuffed the kindergartner after the girl threw a tantrum, and

the police chief is making no apologies. Salecia was accused of tearing items off the walls and

throwing furniture at school. The police report says she knocked over a shelf that injured the

principal. Does being handcuffed and arrested lock a young girl into a delinquent way of life?

Might there not be another solution?

AP Images/Anonymous

Early onset of deviance strongly predicts more frequent, varied, and sustained criminality later in life

Research shows that poor parental discipline and monitoring is a key factor in the early onset of criminality

The earlier the onset, the more likely an adolescent will engage in serious delinquency and for a longer period of time

Age of Onset

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

Life course view

Delinquency is but one of many social problems faced by at-risk youth, including family dysfunction, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality/early pregnancy, education underachievement, suicide attempt, etc.

All varieties of delinquent behavior, including violence, theft, and drug offenses may be part of a generalized PBS

Problem Behavior Syndrome

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

The best predictor of future criminality is past criminality

Research shows that kids who become persist offenders engage in more aggressive acts, and are continually involved in theft offenses and violent offenses

As they enter adulthood, they report less emotional support, low job satisfaction, distant peer relationships, and more psychiatric problems than those who desist from crime as youths

Continuity of Crime and Delinquency

LO2. Define the principles of the life course approach to developmental theory.

Social theorists have formulated a number of systematic theories that account for onset, continuance, and desistance from delinquency

One of the most prominent of these is age-graded theory

Age-graded theory was first articulated in an important 1993 work, “Crime in the Making,” by Sampson and Laub

Age-Graded theory

LO3. Critique Sampson and Laub’s age-graded life course theory.

Photo:

According to age-graded theory, people can knife off from crime if they receive the proper social

support. Here, Peter Barbuto, center, campaigns for Boston mayoral candidate Martin Walsh, whom

he said helped him when he was a drug addict. Walsh’s campaign for mayor moved many former

addicts—drinkers and drug users—to step out from the shadows and publicly support Walsh, a

state representative and recovering alcoholic who still attends AA meetings after 18 years of sobriety.

Walsh won the election in 2013.

KATHERINE TAYLOR/The New York Times

Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Theory

Figure 5.1: Source: Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life

Sampson and Laub identified “turning points” in life

Two critical “turning points”

Career

Marriage

Adolescents who are at risk for delinquency can live conventional lives if they can find good jobs or achieve successful careers

People who cannot sustain secure marital relations are less likely to desist from delinquency

Turning Points in THE Life Course

LO3. Critique Sampson and Laub’s age-graded life course theory.

A cornerstone of age-graded theory is the influence of social capital on behavior

Social capital:

Positive relations with individuals and institutions that support conventional behavior and inhibit deviant behavior

Losing or wasting social capital increases the likelihood of getting involved in delinquency

Developing Social Capital

LO3. Critique Sampson and Laub’s age-graded life course theory.

Several indicators support the validity of age-graded theory

Research has shown that children who grow up in two parent homes are more likely to have happier marriages

Youths who accumulate social capital in childhood are most likely to maintain steady work as adults

Love, Marriage, and delinquency

LO3. Critique Sampson and Laub’s age-graded life course theory.

Age-graded theory places a lot of emphasis on the stability brought about by romantic relationships

Kids headed toward a life of crime can veer off that path if they meet the right mate

Love is a primary conduit of informal social control

Only meaningful relationships seem to help prevent future crime: love, not sex

Love, Marriage, and delinquency

LO3. Critique Sampson and Laub’s age-graded life course theory.

Suspected latent traits:

Defective intelligence

Impulsive personality

Genetic abnormalities

Physical-chemical functioning of the brain

Environmental factors such as drug, chemicals, and injuries

The propensity to commit delinquency is stable, but the opportunity fluctuates over time

There are simply fewer opportunities to commit crime

Latent trait/propensity theory integrates trait theories with rational choice theories

The Latent Trait/propensity View

LO4. Evaluate the general theory of crime.

