Changing landscape
Module 11: A Changing Landscape Multi-Media Reading: A Changing Landscape Prepared by Alyshea Cummins for “Religion and Society” (RELI2736/ANTH2550) READ: Chapters 11 & 12 of Stein and Stein, The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft. (4th Edition) What are the origins of modern Islamists Movements? Islamism is the idea that Islam should guide social and political affairs. Many Islamist movements formed in response to Western imperialism; however, others formed in the context of Muslim diversity. In order to understand religious political movements, one must first examine the role context plays in shaping movement motivations. Salafism Salafism grew out of Egypt in the 19th century in response to Western Imperialism. Salafism, simply put, can be observed as an ideology that aims to purify Islam by emulating the early Muslim community (salafs). Salafism is appealing because it claims religious certainty and promises paradise exclusively to those who follow the Salafi path. Some important thinkers in the Salafi movement include the following: Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780-855), Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328), Ibn Wahhab (1703-1792), Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966), Hasan al-Banna (19061949), and Mowlana Maududi (1903-1979). Salafism has inspired Revivalist Movements, which are movements that aim to revive or return to an imagined golden age. It is important to note that revivalist movements, such as the ‘Make America Great Again’ movement, all have this nostalgic longing to return to an imagined way of life, which may or may not be historically accurate. Thus, what these movements are trying to return to is really a modern-day construction of a reductionist idea of history. It is important to note that there is diversity within Salafism. The term Salafi has been used to describe different Sunni Movements that fit the following characteristics: • Rely solely on the authority of the Qur’an and Hadith (they do not recognize the madhhabs) • Scripturalist: the practice of justifying beliefs, practices, and motivations using scripture • Literalist: Interpret the scripture in the literal sense 1 • • Shariah: want to manifest their construction of Islamic Law based on their own beliefs and interpretations (this is achieved differently depending on internal diversity) Some traditions invoke the Lesser Jihad (Holy War) to achieve their goals Salafism can be divided into three types:1 1. Quietist: These Salafis focus on da’wa (missionary activity), are non-violent, and are grassroots in nature • They are not engaged in politics, instead they aim to achieve their goals by slowly changing the collective consciousness through proselytizing efforts directed at other Muslims • Ex. Tablighi Jamaat 2. Political: These Salafis focus on making a Muslim society by engaging in politics • They actively attempt to achieve a Muslim state so that they can implement their version of Sharia • They will use violence if necessary, but only against certain groups (sanctioned violence depends on internal diversity) • Ex. Jamaat-e-Islami in India/Pakistan • Ex. Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and elsewhere o The Muslim Brotherhood will use violence against the US but will not kill other Muslims 3. Jihadi: These Salafi groups focus on achieving an Islamic society through aggressive force • They aspire to forcefully implement their version of Shariah • They are considered militant and will kill anyone who does not share their ideology, including Muslims • Ex. ISIS, Boko Haram Wahhabism Wahhabi Islam originated in 18th century Saudi Arabia, in the rural area of Najd. This reform movement was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) and aimed to purify and correct, as he understood it, misguided Islamic belief and practice; in particular saint worship and shrine visitation – something practiced by various Shi’i and Sufi traditions. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his teachings are known for their intolerance of other Muslim traditions such as Shi’i, Sufi, and even Sunni Muslims who do not conform to their exclusivist ideology. Wahhabis claim that these Muslim traditions have diverged from the true path and are, thus, innovations and shirk (idolatry and improper venerations of God). This absolutist understanding has legitimized the intolerance, discrimination, oppression, and persecution of Muslims by Wahhabi Muslim extremists. 1 See Introduction in, Meijer, Global Salafism. 2 Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s Islamic reform movement aimed to (1) to revive the Islam of the Prophet Muhammad and his successors (salaf) by emphasizing (2) the oneness and unity of God (tawhid), and (3) eliminating polytheism and idol worship (shirk), using both the (4) Qur’an and Hadith as the sole authorities of Islam. Unlike Salafism, which rejects the precedence of all madhhabs (Islamic jurisprudence traditions), Wahhabi Islam is greatly informed by the Hanbali-Sunni madhhab and is inspired by the writings of conservative jurist, Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328) – who was not only greatly opposed to liberal theology, but also resurrected the Lesser Jihad (Holy War) under the contexts of the Christian crusades and the Mongol invasions. This is why it is important to study religion in relation to context. Context plays a role in shaping religious ideas, beliefs, practices, and motivations. Like Salafi Muslims, Wahhabi Muslims