As discussed in module 04, the primary functions of a research methodology section are for the researcher to justify how a study will be conducted and provide sufficient detail to

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Data Collection Methods

Methods of data collection depend on whether the research is quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods Quantitative data are quantifiable (can be turned into numbers). Math and statistics are used to analyze and interpret this data. Quantitative data collection methods include the following:

Surveys: These are based on closed questions, with answer options provided for the respondents. Surveys can be phone interviews or questionnaires sent via email or internet.

Observations: This is a simple data collection method by systematically observing a phenomenon (i.e., counting the number of people present and accessing health fair services).

Experiments: This method of design manipulates a variable in order to evaluate how it will affect an outcome. Clinical trials are an example of experimental data collection.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods In contrast to quantitative data, qualitative data are descriptive, not numerical. This type of data are usually gained through observation, and they are described through narratives. Qualitative data usually take more time and money to gather than quantitative data, and the sample size is usually smaller than in quantitative methods.

Qualitative data collection methods include the following:

Surveys: Qualitative surveys can include personal, face-to-face interviews and questionnaires. Face-to-face interviews are the most common means of collecting qualitative research data. The researcher can ask open-ended questions or begin with structured, fixed-response questions that can be followed up by the researcher in order to get more information. Paper or web-based questionnaires are also examples of surveys. For qualitative research, these questionnaires contain open-ended questions. The answers must be analyzed by the researcher later, and there is no follow-up.

Focus Groups: This is an interview done in a group setting. Focus groups are particularly useful when the data being sought are attitudes and behaviors in a social setting. Focus groups usually have at least three members and no more than about ten. A moderator who is good at getting groups to talk is important.

Documents and Audiovisual and Digital Materials: The researcher may use public (e.g., newspapers) or private (e.g., letters or email) documents as a source of data. Photographs, videotapes, or social media text are example of audiovisual and digital materials.

Observation: In this method, the researcher observes the participants and may even participate with them. The researcher documents what he or she observes through notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Survey Methodology and Survey Collection Techniques Survey methodology means questioning a group of people about a topic or topics. Survey methodology can be used for both quantitative and qualitative research. Survey methodology results in a description of the group’s opinions or attitudes or a description of the relationship of variables for that group – for example, the relationship between overtime hours worked and the symptoms of burnout in hospital workers.

Surveys can be performed faster and cheaper than other forms of data collection, such as observation and experiments. The disadvantages of surveys include the possible unwillingness of respondents to provide information or being biased and providing wrong information. Creating survey questions can also be difficult because they must be created so that

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Ethical Considerations in Research

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that focuses on decision making about what is right and wrong. Doing research that is ethical means that it is based on integrity and respect for all life. An effective researcher will always anticipate ethical issues and address them.

In their book Research Design, John W. and J. David Creswell note that it is helpful to look at ethical issues as they relate to each of the stages of research. In this section, we will explore some of the issues that may arise before a research study is conducted; once a study begins; during data collection and analysis; and when the data is reported and shared.

Before beginning a research study, be sure to consult the professional code of conduct and research associated with the appropriate field. Professional associations often have codes of ethics or standards on their websites. Researchers at colleges and universities need to have research plans reviewed in an Institutional Review Board (IRB), which makes sure that the potential risks to participants have been assessed, that the needs of vulnerable populations have been considered, and that animal subjects are treated humanely.

There are also federal and state policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, and the protection of human and animal subjects. While these policies were written for researchers who are funded by public money, all researchers should keep these guidelines in mind. 

As you begin a research study and collect data, be sure participants have filled out informed consent forms that make clear the purpose of the study and details about their involvement in it. It is critical that participants are not deceived or kept in the dark.

As you analyze and report data, keep these things in mind:

• Do not hide, falsify, or invent data or findings. • Do not plagiarize. Give credit to others’ work. • Do not report only positive results. Report the full range of findings, including those that are the opposite of

what you were hoping to uncover. • Respect the privacy and anonymity of participants. For example, in survey research, names of individuals

should be disassociated from their responses. In qualitative research, aliases can be used for individuals and places to protect their identities.

At some point an ethical dilemma may arise that is not clearly covered by the guidelines or rules. When that happens, ask advice from a colleague, a compliance officer, or a superior at your company or institution. Do research, collect data, and then make a decision about what to do. Whatever you decide, remember that your decision should be based on integrity and respect for others.