Photo:

What makes a person delinquency prone? In some cases, it may be

love. Here, Meagan Grunwald, 18, reacts as her attorney, Dean

Zabriskie, speaks during her sentencing at the Fourth District Court

in Provo, Utah. Grunwald was convicted for a 50-mile crime spree

with her 27-year-old boyfriend that left one sheriff’s deputy dead and

another wounded. She was sentenced to 30 years to life with the

possibility of parole. While prosecutors conceded that Grunwald never

pulled the trigger, they said she was a willing accomplice, not a hostage,

acting out of love and a desire to keep her relationship going. She

freely made those choices that put her in prison.

AP Images/Chris Detrick

Michael & Travis Hirschi

Integrates control with biosocial, psychological, routine activities, and rational choice theories

The act and the offender:

Delinquent acts are illegal events or deeds that people engage in when they perceive them to be advantageous

Delinquency is rational and predicable

Delinquents are predisposed to commit crimes

General Theory of Crime

LO4. Evaluate the general theory of crime.

Low self-control – immediate gratification

People with limited self-control tend to be impulsive

What causes low self-control?

Inadequate childrearing practices

Parents who are unwilling or unable to monitor a child’s behavior, to recognize deviant behavior, and to punish bad behavior will usually produce children who lack self-control

What makes people delinquency prone?

LO4. Evaluate the general theory of crime.

One approach involves identifying indicators of impulsiveness and self-control

Impulsivity predicts the likelihood that a person will engage in criminal behavior

Another study has found that victims have lower self-control than non-victims

Criticism:

Circular reasoning

Personality disorder

Racial and gender differences

People change and so does their level of self-control

Testing the General Theory of Crime

LO4. Evaluate the general theory of crime.

There is more than one path to crime and more than one class of offender; there are different trajectories in a delinquent career

Violent delinquents

Chronic offending trajectories

Pathways to delinquency

The authority conflict pathway

The covert pathway

The overt pathway

Trajectory Theory

LO5. Judge the validity of trajectory theory.

Photo:

The covert pathway to delinquency begins with minor, underhanded

behavior (lying, shoplifting) that leads to property damage and

eventually escalates to more serious forms of criminality. Here,

Pennsylvania state police pull evidence from 16-year-old Sean

Patrick Sellers’s car after he was taken into custody. Sellers was

charged with criminal attempted homicide after the teen shot at

police during a traffic stop of the stolen car he was driving.

AP Images/Markell DeLoatch

According to Moffitt, there are two paths:

Adolescent-limited offenders:

Those who get into minor scrapes as youth but whose misbehavior ends when they enter adulthood

Life-course persistent offenders:

Delinquents who begin their offending career at a very early age and continue to offend well into adulthood

A third path

“Abstainers”:

Social introverts whose unpopularity shields them from group pressure to commit delinquent acts

Age of Onset

LO5. Judge the validity of trajectory theory.

LOEBER’S PATHWAYS TO CRIME

Figure 5.2: CHART – Source: “Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders,” Juvenile Justice Bulletin, May 1998.

Proposes that a delinquent career must be understood as a path

People travel, and events and life circumstances influence the path

Life course theories

Emphasize the influence of changing interpersonal and structural factors

Latent trait theories

Assume that an individual’s behavior is linked less to personal change than to changes in the surrounding world

These perspectives differ in their view of human development

Note these positions are NOT mutually exclusive

Evaluating the Developmental View

LO1. Compare and contrast the three branches of developmental theory.

There have been a number of policy-based initiatives based on premises of developmental theory

Some programs aim to prevent delinquency in the long run by helping parents improve their parenting skills

A form of family support that has shown some success in preventing juvenile delinquency

Some provide a mixture of services

Developmental Theory and Delinquency Prevention

LO1. Compare and contrast the three branches of developmental theory.

Intervention

Across Ages

Unique and highly effective drug intervention program that pairs older adult mentors (age 55 and above) with young adolescents, mainly those entering middle school (ages 9 to 13)

Should such issues as early onset and problem behavior syndrome be considered when choosing participants for prevention programs like Across Ages?

What factors might be considerations when choosing a mentor?

LO1-LO5.

