Air Pollution Question Packet
EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 Laboratory #5 Air Pollution Name: __________________ INTRODUCTION National Ambient Air Quality Standards To estimate the sources and quantities of air pollution, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six common air pollutants: ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide, and Lead. Emissions related to these pollutants include total organic gases (TOG), reactive organic gases (ROG), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of sulfur (SOx), particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns or smaller (PM10), and particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or smaller (PM2.5). Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) Exposure to particulate matter aggravates a number of respiratory illnesses and may even cause early death in people with existing heart and lung disease. Both long-term and short-term exposure can have adverse health impacts. All particles with a diameter of 10 microns or smaller (PM10) are harmful. For comparison, the diameter of a human hair is about 50 to 100 microns. PM10 includes the subgroup of finer particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or smaller (PM2.5). These finer particles pose an increased health risk because they can deposit deep in the lungs and contain substances that are particularly harmful to human health. PM10 is a mixture of substances that includes elements such as carbon and metals; compounds such as nitrates, organic compounds, and sulfates; and complex mixtures such as diesel exhaust and soil. These substances may occur as solid particles or liquid droplets. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is a colorless and odorless gas that is directly emitted as a by-product of combustion. The highest concentrations are generally associated with cold stagnant weather conditions that occur during winter. In contrast to ozone, which tends to be a regional pollutant, CO problems tend to be localized. Carbon monoxide is harmful because it is readily absorbed through the lungs into the blood, where it binds with hemoglobin and reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. As a result, insufficient oxygen reaches the heart, brain, and other tissues. Health damage caused by CO is of greater concern at high elevations where the air is less dense, aggravating the consequences of reduced oxygen supply. As a result, California has a more stringent CO standard for the Lake Tahoe Air Basin. EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 Nitrogen oxides What is nitrogen dioxide? Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reactive, oxidizing gas capable of damaging cells lining the respiratory tract. This pollutant is also an essential ingredient in the formation of ground-level ozone pollution. NO2 is one of the nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted from high-temperature combustion processes, such as those occurring in trucks, cars, airplanes, and power plants. Home heaters and gas stoves also produce substantial amounts of NO2 in indoor settings. Health and Welfare Effects from Exposure to Ambient Levels of Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure to NO2 along with other traffic-related pollutants, is associated with respiratory symptoms, episodes of respiratory illness, and impaired lung functioning. Studies in animals have reported biochemical, structural, and cellular changes in the lung when exposed to NO2 above the level of the current state air quality standard. Clinical studies of human subjects suggest that NO2 exposure to levels near the current standard may worsen the effect of allergens in allergic asthmatics, especially in children. Besides causing adverse health effects, NO2 is responsible for the visibility-reducing reddish-brown tinge seen in smoggy air in California. Ozone Ozone, a colorless gas that is odorless at ambient levels, is the chief component of urban smog. Ozone is not directly emitted as a pollutant but is formed in the atmosphere when hydrocarbon and NOx precursor emissions react in the presence of sunlight. Meteorology and terrain play major roles in ozone formation. Generally, low wind speeds or stagnant air coupled with warm temperatures and cloudless skies provide the optimum conditions for ozone formation. As a result, summer is generally the peak ozone season. Because of the reaction time involved, peak ozone concentrations often occur far downwind of the precursor emissions. Therefore, ozone is a regional pollutant that often impacts a large area. Ozone impacts lung function by irritating and damaging the respiratory system. In addition, ozone causes damage to vegetation, buildings, rubber, and some plastics. References: http://www.aqmd.gov/smog/index.html http://www.epa.gov/airnow/consumer.html#good http://www.epa.gov/airnow/aqi.html http://www.portoflosangeles.org/environment_aqm.htm EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 PART I. THE INFORMED CAR SHOPPER — CAR COMPARISON Go to http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/ “Find and Compare Cars” “Compare Side by Side” Type of car Annual tons of CO2 Emitted Annual Fuel Cost ($) Cost ($) to Drive 25 miles EPA Smog Rating (MA) Fuel Economy MPG combined, city, highway 2023 Toyota Prius AWD (Hybrid) 2015 Ford F150 Pickup 4WD, 2.7 L 2015 Chevy Suburban K1500 4WD …SIDI; FFV Their own car 1. Which car of the four has the best rating for low greenhouse gas emissions, and low air pollution? Why? 2. Examine again the comparison between the Chevrolet Suburban and the Toyota Prius If you drove a Toyota Prius instead of a Suburban, how much greenhouse gas emissions (annual tons of CO2) could be saved each year? 3. With information such as this so readily available, why do you think there aren’t more hybrid and electric cars on the road? (Think about cost and components) 3 EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 PART II. CASE STUDY Background Information Spirometry is a type of lung function test. It measures