The Concept of Health in Mesopotamia and Early Christianity Mesopotamia and Early Christianity took different approaches to dealing with the fundamental aspects of health in the human body

1 Lusine Minasyan AN N EA 14W March 4, 2024 The Concept of Health in Mesopotamia and Early Christianity Mesopotamia and Early Christianity took different approaches to dealing with the fundamental aspects of health in the human body. Mesopotamia was placed between the rivers of Tigres and Euphrates which saw the rise of civilized city-states with the presence of advanced agricultural practices along with the central thread of religion lying at the heart of people’s lives.1 On the contrary, Christianity came to light in the Roman Empire and it influenced a great revolution in both how people think about religion and the societal structure. Early Christianity, based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and the Apostles, stepped forward with a unique worldview that was surrounded by the notions of salvation, way of life, and body and soul separation. By investigating two significant components – the role of spirits in health maintenance and the characteristics of the soul and body, comparative analysis will achieve a detailed insight into cultural uniqueness, and religious and medical practices of the ancient society, which will lead to a comprehensive understanding of their respective influence as part of the widespread historical process of humanity. Early Christianity, developing at the turn of the 1st and through the 4th centuries CE within the Roman Empire, is the beginning of the Christian faith. The very foundation of Christian belief is the notion of Christ being the divine Son of God and the one to whom salvation truly belongs. First Christians were given persecuted under Roman rule, as eventually, they had an impact of drawing together a multitude of followers to the church where the core 1 Krisztián Simkó, translator, “Introducing Assyrian Medicine: Healthcare Fit for a King” (NinMed) funded by the Wellcome Research Resources Grant, 2020-2023. http://oracc.org/asbp/ninmed/P393782 2 values were salvation, moral teachings, and the transformative experience of spirituality. This period marks the early centuries of Christianity in the Mediterranean, which paved the way for the systematization of theology, the constitution of the ecclesiastical structures, and the expansion of Christianity as a worldwide religion. The Mesopotamian zone, being situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, is commonly revered as the place where civilization began. An ancient land comprised of several city-states, namely Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon, were the building blocks of Mesopotamian culture, each one bringing in their own strand to the cultural cloth. 2 In their ancient polytheistic belief system, they had multiple gods and goddesses and every imperial detail of life was touched from governance to medicine and rituals, while worshiping these gods and goddesses. The historical Mesopotamia’s enduring contributions to literature, mathematics, and governance served as the basis for subsequent civilizations which facilitated the building of subsequent civilizations, allowing the developments to be passed down generation to generation. The supernatural impact on health led to the development of the old worldview in the culture of the past. The common notion existed in both Sumer and early Christianity that there is a link between spirituality and the wellness of human beings, which was reflected in the shared thoughts about the etiologies and treatments of ailments. The gods of ancient Mesopotamia were revered and worshipped as divinities of distinct specialization such as health among others. For the Mesopotamians, some diseases were the result of negative feelings that humans might have displayed towards the gods, and this would cause the cosmic harmony to be unbalanced.3 The theology saw the connection between god and humans and considered diseases and illnesses as 2 Rhee, Helen. Illness, pain, and health care in early Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI:William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2022. 3 Pouyan, Nasser. “Mesopotamia, the cradle of civilization and medicine.” World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 5, no. 4 (2016): 192-225 3 proof of his will. The deities of these beliefs were Ninkarrak and Ninazu are associated with heath, the underworld, and healing. Rituals, such as the Akitu festival, were supposed to be of reference tendering appeasement to gods that would love us and bless us with health and wealth. The Diagnostics Handbook was an ancient Sumerian medical text that also showed how the world was interrelated through the presence of a spiritual side to health. The Mesopotamian concept of supernatural involvement in the determination of health was richly endowed with rituals and offerings. Diseases were often considered to be the result of the irks of gods, and rituals were presented as a way of balancing the gods’ moods. The medical practitioners who assembled the task – a mix of the priest functions and the healer’s – would carry out rituals with prayers, sacrifice, and symbolic actions that happened to be part of the healings.4 Sick people were asked to offer food and incense to deities who were responsible for healing tasks. Mesopotamian Hammurabi Code of Law, one of the earliest legal codes, was prosecuting medical malpractice cases, which indicated the society’s acceptance of the role of maintaining solid healthcare practices. Similar theological practices are also conceptualized in early Christian texts. In Early Christianity, the idea of supernatural factors in health was present, however, through different ideologies. Disease was sometimes associated with moral devastation proving such misbehavior as sin. The religious ideology advocated for a fair and just God. Sin being related to health also is shown in biblical stories, such as Jesus’ healing the paralytic in the narration of Mark’s Gospel. So the storytelling means that sin may be connected to physical forms of sickness and the healing process is the way of atonement. The notion of the disciple himself as a divine creature and the course to repentance was in line with the Mesopotamian 4 Bowie, Walter Russell. The Bible. New York: Distributed by Association Press, 1945. 4 philosophy as it addressed the necessity to make an uprising of the spirits. Praying and looking for divine intervention was critical in Early Christianity when health was out of human being’s control. The supernatural force overthrew human ability. The New Testament books give various examples of Jesus healing ill people by prayer with one touch. Hands applied (for example, heaped-up) and poured over with oil were known practices, and the faith and health of spiritual dimension were emphasized in the healing process. In accord with the saying of James in the New Testament, “The effectual, fervent prayer of a righteous man avails much,” the healing that follows fervent faith in God was believed to occur when an individual’s prayer is delivered to God with utmost righteousness and purity.5 The therapeutic nature of group healing is manifest in the sharing of responsibility between religious leaders and community members; this community-based spirituality is pivotal in Early Christian healthcare. The faith in a supernatural influence on health was significant to each culture and equally worth bearing in mind for both Mesopotamia and Early Christianity. In Mesopotamia, medical practices and cultural norms were shaped not only by the interrelatedness of people’s health and divine favor but also by the very way in which the Gods were interpreted. Rituals and offerings became the basis of the shared culture where individuals interacted with the spiritual world to prosper. The emphasis on the continual identification of proper behavior through actions and by honoring the gods was the distinguishing feature of the Hellenistic society. In early Christianity, the world-view was of the punishment by God and also the reward from God whereby the sense of responsibility for one’s health also emerges. In addition, the preaching of the Christian principles together with the communal performance of healing rituals and prayers made the Christians closer to one another. Exploring spiritually induced ailments among Mesopotamian 5 Tham, Joseph, Chris Durante, and Alberto García Gómez. Religious perspectives on social responsibility in health: Towards a dialogical approach. Cham: Springer, 2018. 5 and Early Christian societies gives us an occasion to witness the blending of religion, culture, and medicine at an intriguing cross-point. The spiritual ceremonies, hymns, and the philosophy of health in these civilizations demonstrate the intricate relationship between spiritual and physical elements of this period which in turn provide a rather valuable contribution to the cultural history of Mesopotamia and Early Christianity. Ancient communities across cultures have used rituals and prayers to promote health. This paper will examine Mesopotamia and Early Christianity’s beliefs on rituals and prayers’ health benefits. Connections can be found in Mesopotamian healing rites, legal codes, and Early Christian prayer that demonstrate the strong relationship between spiritual and bodily health. Invoking divine assistance for healing was central to Mesopotamian medicine. Priests or doctors recited incantations as spiritual intermediaries and healers in healing ceremonies. “In later periods, one regularly encounters therapeutic tablets that combine sections of prescriptions with incantations, because in practice medical treatments were regularly combined with the recitation of a spell to render the remedy more effective.” Hymns and invocations to health and well-being gods were common. These ceremonies used amulets and talismans to boost their potency. The Mesopotamians thought that rituals endowed the spoken word with divine power that could cure disease by satisfying the gods and restoring harmony. Laws and religion in Mesopotamia stressed the necessity of healthy healthcare. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest and most complete legal systems, covered medical malpractice compensation. This legislative recognition underscored society’s understanding of healthcare providers’ duty to deliver quality care. It showed a deep knowledge of the relationship between individual well-being and carer responsibilities. The blend of legal and religious contexts shows Mesopotamian healthcare’s complexity (Yee 159). Early Christianity stressed the health benefits 6 of prayer. Jesus used prayer to cure in the New Testament, emphasizing spiritual well-being. Jesus anoints the sick with oil in the Gospels. These acts demonstrated the concept that spiritual intervention may cure the body by connecting the divine and the body. Early Christianity emphasized prayer beyond individual acts and became part of social worship and faith. Anointing with oil and laying on hands was symbolic and spiritual in Early Christianity. Hands were used to demonstrate spiritual authority and transmit healing power. Bible stories show Jesus using touch to heal, which became a ritualized way to invoke divine intervention. Anointing with oil symbolized dedication and heavenly favor in ancient religions. These rituals fostered a sense of shared faith and responsibility for well-being while demonstrating the power of prayer. Through rites and prayers, Mesopotamia and Early Christianity linked spiritual and bodily well-being. In Mesopotamia, healing rituals were practical ways to affect sickness by seeking heavenly favor. The Code of Hammurabi promoted the idea that adequate care was essential to health. In Early Christianity, prayer was an active connection with the divine, reflecting a notion that religion could change the body. Laying on of hands and oil anointing supported the concept that spiritual acts may improve health. Mesopotamia and Early Christianity were deeply influenced by healthcare rites and prayers. In Mesopotamia, religious, legal, and medical systems were intertwined to promote holistic well-being, and people actively engaged in ceremonies to maintain divine equilibrium. Early Christianity used rituals and prayers to show faith and community. Laying on of hands and anointing with oil promoted a sense of Christian communal responsibility for health and spiritual well-being (Steinert 166). Rituals and prayers in Mesopotamian and Early Christian healthcare reveal startling similarities in well-being. Both societies recognized the power of these spiritual activities to affect health, demonstrating a deep grasp of the spiritual-physical connection. The 7 ceremonies were both religious and practical ways to seek heavenly healing. Mesopotamia legalised adequate care and Christian healing methods are communal, demonstrating the social relevance of effective healthcare. Human notion of health, sickness, and existence has been shaped by the body and spirit. The soul, known as “lil,” was fundamental to the human body in Mesopotamia, a society rich in mythology and medical expertise. Beginning in the Roman Empire, Early Christianity drew upon Greek philosophy to view the body and spirit differently. This paper examines the enormous disparities in how Mesopotamians and Early Christians viewed the corporeal body and eternal soul, and how these beliefs affected their health and well-being. Mesopotamia saw the body as a whole with physical and spiritual aspects. Souls, or “lil,” were regarded as an individual’s essence, supplying energy and consciousness. Maintaining blood, bile, and phlegm equilibrium was fundamental to Mesopotamian medicine. The interconnectivity of various body parts was important for wellness. To restore balance and ensure body-soul harmony, healing rituals and medical procedures were used. Mesopotamians had a more integrated worldview that did not separate material and ethereal life. Early Christianity changed the body-soul notion, influenced by Greek philosophy. Early Christian philosophy echoed Plato’s dualism, which separated the immortal soul from the mortal body. Christianity believed in the intrinsic difference between material and immaterial human life due to this dualistic outlook. The holy and everlasting soul was contrasted with the temporary body, which was sinful. Augustine and other Christian thinkers emphasized the fallen condition of the material world and the soul’s redemption potential. The linked vision of the body and soul affected Mesopotamian sickness understanding and treatment. Ailments were typically considered as body fluid imbalances, indicating a physical-spiritual connection. Healing rituals 8 and medical treatments sought to correct this imbalance and restore health. In Mesopotamian medical literature like the Diagnostic Handbook, spiritual and supernatural aspects were considered alongside physical symptoms. The goal was to restore holistic, physical, and spiritual equilibrium. The dualistic split of body and spirit shaped disease perception in Early Christianity. The Greek philosophical dualism-influenced Christian