are both Scripturalist and Literalist, meaning that they believe that the Qur’an and hadith can be applied to the current day and age and must be interpreted literally. The traditional science of the hadith examined the chain of transmitters (isnad) to either disqualify or authenticate a Hadith. If one person in that chain had a reputation of dishonesty, then it weakened the validity of the hadith. However, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was unique in his way of deciphering an authentic hadith from an invalid one. He examined at the content (matn) of the hadith and if its content could not be found in the Qur’an it was considered inauthentic, regardless of how reliable the isnad (chain of transmission) was. This method has been criticized by Islamic scholars for various reasons, one being that the entire content could be labeled valid as long as a part of it appears in the Qur’an, even if it came from an unreliable source. Thus, there is no actual method to prove validity unlike in traditional methods. This allowed for a very specific and narrow interpretation of the hadith and the Qur’an and, consequently, a unique manifestation of Islam emerged. Wahhabi Islam was largely successful due to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s alliance with Muhammad bin Saud, who promised religious privileges and protection in exchange for political legitimacy. Today, the Saud family remains ruling family of Saudi Arabia and Wahhabi Islam continues to inspire domestic and foreign policy. It is important to note that there is internal diversity within Wahhabi Islam; however, more moderate positions and understandings are often overshadowed by radical ones. Today, Wahhabi authorities continue to delegitimize Muslim diversity, which has fueled sectarian violence and extremism across the Muslim world. 3 WATCH this video, “What is Wahhabism?” WATCH this video, “The rise of ISIS, explained in 6 minutes.” Possible Discussion Topics/Questions: 1. Research and discuss the origins and objectives of any one Salafi movement. 2. Discuss the importance of context in understanding the rise of fundamentalist groups and movements. 3. Compare and contrast Wahhabism and Salafism. 4. Discuss the globalization of Wahhabism. 5. Discuss another revivalist religious movement in another religious tradition. Compare and contrast that movement to a Salafi movement. 6. Select a revitalization movement (one from your textbook or one of your own choosing) and discuss the role that religion plays in that movement. How has context shaped the movement? Religion and Conflict No religion is inherently violent or peaceful. However, when violence is used, it is often justified using religious narratives and precedent. Religious traditions often provide a moral blueprint when it comes to sanctioned violence; delineating when and what type of violence 4 is permissible and when and what is forbidden. Thus, religion is used to sanction violence by removing the moral wrongdoing from the act and often offering honour and rewards in exchange. When studying religion and conflict, we must remember that religion is embedded in complex socio-cultural matrixes; religion is symbiotically linked with other cultural systems. Thus, in our exploration of religion and violence we must also examine the surrounding sociocultural systems to better understand the manifestation of violence; what else is happening in society that may be contributing to a hostile climate? WATCH this interview with Karen Armstrong, “Religions of War, Religions of Peace.” Reflection Questions to help guide student learning: 1. According to Karen Armstrong, what role does religion play in war and violence? What else is important? 2. What does she say about secularism? What about nationalism? 3. According to Armstrong, what drives people to war? READ Mark Juergensmeyer’s paper, “From Bhindranwale to bin Laden: A search for understanding religious violence.” Reflection Questions to help guide student learning: 1. According to Mark Juergensmeyer, what role does religion play in terrorism? 2. According to Juergensmeyer, what role does context play in violence and terrorism? 3. According to Juergensmeyer, what are some of the reasons for violence? What are these groups fighting for? 5 Then, LISTEN to this Radikaal Podcast, with Amarnath Amarasingam: “Amarnath Amarasingam on Religion and Terrorism.” Reflection Questions to help guide student learning: 1. According to Amarnath Amarasingam, what is the role of religion in terrorism? 2. According to Amarasingam, why do people join extremist groups? 3. According to Amarasingam, what do ISIS and right-wing nationalist groups have in common? Possible Discussion Topics/Questions 1. What are some prominent historical examples of the nationalistic use of religion in war? 2. Discuss and compare Juergensmeyer’s paper, the interview with Armstrong, and the Podcast with Amarasingam. 3. Discuss a specific example of religion (or secular nationalism) and violence. What are the desired goals of those committing the violence? What role does religion (or nationalism) play in the violence? 4. Discuss a specific example of religion (or nationalism) and violence. What are the desired goals of those committing the violence? What role does context play in the violence? 5. Discuss an example of a myth, symbol, or ritual that emphasizes or encourages conflict and violence (or one that encourages peace). What role does it play in conflict (or peace) today? 6
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