The foundation of development theory can be traced to the pioneering work of Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck

Life course theory suggests that delinquent behavior is a dynamic process, influenced by individual characteristics and social experiences

Latent trait theory suggests that a stable feature, characteristics, property or condition makes some delinquency prone for life

Trajectory theorists recognize that career delinquents may travel more than a single road

Summary

LO1-LO5.

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Chapter 6: Gender and Delinquency

Do gender differences in development pave the way for future differences in misbehaving?

Baby girls show greater control over their emotions

Boys are more easily angered and depend more on input from their mothers

Three development differences:

Socialization

Cognitive

Personality

Gender Differences in Development

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

Photo – Jack Carey / Alamy

Psychologists believe that differences in the way females and males are socialized affect their development

Females

Benefit from strong parental attachment and stronger levels of self-control

Learn their self-worth through sustaining relationships

Are socialized to be less aggressive

Learn to respond to provocation by feeling anxious

Males

Learn to value independence

Are encouraged to retaliate

Socialization Differences

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

Differences between males and females start in childhood

Cognitive, Personality, and Emotional Differences

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

Concept Summary 6.1

Girls are often stereotyped as talkative, but research shows that in many situations boys spend more time talking than girls do

Girls are often stereotyped as being more emotional than boys, but research shows that in many situations, gender differences in emotionality are narrow

The gender gap in emotion increases with age: girls exhibit more positive emotions as they reach maturity, while boys lag behind; this may explain differences in teen delinquency rates by gender

Gender Differences and StereoTYpes

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

Possible causes of gender differences:

Biological origin

Brain organization

Hormonal differences

Socialization

Gender-schema theory

Sandra Bem

Our culture polarizes males and females by forcing them to obey mutually exclusive gender roles, or “scripts”

Not all social scientists agree that there are significant gender differences

What Causes Gender Differences?

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

Photo:

Game time for Molly Kaissar and friends at the Girls Leadership

Institute camp. The goal is to help girls develop esteem and

confidence and become survivors in a tough world. Program creator

Rachel Simmons believes that because girls fear rocking their

all-consuming relationships, they are notoriously inept at addressing

everyday conflicts. More aggressive girls fight dirty and mean,

bullying, taking command of the lunch table, and spreading

rumors about their targets. Their devastated,

demoralized victims, furious themselves, feel emotionally

paralyzed. Much of the subtle savagery, the clique infighting,

Flourishes below adult radar.

Shana Sureck/The New York Time/Redux

Research has found that the factors that influence male and female delinquency are quite different

“Two-cultures view”

Girls and boys differ in their social behavior because their sex-segregated peer groups demand behavior that may not be characteristic of them in other social situations

Gender and Delinquency

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

The juvenile and adult crime rates for both males and females have been in decade-long decline

While males still commit more delinquency and are more likely to be arrested than females, there are indications that the gender gap in crime and delinquency arrests is narrowing, especially for serious violent crimes

Why the narrowing of the gap?

Changing in police procedures

Girls are committing more crimes – not supported by self-reported data

Gender Patterns in Delinquency

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

high school seniors and Offenses

LO1. Contrast male and female developmental trajectories.

Table 6.1: Chart – Source: Monitoring the Future, 2014 (Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, 2015).

There is a long tradition of tracing gender differences in delinquency to traits that are uniquely male or female

The argument that biological and psychological differences between males and females can explain differences in crime rates is not a new one

Trait Views

LO2. Examine the traits related to female delinquency.

Cesare Lombroso (The Female Offender, 1895)

Women who commit crimes could be distinguished from normal women by physical characteristics

The masculinity hypothesis suggested that delinquent girls had excessive male characteristics

Chivalry hypothesis

Gender differences in the delinquency rate can be explained by the fact that female criminality is overlooked or forgiven by male agents of the justice system

Early Biological Explanations

LO2. Examine the traits related to female delinquency.

Some psychologists view the physical differences be

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Are ?community-based correctional/treatment programs more effective than ?incarceration?? Explain your reasoning and provide supporting evidence ?for your argument.? Finally, pro

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