As the text points out, causal reasoning is used in clinical studies. As a professional in the health field, you will undoubtedly be referring to cause/effect studies for the rest of your professiona

Think Critically

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To students and teachers everywhere, may developing critical thinking help you

stay forever young.

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Think Critically Third Edition

Peter Facione

Carol Ann Gittens

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Facione, Peter A. Think critically / Peter Facione, Carol Ann Gittens. — Third edition. pages cm Includes index. ISBN 978-0-13-390966-1 — ISBN 0-13-390966-2 1. Critical thinking—Textbooks. I. Gittens, Carol Ann. II. Title. B809.2.F33 2014 160—dc23 2014040474

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Student Edition: ISBN 10: 0-13-390966-2 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-390966-1

Instructor’s Review Copy: ISBN 10: 0-13-391412-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-391412-2

A la Carte: ISBN 10: 0-13-391413-5 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-391413-9

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1 The Power of Critical Thinking 1

2 Critical Thinking Mindset  and Skills 18

3 Solve Problems and Succeed in College 39

4 Clarify Ideas and Concepts 63

5 Analyze Arguments and Diagram Decisions 88

6 Evaluate the Credibility of Claims and Sources 113

7 Evaluate Arguments: Four Basic Tests 138

8 Valid Inferences 158

9 Warranted Inferences 174

10 Snap Judgments: Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking 193

11 Reflective Decision Making 220

12 Comparative Reasoning 239

13 Ideological Reasoning 259

14 Empirical Reasoning 283

15 Write Sound and Effective  Arguments 300

16 Ethical Decision Making 327

17 The Logic of Declarative Statements 349

Appendix: Extend Argument- Decision Mapping Strategies 377

Brief Contents

v

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vi

Acknowledgments x Preface xi About the Authors xiii

1 The Power of Critical Thinking 1

Risk and Uncertainty Abound 2 Critical Thinking and a Free Society 2 The One and the Many 5

What Do We Mean by “Critical Thinking”? 6 Expert Consensus Conceptualization 6 “Critical Thinking” Does Not Mean “Negative Thinking” 7 Improvement Takes Practice 8

Evaluating Critical Thinking 9 The Students’ Assignment—Kennedy Act 9

The Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric 11 The Students’ Assignment—Haiti 11

Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications

2 Critical Thinking Mindset  and Skills 18

Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind 19 The Spirit of a Strong Critical Thinker 20 Positive vs. Negative Habits of Mind 21 Preliminary Self-Assessment 21 Research on the Positive Critical Thinking Mindset 22

Seven Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind 22 • Negative Habits of Mind 23

Is a Good Critical Thinker Automatically a Good Person? 25 Cultivate a Positive Critical Thinking Mindset 26

Core Critical Thinking Skills 27 Interpreting and Analyzing the Consensus Statement 27 The Jury Is Deliberating 28 Critical Thinking Skills Fire in Many  Combinations 28 Strengthening Our Core Critical Thinking Skills 29 The Art of the Good Question 30 Skills and Subskills Defined 32

Looking Ahead 32 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

3 Solve Problems and Succeed in College 39

Differences and Similarities 41

IDEAS: A 5-Step Critical Thinking General Problem-Solving Process 42

Educating the Whole Person 44 Social Relationships 45

STEP 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities 46

Vocation 46 STEp 1: IDENTIFY the Problem and Set Priorities 47 • STEP 2: DETErMINE relevant Information and Deepen Understanding 48

Academics 49 The First Two IDEAS Steps in Maria’s Case 50

Health and Physical Well-being 52 The First Three Steps in Leah’s Case 52

Problems in College and Beyond 55 Emotional Well-Being 55 Spiritual Development 59 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications

4 Clarify Ideas and Concepts 63

Interpretation, Context, and Purpose 64 Meaning Matters 64 But, Clear Enough for What? 65 Worth 1000 Words 67 Communication, Language, and Thought 68

When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings 70

Vagueness: “Does the Meaning Include This Case or Not?” 70 Problematic Vagueness 71 Ambiguity: “Which Meaning Are We Using?” 72 Problematic Ambiguity 72

Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity 72 Contextualizing 72 Clarifying Original Intent 73 Negotiating the Meaning 75 Using Qualifications, Exceptions, or Exclusions 78 Stipulating the Meaning 78 Donkey Cart Words Signal Twisted Meanings 79

Language Communities 81 National and Global Language Communities 81 Language Communities Formed of People with Like Interests 82 Academic Disciplines as Language Communities 83 Critical Thinking and College Introductory Courses 84 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

5 Analyze Arguments and Diagram Decisions 88

Analyzing Reasons and Claims 89 Accuracy Depends on Context and Purpose 89 Over-Simplification Masks Reality 90 “Reason” and “Premise” 91

Contents

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Contents vii

Mapping Claims and the Reasons for Them 93 Interpreting Unspoken Reasons and Claims in Context 95 Interpreting the Use of Irony, Humor, Sarcasm, and More 96

Analyzing Arguments in Context 96 The El Train Argument 96 The “Guns for Kids” Conversation 98

Analyzing and Mapping Decisions 103 “We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #1 104 “We Should Cancel the Spring Trip” #2 105 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

6 Evaluate the Credibility of Claims and Sources 113

Assessing the Source: Whom Should I Trust? 114 Claims without Reasons 114 Cognitive Development and Healthy Skepticism 116 Authority and Expertise 116

Learned and Experienced 117 • On-Topic, Up-To-Date, and Capable of Explaining 118 • Unbiased and Truthful 120 • Free of Conflicts of Interest, and Acting in the Client’s Interest 120 • Unconstrained, Informed about the Case at Hand, and Mentally Stable 123 • Twelve Characteristics of a Trustworthy Source 123

Assessing the Substance—What Should I Believe? 125 Personal Muck and Gunk Monitor 125 Self-Contradictions and Tautologies 126 Marketing, Spin, Disinformation, and Propaganda 128 Slanted Language and Loaded Expressions 129

Independent Verification 130 Can the Claim Be Confirmed? 130 Can the Claim Be Disconfirmed? 131 More than a Healthy Sense of Skepticism Only 132 Independent Investigation and the Q-Ray Bracelet Case 133 Suspending Judgment 134 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

7 Evaluate Arguments: Four Basic Tests 138

Giving Reasons and Making Arguments 139 Truthfulness 140 Logical Strength 140 Relevance 141 Non-Circularity 142

The Four Tests for Evaluating Arguments 142 Test #1: Truthfulness of the Premises 143 Test #2: Logical Strength 143 Test #3: Relevance 144 Test #4: Non-Circularity 146 Argument Making Contexts 147

Common Reasoning Errors 148 Fallacies of Relevance 148

Appeals to Ignorance 149 • Appeals to the Mob 149 • Appeals to Emotion 149 • Ad Hominem Attacks 150 • Straw Man Fallacy 151 • Playing with Words Fallacy 152 • Misuse of Authority Fallacy 153

Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

8 Valid Inferences 158

The Structure of the Reasoning 160 Inferences Offered as Certain 160 Reasoning with Declarative Statements 161

Denying the Consequent 161 • Affirming the Antecedent 162 • Disjunctive Syllogism 163

Reasoning about Classes of Objects 163 Applying a Generalization 164 • Applying an Exception 165 • The Power of Only 165

Reasoning about Relationships 165 Transitivity, reflexivity, and Identity 166

Fallacies Masquerading as Valid Arguments 167 Fallacies When Reasoning with Declarative Statements 167

Affirming the Consequent 167 • Denying the Antecedent 167

Fallacies When Reasoning about Classes of Objects 167

False Classification 167 • Fallacies of Composition and Division 169

Fallacies of False Reference 170 Personal Infallibility? We Don’t Think So 170 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications

9 Warranted Inferences 174

The Evidence Currently at Hand 175 The “Weight of Evidence” 176 Evaluating Generalizations 178

Was the Correct Group Sampled? 179 • Were the Data Obtained in an Effective Way? 179 • Were Enough Cases Considered? 179 • Was the Sample representatively Structured? 179

Coincidences, Patterns, Correlations, and Causes 180 Coincidences 180 • patterns 180 • Correlations 182 • Causes 184

