The University of Findlay Literature Review Changes Essay

Introduction. Cultural acclimation is an important part of adapting to life while studying abroad. Lack of English Proficiency represents a significant barrier for international students to become academically, personally, and professionally successful (Darwish, 2015). Students who come to the US face acculturation difficulties: such as educational, relationship, and with societal norms. These difficulties cause them to transfer or move to different states where they have their own culturally similar communities or friends and family. Acculturation can be thought of as the psychological and mental adjustments that people make as they interact with different cultures. (Berry and John, 1997). This study will investigate how international students are dealing with acculturation in the US. Acculturation Acculturation is the process of assimilating into a new culture, which has an impact on one’s health, eating habits, and level of activity, Immigrant Medicine (2007). In terms of language, an individual can learn a language but still can be in confusion during a conversation with native people as he/she is not aware about the social norms of the host country. Traditions, social interactions, media, cultural beliefs, and behavioral preferences are all aspects of acculturation, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (2018). According to Brown (2007) culture is the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and the tools that help shape the character of a group of people in a certain period. Over a period of time, a group of people can adapt to a new culture if they pay attention to things like traditions, social interactions, media, cultural beliefs, and behavioral preferences. Even though this is a continuous process and for some people it takes time, specifically for people who are from a conservative society. Another thing is that, sometimes the host country’s culture also changes (Robinson-Stuart and Nocon, 1996). There is a fact about language that language is inherently social, and it can be different even in the same country (Janet Holmes & Nick Wilson, 2022) and it is also similar with culture that culture is changeable. Culture is a comprehensive system of overt and covert patterns that includes many aspects of life, including ideas, customs, and behaviors, (Diaz-Rico and Weed, 2006). The social patterns known as explicit patterns are those that have received official attention, are under the jurisdiction of departments or ministries of education, and are explicitly taught in schools, Diaz-Rico and Weed (2006). Patterns that are passed down through shared experiences created by families and societies are referred to as implicit patterns, Diaz-Rico and Weed (2006). . Acculturation, according to Schumann, is the process of a student becoming socially and psychologically assimilated into the community that speaks the target language. SLA is one component of this process, and the rate at which it occurs depends on the learner (Schumann, 1978). So, more involvement with L2 creates more space to acculturate. It is obvious that social norms of the US are different than many Asian, middle eastern and African countries.Importantly, different language speaker can have different culture and only similarities are found with same language speakers of different countries such as: the US, the UK, Australia and many more. For individuals from different cultures and regions, the acculturation model of Schumann, 1978 is well known and better understood. In 1978 Schumann ran a study on a 33year-old Alberto who came to the US from Costa Rico. It was a 10-month long case study where Alberto’s activity was extensively observed. The study revealed that Alberto was not showing enough improvement compared to his stay in the US. He was not making enough progress in English and had some major issues which were hard to fix. Seeing this, Schumann started investing what is hindering Alberto from the acquisition of English language. Schumann found that Alberto was living in an environment that belongs to his home country’s people. He was living with his home country community. He had less connection with English community, culture, and people. His dominant language was L1 which was supposed to be English, his target language. That is what was affecting his language acquisition and brought his language acquisition to a halt (A Model for Second Language Acquisition, 1978, as cited by Mohammad Ataullah Nuri, 2018). Following acculturation model was the result of his investigation about the role of culture and language in acculturation. Schumann’s research on Alberto found a link between language acquisition and acculturation. So, acculturation will depend on learners’ involvement with the host country’s culture and language. Schumann also divides acculturation into two types that are involved with the host country’s culture and language. Social and psychological factors are two types of factors that play a vital role in terms of acculturation and language acquisition as well. Also, according to Schumann people who learn a language without any process of learning or tutoring are a byproduct of acculturation. It is a social and mental relation with the target language. Social Distance Social Distance is the first factor is the social dominance that refers to the learner as a member of a group who is in contact with another group that speaks a different language (John H. Schumann, 1978). The fastest way a second language can be learnt is when an individual wants to assimilate into the host country’s culture. On the other hand, the worst situation that occurs in terms of acculturation is when an individual decides to remain separated culturally and linguistically from the host country. In a sense, it is not worth coming to a country where an individual thinks he/she can do