worldview held that the corporeal body was sinful and defective. Diseases were typically seen as moral repercussions of human sins. It stressed the fallen character of the body and the necessity for spiritual restoration. Early Christians believed that the soul’s eternal destiny was more important than physical well-being. Early Christianity emphasized salvation and the afterlife due to the body-soul distinction. Although transient, the mortal body was deemed defective and sinful. However, the immortal soul was thought to determine afterlife fate (Pouyan 211). This theological stance emphasized moral purity and spiritual salvation in Christian health and well-being. The New Testament shows that Jesus’ healing ministry typically combined physical healing with sin forgiveness, demonstrating the link between salvation and health. The body-soul distinctions in Mesopotamia and Early Christianity affected culture and ethics. In Mesopotamia, the integrated perspective of the person encouraged a holistic approach to health that linked bodily and spiritual well-being. Researchers retaliate that, “The emphasis on biological fluids and lack of dualism made health and sickness more realistic.” In contrast, Early Christianity’s dualistic viewpoint emphasized morality and spiritual redemption. The Christian emphasis on the soul’s ultimate destiny shaped social standards and Christian ethics and morals. In conclusion, Mesopotamia and Early Christianity had different worldviews of health, disease, and the human experience, as shown by their body-soul concepts. Mesopotamians believed the 9 body and soul were connected, which shaped their medicine. Early Christianity, motivated by Greek intellectual dualism, separated the corporeal body and the eternal soul, emphasizing salvation and the afterlife. The experiences of Mesopotamia and early Christianity may be interpreted as a complicated complex weaved from various beliefs, cultural practices, and methods of health and spirituality, which defined and influenced the development of these ancient cultures. The religious system of Mesopotamia with its pantheon of gods and whole divine treatment was exceptionally integrated and underlined connectedness between their physical and spiritual spheres of life. However, Early Christianity, under the influence of Greek dualism, got this separation together, hence the set up of hospitals and monastic communities to be the center of healthcare for the patients. Through differences in this aspect, both cultures however were grappling with how intertwined the two are: the sacred and the mundane, the material and the immaterial. The study of these ancient civilizations not only endeavors to reveal the timeless bond tying human hopes for health, meaning, and transcendence despite their different cultural frameworks but also helps us to understand ancient contexts and outlooks. Mesopotamia and Early Christianity, are illustrations of how multifaceted human thinking as well as the societal advance both of which encourage to raise the eternal question of the existence, the spirituality, and the seeking of wellness throughout human history. 10 Bibliography Annus, Amar. “The spiritual dimensions of healing rituals in ancient Mesopotamia.” Journal of religion and health 59, no. 5 (2020): 2486-2503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00964-x Bowie, Walter Russell. The Bible. New York: Distributed by Association Press, 1945. Krisztián Simkó, translator, “Introducing Assyrian Medicine: Healthcare Fit for a King” (NinMed) funded by the Wellcome Research Resources Grant, 2020-2023. http://oracc.org/asbp/ninmed/P393782 Okeke, Felix Onyebuchi. “Examining the Intersectionality of Religious Faith, Spirituality, and Healthcare Communication.” PhD diss., Duquesne University, 2020. Porterfield, Amanda. Healing in the History of Christianity. Oxford University Press, 2005. Pouyan, Nasser. “Mesopotamia, the cradle of civilization and medicine.” World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 5, no. 4 (2016): 192-225 Rhee, Helen. Illness, pain, and health care in early Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI:William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2022. Sibbing-Plantholt, Irene. “Newly Understanding Healing Goddesses and asûs: Theory and Methods.” In The Image of Mesopotamian Divine Healers, pp. 1-24. Brill, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004512412_002 Steinert, U., 2020. Disease concepts and classifications in ancient Mesopotamian medicine. In Systems of Classification in Premodern Medical Cultures (pp. 140-194). Routledge. Tham, Joseph, Chris Durante, and Alberto García Gómez. Religious perspectives on social responsibility in health: Towards a dialogical approach. Cham: Springer, 2018. 11 Yee, Gale A. “Midwives in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Ancient Israel: An Intersectional Investigation.” Biblical theology bulletin 52, no. 3 (2022): 146-159. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461079221102970

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