Fallacies Masquerading as Warranted Arguments 185 Erroneous Generalization 185 • Playing with Numbers 185 • False Dilemma 186 • The Gambler’s Fallacy 186 • False Cause 186 • Slippery Slope 188

Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications

10 Snap Judgments: Risks and Benefits of Heuristic Thinking 193

Our Two Human Decision-Making Systems 194 The “Two-Systems” Approach to Human Decision Making 194

reactive (System-1) Thinking 194 • reflective (System-2) Thinking 195

The Value of Each System 196

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viii Contents

Heuristics: Their Benefits and Risks 197 Individual Cognitive Heuristics 198

1. Satisficing and 2. Temporizing 198 • 3. Affect: “Go with Your Gut” 199 • 4. Simulation 200 • 5. Availability 202 • 6. representation 203 • 7. Association 203 • 8. Stereotyping 204 • 9. “Us vs. Them” 206 • 10. Power Differential 208 • 11. Anchoring with Adjustment 210 • 12. Illusion of Control 210 • 13. Optimistic Bias and 14. Hindsight Bias 210 • 15. Elimination by Aspect: “One Strike and You’re Out” 212 • 16. Loss and risk Aversion 213 • 17. “All or Nothing” 213

Heuristics in Action 215 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

11 Reflective Decision Making 220

Dominance Structuring: A Fortress of Conviction 222 “I Would Definitely Go to the Doctor” 222 Explaining and Defending Ourselves 224

A Poorly Crafted Assignment 224

Moving from Decision to Action 225 phase 1: pre-Editing 226 • phase 2: Identifying One promising Option 227 • Phase 3: Testing the Promising Option 227

• Phase 4: Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option 228

Benefits and Risks of Dominance Structuring 228

Self-Regulation Critical Thinking Skill Strategies 230 Precautions When Pre-Editing 231

Be Sure about “The Problem” 231 • Specify the Decision-Critical Attributes 231 • Be Clear about Why an Option Is In or Out 231

Precautions When Identifying the Promising Option 232

Scrutinize Options with Disciplined Impartiality 232 • Listen to Both Sides First 232

Precautions When Testing the Promising Option 232 Use All the Essential Criteria 232 • Treat Equals as Equals 233 • Diligently Engage in Truth-Seeking and remain Impartial 233

Precautions When Fortifying the To-Be-Chosen Option 233

Be Honest with Yourself 233

Critical Thinking Strategies for Better Decision Making 234

Task Independent Teams with the Same Problem 234 • Decide When It’s Time to Decide 235 • Analyze Indicators and Make Midcourse Corrections 235 • Create a Culture of respect for Critical Thinking 235

Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

12 Comparative Reasoning 239

Recognizing Comparative Reasoning 240 Our Minds Crave Patterns 240 Comparative, Ideological, and Empirical Inferences 242 How This Chapter Connects to Others 242 Gardens of Comparatives 243 Powerful Comparisons Connect Intellect and Emotion 245

Evaluating Comparative Inferences 246 Do the Four Tests of Acceptability Apply? 247

Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning 248

Familiarity 248 • Simplicity 249 • Comprehensiveness 249 •

productivity 250 • Testability 250

Models and Metaphors Shape Expectations 251 Creative Suggestions vs. Solid Proofs 251 The Center of the Universe for Two Thousand Years 252 The Many Uses of Comparative Inferences 253 Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

13 Ideological Reasoning 259

Recognizing Ideological Reasoning 262 Examples of Ideological Reasoning 264 Three Features of Ideological Reasoning 266

Ideological reasoning Is Deductive in Character 266 •

Ideological Premises Are Axiomatic 267 • The Argument Maker Takes the Ideological Absolutes on Faith 267

Evaluating Ideological Reasoning 269 Are the Ideological Premises True? 269 Logical Strength and Ideological Belief Systems 272 Relevancy, Non-Circularity, and Ideological Reasoning 274

Uses, Benefits, and Risks of Ideological Reasoning 275 Summing up this chapter • Key Concept • Applications

14 Empirical Reasoning 283

Recognizing Empirical Reasoning 285 Characteristics of Empirical Reasoning 285

Empirical reasoning Is Inductive 285 • Empirical reasoning Is Self-Corrective 286 • Empirical reasoning Is Open to Independent Verification 286