better but after arriving there they decide not to interact with the host country’s culture and people. According to Schumann’s acculturation theory, social factors include eight sub factors: 1) Social Dominance, 2) Integration Pattern, 3) Enclosure, 4) Cohesiveness, 5) Size, 6) Cultural Congruence, 7) Attitude, 8) Intended Length of Residence. Schumann divided social factors into 8 sub-factors as well and they are: Social dominance: It accounts the extent of equality between the target language country and guest language country. If the learner group is politically, culturally, technically, or economically dominant or inferior to the host language group, among these two groups social connection won’t be enough to learn target language. For example, a learner from conservative society to an open and free mixing society will take time and self-motivation to engage with the people and culture. Secondly, if the social status is almost equal among the learner’s group and host group, then there will be more contact among the two groups and as a result acculturation of the host country will be faster. To cite an example, international students from European countries tent to acculturate faster than Asian, middle eastern, and African students (John H. Schumann, 1978). Integration Pattern: In order to learn a second language, the best way is considered when learner takes into account with the host culture. Second best way is when L2 learner group try to adapt with the target language for only communication but do not assimilate the culture. Lastly, when a learner group wants to be separated from host culture and people and it is the unfavorable setting for learning the intended language (John H. Schumann, 1978). Enclosure: The degree to which learner group share social institutions such as: schools, churches, mosques, workplaces, clubs, and many other things. The more they share, the easier it gets for the learners’ group in terms of acquisitions (John H. Schumann, 1978). Cohesiveness: The learner group tends to stay together as we have seen earlier. The smaller and less cohesive the learner group, the more chances the interaction with the host group and faster the process of learning target language and culture (John H. Schumann, 1978). Size: The likelihood of intragroup communication increases significantly with increasing learner group size. On the other hand, if the size of the learner’s group is smaller then, the situation is opposite and contact between outer group is (John H. Schumann, 1978). Cultural Congruence: It refers to the similarities between the learner’s group and host’s group culture. The more similar the culture groups are the more likely to have social contact and as a result much faster acquisition (John H. Schumann, 1978). Attitude: Refers to the attitude towards the target language group whether learner group have a positive attitude towards host culture or not. For instant, people from North Korea’s attitude towards the USA and people from Japan’s attitude towards the USA are not same. Japanese learners are less likely to fail in language and culture acquisition while learners from North Korea will hardly make it (John H. Schumann, 1978). Intended Length of Residence: If the learner group intends to live longer time in the host environment, it is more likely that they will feel the need of learning host culture and language. Learners staying for a short period of time are less likely to adopt the host community’s language and norms (John H. Schumann, 1978). Above mentioned factors indicate how important it is to engage with social factors to learn a language and the culture. Their acculturation and subsequent second language learning are significantly impacted by the significant social distance between the host group and the target language speakers and culture. Schumann’s study on Alberto also found psychological distance from target language. Psychological distance is also involved with the comfortlessness of a learner’s surrounding social factors. Psychological distance can hamper several ways that can even stop them from taking full advantage of the social elements. He divided psychological factors into four sub-factors (language shock, cultural shock, motivation, and ego permeability) and they are elaborated below: The concept of “language shock” is a recognized phenomenon in the realm of second language acquisition (SLA). When learners encounter a new language, they often experience confusion and disorientation due to the unfamiliar structures, syntax, and phonetics. This initial difficulty is well-documented in literature that explores the challenges faced by foreign language learners. One prominent work in the field is Gass, S., & Selinker, L. (2008). This source delves into the cognitive and affective aspects of language acquisition, shedding light on the complexities of adapting to a new linguistic system. Learners may find themselves grappling with grammar rules, sentence formations, and pronunciation variations, contributing to the language shock phenomenon. Cognitive and Affective Aspects When people face language shock, it means they have to adjust their thinking a lot. This is because learning a new language involves changing the way their minds work to understand a different structure of words and sentences. It’s not just about thinking; it’s also about feelings. Learning a new language can bring up emotions like frustration, feeling unsure, and even being scared of making mistakes. Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2013) talked about this in their work. They looked at the psychological side of learning a language, focusing on how our emotions play a big role in the process. Understanding how our feelings can affect learning is important, especially when we’re just starting to learn a new language. Overcoming Language Shock To get used to a new language, it’s important to use a variety of methods. One way is to be around the language a lot – like talking with native speakers and using materials that are real and natural. Lightbown and Spada (2013) talked about this in their work. They explored good strategies for learning a language, saying that being surrounded by the language and talking with people who speak it are key to getting comfortable with it. This helps create a supportive environment for learning. Understanding how language shock works is super important for both teachers and students. It helps them figure out the best ways to teach and learn a new language, especially in the beginning stages. Cultural Shock in Cross-Cultural Adaptation When someone goes to a new place with a different culture, they often face a big challenge known as “culture shock.” This means feeling stressed, anxious, fearful, and confused because everything is so different – the way people do things, what’s considered normal, and what’s expected. In 1960, Oberg, in his important work, talked about this and explained how people go through stages of getting used to a new culture. He also looked at how people emotionally react to encountering a new culture. Another helpful source is the work by Ward, Bochner, and Furnham in 2001. They looked at the psychological side of culture shock, giving ideas on how people can deal with stress and anxiety while adjusting to a new culture. Understanding these challenges is crucial for anyone facing a new cultural environment. Navigating Challenges and Building Resilience Recognizing and dealing with language and cultural shock is really important for teachers, counselors, and students. There are helpful ways to tackle these challenges, like making supportive spaces, promoting understanding of different cultures, and giving useful tools for adapting well. In their 2013 work, Lightbown and Spada talk about good language learning strategies. They say that immersing yourself in the language and interacting with others are key to overcoming language shock. Another useful source is Berry’s work from 2005. He shares smart ideas on how to adjust to a new culture successfully, building strength and skills for understanding different cultures better. Motivation: Inspiration behind learning a language could be prestige, career, religion, and many others. Ego Permeability: The capability of being involved with a new culture and community in connection with joining a new speech society. According to the above-mentioned factors, it can be said that inadequate engagement with target language may result in slow or low acculturation, and they are always stuck at the primary level of acquisition. Some scholars have conducted tests based on Schumann’s acculturation theory to determine whether or not his model is accurate. Graham and Brown (1996) ran a study in a small town in Mexico on native Spanish speakers who could speak like native like English. Questions based on Schumann’s acculturation model were asked to everyone who could speak fluent English. The study’s findings did match several of Schumann’s acculturation model’s elements. They gained native like English proficiency mainly for three reasons: 1) they enjoyed friendly relationships with their English-speaking peers and friends; 2) they had a good attitude toward the English language and its traditions; 3) they had assistance from the school that provided Spanish and English language help. A study by Golden (1978) found that cultural backgrounds play a vital role in acculturation. The aim of the research was to determine if diverse cultural backgrounds have the same underlying personality structure. Cattell’s 16PF was used as a research method in this research. 101 Caucasian or European & 116 Japanese ancestry were the subject of the research at the University of Hawaii & all were undergraduate students. Each student was tested in the 196768 Edition of the 16PF (Form A) published by the Institute for Personality & Ability. The factor structure for the Japanese was significantly different from that of the Caucasian group. That means American Japanese Ancestry (AJA) were behind adopting culture in Hawaii. On the other hand, The Caucasian results did not differ from those reported by Cattell and his associates. So, American European Ancestry (AEA) did better than AJA in the cross-cultural diversity of the Hawaiian Island. Schumann’s concept made a distinction between two acculturation types. In Type 1, The individual fits into society by making friends with L2 speakers who can offer him guidance while still upholding the values and customs of his own culture (Indonesian EFL Journal, Vol. 2.2, July 2016). This is similar to Berry’s (2004) ideas of motivation. Berry divided acculturation factors into four sub-factors: integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization. They are discussed below: Integration: Integration occurs when individuals adopt target language yet maintain their own (biculturalism). Assimilation: It happens when the learner group gives more priority to acquire the culture, language and norms of the target language more than their host country’s. Separation: Separation happens when the individual rejects the host country’s culture and language in favor of preserving their own countries. Marginalization: Worst factor for a learner is when marginalization takes place. It occurs when individuals reject both target language group and own language group. Berry’s classification allows for the potential of little to no contact between groups, however both of Schumann’s categories need that the learner and members of the target culture have social contact. This is where Shuman and Berry disagree (Indonesian EFL Journal, Vol. 2.2, July 2016). Keeping Schumann and Berry’s model of acculturation in place, this paper also wants to see some other studies that found similarities and dissimilarities as well. In the study of Rivas, J., Hale, K., & Burke, M. G. (2019) aimed to find out international students’ experience and their sense of belonging on an American college campus & their role in it. This study was conducted by interviews & qualitative data was collected. Research method added two questions: 1) what factors impact international students’ sense of belonging and connectedness with American students; and 2) what are international students’ perceptions of culture and social interaction in America? 