how quickly your lungs can move air in and out and how much air they can move in and out. For this test, you breathe into the mouthpiece attached to a recording device (spirometer). Forced expiratory volume (FEV) is a type of exercise stress test. This uses a spirometer to measure the amount of air you can exhale forcefully in a sustained breath. The amount of air you exhale may be measured at 1 second (FEV1), 2 seconds (FEV2), or 3 seconds (FEV3). The total amount of air you exhale during this test is called the forced vital capacity (FVC). Maximum midexpiratory flow (MMEF) is the average rate of airflow measured between the exhaled volume of 25 & 75 percent of the vital capacity during a forced exhalation. Reference: http://my.webmd.com/hw/health_guide_atoz/hw5022.asp THE EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON LUNG DEVELOPMENT FROM 10 TO 18 YEARS OF AGE From: The New England Journal of Medicine, v. 351, no. 11, Sept. 9, 2004, W. James Gauderman, et al. In this study, 1759 children (average age, 10 yrs.) from schools in 12 southern California communities were recruited. Lung function was measured annually for 8 years. The communities represented a wide range of ambient exposure to: • Ozone • Acid vapor (vapor phase nitric, hydrochloric, formic, acetic) • Nitrogen dioxide • Particulate matter Statistical methods were then used to examine the relationship of air pollution to the forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and other spirometric measures (see sidebar). The results of this study indicate that current levels of air pollution have chronic, adverse effects on lung development in children from the age of 10 to 18 years, leading to clinically significant deficits in attained FEV1 as children reach adulthood. 4 EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 CASE STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Compare the shared topographic map and Figure 1 (page 6). What patterns do you notice between where the communities are located and the levels of NO2, acid vapor, and PM10/PM2.5? (Given a dominant wind direction of ~ west to east) 2.a. Examine the ozone levels in Figure 1a. Which community has the highest level? b. Find Lake Arrowhead on the shared topographic map. Why this mountain community could have such a high ozone level? 3.a. Notice the communities of Atascadero (AT), Lompoc (LM), Santa Maria (SM). Looking at Figure 1, would you describe these as good or poor air quality? b. What is the geographic locality of these three communities – near the coast or far inland? How does the geographic locality affect the air quality of these communities? c. Examine the data for Long Beach (LB). Given that Long Beach is also a coastal city, why is the air quality so much worse (compared to the other coastal communities)? (To answer this question, see the section on Los Angeles Harbor) 4. In Feb. 2007, the state of California approved a new annual average NO2 standard of 0.030 ppm, not to be exceeded. a. What is the health concern about this pollutant? b. Looking at Figure 1b, which communities exceed the NEW annual average state standard? (hint – to convert from ppm to ppb, multiply the ppm by 1000). 5. Given all of this data, where would you prefer to live and why? 5 EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 6 EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 PART III. PORT OF LOS ANGELES AIR QUALITY In this section, you will be examining data collected around the Port of Los Angeles (shared color copies). See Map A (shared map) for locality information. Particulate Matter 1. Examine the color graph Monthly Average PM2.5 Concentrations at Port of Los Angeles January – December 2010. Notice the dashed red horizontal line near the top of the graph (Federal annual average PM2.5 Standard). Which site, on average, has the highest level? Using Map A, make a hypothesis as to why. 2. Examine the Annual Average PM2.5 Concentrations 2005-2010 bar graph. What changes do you notice over the 6-year period? 3. How/why is particulate matter harmful? PART IV. BOSTON LOGAN AIR QUALITY Air emissions associated with operations at Boston Logan International Airport come from three primary sources: • Aircraft • Ground Service Equipment • Motor Vehicles Additional sources include fuel storage, heating, and cooling; however aircraft are the largest single source of emissions at Logan. Aircraft emit four principal air pollutants: carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, oxides of nitrogen, and particulate matter. (Reference: http://www.massport.com/environment/environmental-reporting/) 1. Massport (owner and operator of Logan Airport) has been conducting Alternative Fuel Vehicles Program and Alternative Fuel Ground Service Equipment Program at Logan Airport since 1999. a. Examine Figures 7-3 and 7-5. Evaluate the effectiveness of these two programs. 7 EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 b. Alternative fuels are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels other than petroleum fuels. Name an alternative fuel that can be used in shuttle buses at Logan Airport. 2. Massport collects ambient (outdoor) nitrogen dioxide concentration data using diffusion tubes at locations throughout the airport and in neighboring communities. The program began in 1982 and is intended to track ambient nitrogen dioxide levels at Boston Logan and compare them to the levels in nearby communities and to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (see Figure 7-9). a. Examine Figure 7-9 (shared map). Which Massport NO2 Monitoring site (1-30) has the lowest NO2? Why? b. Logan Airport is a large airport located just 2.25 miles from downtown Boston. Compare Massport results to MA DEP results (table 7-8). Do you think if operations at Logan Airport have a significant impact on downtown Boston’s air quality? Why? c. What source contributes most to the NO2 emission in downtown Boston? 8 EE 105: Crises of Planet Earth Lab #5 MA DEP Annual NO2 Concentration Monitoring Results (μg/m3) 9
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