Hypotheses, Conditions, and Measurable Manifestations 287

Conducting an Investigation Scientifically 289 Perhaps the First Recorded Empirical Investigation 289 Steps in the Process: An Extended Example 290 Evaluating Empirical Reasoning 293

Benefits and Risks Associated with Empirical Reasoning 295

Summing up this chapter • Key Concepts • Applications

15 Write Sound and Effective  Arguments 300

What Critical Thinking Questions Do Effective Writers Ask? 301

The Rhetorical Situation 302 Think Author 302

Find Your Voice 303 • Think about Who You read 304

Think Audience 304 What Does the Audience Care About? 305 • Writing for You 306 • Who Is Your Audience? 306 • Same Author and Audience, Different Purpose 308

Think Purpose and Circumstances 310 Think Tactics 310 • Clues from Contextual Cues 311

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Contents ix

Organize and Develop Your Presentation 312 Reach Out and Grab Someone 312 Crafting a Presentation 312 Good News: Writing Is Work 313

An Arguable Thesis Statement and Solid Research 313  •  Map Out the Arguments Pro and Con—Then Outline Your Case 314

“BART’S Decision—Draft” 315 Evaluating the Credibility of Sources 316 Prewriting, Writing, and Rewriting 318 Two Practical Tips 318

Evaluating Effectiveness 319 Features of Sound and Effective Written Argumentation 319 A Tool for Evaluating Critical Thinking and Writing 321 How to Apply the Rubric for Evaluating Written Argumentation 321 Summing up this chapter  •  Key Concepts  •  Applications  

16 Ethical Decision Making 327

Ethical Imperatives 331 Think Consequences 331 Think Duties 334 Think Virtues 338

Decision Making and Ethical Decision Making 339 Reactive and Reflective Ethical Decision Making 339

Thinking Through Diverging Ethical Imperatives 342 Prioritize, Create, and Negotiate 342

Establish Priorities 342 •  Create Additional Options 342 •  Negotiate Based on Each Party’s  Interests 343 •  Personal Consistency and Respect for  Others 343 •  Apply the “Golden Rule”—Do Unto Others As You  Would Have Others Do Unto You  344

Summing up this chapter  •  Key Concepts  •  Applications  

17 The Logic of Declarative Statements 349

Declarative Statements 352 Simple Statements 352 Negations 353 Statement Compounds: And, Or, If . . . Then, etc. 354

Conjunctions 354  •  Disjunctions  355  •  Conditionals 357

Translating Between Symbolic Logic and a Natural Language 360

Grammatically Correct Expressions 360 Translation to English 360 Translating to Symbolic Logic 361

Example: Translating a Telephone Tree 362  •  What the Telephone Tree Example Teaches about Translation 362

Detecting the Logical Characteristics of Statements 363

Building Truth Tables 364 Tautologies, Inconsistent Statements, and Contingent Statements 367

Testing for Implication and Equivalence 368

Evaluating Arguments for Validity 370 Testing Symbolic Arguments for Validity 370 Testing Natural Language Arguments for Validity 373 Summing up this chapter  •  Key Concepts  •  Applications 

Appendix: Extend Argument-Decision Mapping Strategies 377

Glossary 386

Endnotes 389

Credits 405

Index 409

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x

Just as teaching and learning critical thinking is a collaboration, so is putting together all the words, images, exercises, video clips, page layouts, and digital

materials for THINK Critically. This project could not have happened were it not for the wonderful participa- tion, support, and guidance of a great many people.

The biggest thank you of all goes to my co-author, Carol Gittens, Associate Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Santa Clara University. Every chapter ben- efits from her hard work, her humane sensitivity, her in- sights, and her attention to the finer points of authoring for learning. Dr. Gittens authored the Instructor’s Manual, a wonderful resource that offers strategies on teaching for thinking.

This third edition benefited from Benjamin Hamby’s insightful, positive, and helpfully detailed review of the second edition and from many follow-up conversations during the drafting of this edition. You may download Dr. Hamby’s review of Think Critically from academia.edu.