17 international students from various educational levels and ethnicities were interviewed among them 10 were males and 7 were females. The result showed the Americans having a sense of superiority, they are conservative and they are hard to develope close relationships with. Also, international students had a closer connection with international peers since they could understand each other. Even the participants found different education systems in the US. Faculty and staff are also responsible for fostering a culture of learning that is meaningful and for creating long-term comprehensive strategies to gain a more profound understanding of the cultural and ethnic backgrounds of the students they teach and advise (Glass et al., 2015). This paper is going to include a statement of a student from this study about her experience with American students. “I had some bad experiences with American students and whenever I approach some American students, I don’t find that same mutual impact as I find with international students. It’s just, I would say, I connect better with internationals and from what I have heard, internationals connect better with internationals (statement of an international student in the study)” Rivas, J., Hale, K., & Burke, M. G. (2019). Negative contacts may be more destructive to a person’s psychological well-being (Lincoln, 2000). Learner individual once having negative feedback trying to interact with the host culture and people will hardly try again to communicate in future. It can be included that the attitude towards the learner group should be positive and co-operative from host language culture as well. Otherwise, it is more likely that the learner group will either stay with their community member or will seek friendship with similar groups who are struggling. As a result, it can delay or lower their acculturation process. It is tough to create a social connection with the USA people mainly for international students who face cultural differences (Trice, 2004). Another study by Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011). Why can’t we be friends? aims to understand the lack of cross-cultural social reciprocity from U.S. students at a mid-sized Southern university. Also, they looked at how students’ multicultural personality traits, intercultural attitudes, and multicultural experiences, such taking a study abroad course, varied between those with and without international friendships. Participants were aged between 18 to 27 years and among them 28men & 52women in total 80 students. This study used The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000) to describe behavior when one is interacting with people from different cultures. MPQ included 5 personality factors: cultural empathy, open-mindedness, emotional stability, social initiative, and flexibility. The result showed 43% of participants had one or more international friends and 57% had not any international friends. Students with international friends had higher open mindedness than those without. The second hypothesis, that individuals with international friendships reported lower degrees of fear in intercultural situations than participants without foreign student ties, is supported by the data about levels of intercultural communication apprehension. In addition to improving U.S. students’ global competency and sensitivity, programs that promote openness and lessen apprehension will also increase the likelihood that international students will obtain vital American social support, Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011). Conclusion The US is a study hub for millions of students around the world. All the largest companies of the world like: Apple, Google, Amazon, Ford and many others are located here. It is a multicultural country where students tend to gather practical knowledge for their future life. In the process of doing it, they face many challenges in acclimating acculturation. It could have been quite easy on them if they knew and prepared themselves mentally and physically before coming. Some facts like culture, language, group size, norms, willingness to communicate with host people could make it easy. This paper tried to find out some of the factors that could be major issues for international students in acculturation. Well established and world-renowned researchers like Schumann and Berry’s models were discussed. Also, some other researchers ran research based on their model. Result showed that there are similarities, and their model was effective in terms of acculturation. Additionally, apart from Schumann and Berry, some other topics were also introduced about acculturation where host group also had some responsibilities to help learner group and acculturate them better. This paper found some factors that are really concerning for the international students. Findings included eight social and 4 psychological factors from Schumann’s acculturation model. Also, four distance factors from Berry’s acculturation model. Moreover, some other factors like negative contact, Lincoln (2000) and lack of cross-cultural reciprocity from US, Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011) were introduced. Support from institutions and instructors is another vital factor in acculturation Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011).

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