It was again a pleasure be working with the people at Pearson Education. Carol and I are grateful to every- one, including the publisher, the marketing director, the permissions and images people, the designers, the copy- editors, and many more. Our project directors, Melissa Sacco, Richard DeLorenzo, and Veronica Grupico deserve special thanks. We thank our senior editor, Debbie Coni- glio, for her singular drive and vision, and for bringing a plethora of digital assets and resources to Think Critically.

Co-author Peter writes, “Good ideas come from thinking and discussing things with other people. Great ideas come when that other person happens to be brilliant and wise. The ideas in this book come from a lifetime of those kinds of experiences, but mostly from talking and thinking with the one brilliant and amazing person who has shared that lifetime with me. Through her words and ideas, she contributed inestimably to this book, to other books, to a myriad of projects both professional and do- mestic, and to every other part of my life. No ‘thank you’ can do justice to all that I owe to her. But let me say it any- way. Thank you, Noreen.”

Co-author Carol Gittens writes, “When Pete asked me to join him as a main author of the second and sub- sequent editions, I jumped at the opportunity to add my voice to a text that is designed to nurture students’ critical thinking skills and habits of minds, not only to promote success in the academic arena, but to promote success in life. I would like to express my gratitude to my long-time research colleague and professional mentor Peter Facione and by extension his wife and fellow colleague, Noreen, for extending our scholarly partnership to include this project. Even more importantly, I want to acknowledge and thank my wonderful husband William who sup- ported me unconditionally even when my efforts on this book required more of my attention than he or our chil- dren would have wished to share.”

Acknowledgments

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xi

In “Forever Young” songwriter Bob Dylan expressed our hopes for all who learn with and teach with THINK Critically. What more could we wish for one

another than we all should seek to know the truth, walk in the light of well-trained reason, be courageous, have the intellectual integrity to stand strong, and that, no matter what our chronological age, that we should stay mentally forever young?

This book aims to strengthen critical thinking skills and nurture the courageous desire to seek truth by fol- lowing reasons and evidence wherever they lead. We all may have different beliefs, values, perspectives, and experiences influencing our problem solving and deci- sion making. But we share the human capacity to be reflective, analytical, open-minded, and systematic about thinking through our problems and choices, so that we can make the best judgments possible about what to believe or what to do. That process of well- reasoned, reflective judgment is critical thinking. Exercising our critical thinking helps our minds become stronger, healthier, and more youthful.

Our approach, proven successful by us and by oth- ers, is simple, practical, and focused. To strengthen criti- cal thinking skills, we have to use them. To build positive critical thinking habits of mind, we have to see critical thinking as the optimal approach for solving real-world problems and making important decisions. Every chap- ter of this book builds critical thinking skills and engages critical thinking habits of mind in every way possible. Why? Because we believe with every fiber of our beings that critical thinking is all about real life, and so the very best way to build strong critical thinking is to use engag- ing material from the widest possible range of real-life situations.

“Knowing about” is not the same as “using.” It is more important that a person learn how to use critical thinking to make the best judgments possible than that the person memorize gobs of technical vocabulary and theory about critical thinking. Yes, learning about critical thinking certainly can expedite things. But engaging in critical thinking is the payoff. That is why there are hun- dreds of exercises of many different kinds woven into the written text and each chapter’s digital learning support assets. There is no substitute for learning by doing. So, here’s a plan:

Chapters 1 and 2 explain what critical thinking is, why it is so vitally important to all of us, and how critical thinking connects to our academic studies and

to our personal, professional, and civic lives. Chapter 3 builds immediately on the theme of the practical value of critical thinking by describing the IDEAS approach to problem solving and then applying that approach to the kinds of problems typically encountered by college stu- dents of all ages.

Chapters 4–9 are building block chapters, each addressing one or another of the core critical thinking skills in the context of real-world applications. Chapters 4 and 5 focus on the skills of interpretation and analysis; when we can understand what people are saying, we can articulate the reasons being advanced on behalf of a particular claim or choice. Without these vital critical thinking skills we wander in a cloud of confusion, not really knowing what things might mean or why people, including ourselves, think what they think. Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9 focus on the skill of evaluation as applied to the truthfulness of claims, the trustworthiness of so-called experts, and the quality of arguments.

Chapters 10 and 11 connect critical thinking to con- temporary understandings of human decision making. Illustrating the risks and the benefits of our heuristically driven snap

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