The organization that I plan to conduct project on is a public university in California.? The instructional component of a planned program is multifaceted, with full int

161

Chapter 7

Developing Program Goals and Objectives

DEVELOPING PROGRAM GOALS and objectives is a component of the planning process that must be thought through very carefully, as the goals and objectives help shape the major foci of the program for organizations, participants, and other stakeholders, such as funders. However, there are programs where this component may not be needed, such as a series of open-ended discussion groups or other educational activities that are social in nature. We fi rst discuss how program goals are defi ned and constructed and follow with an overview of program objectives, how program objec- tives are constructed, and how planners judge the clarity of these objec- tives. In the fi nal section of the chapter, we explore ways that program objectives are used to determine whether a program is internally consistent or doable.

Defi ning and Constructing Program Goals

The terms program goals and program objectives are sometimes used inter- changeably in practice: what one organization calls a goal, another may call an objective. In addition, others use the term program objectives , when in fact they are referring to learning objectives , which are a part of the instruc- tional design process (see Chapter Eight ). Program goals refer to broad statements of purpose or intent for education and training programs, whereas program objectives identify the specifi c outcomes of the program.

More specifi cally, program goals answer the questions: Why are we doing this? (Milano & Ullius, 1998); What do we hope will change in the future? (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007); and Why is the program worth doing? (Rothwell & Cookson, 1997). For programs sponsored by organizations whose primary function is the education and training of adults (such as family literacy programs), the major program goals are usually a part of the organizational mission statement (see Chapter Five ). This statement

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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162 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

is also true for organizations that have centralized units charged with the education and training function, but in these organizations, the goals are usually a part of the unit ’s mission statement. No matter where the state- ment is located, program goals “provide an ideal future, but also should be realistic” (Gkoku & Lekoko, 2007, p. 89); this is a fi ne line that can make goals diffi cult to clarify and construct, and you may need to go through a number of drafts.

This process of setting goals for programs can be messy and time- consuming, related to the levels and number of stakeholders involved; the complexity of the problems, issues, and needs being addressed; and the sit- uation at the time. For example, in the time that it took for a set of program goals to be in the “close to fi nal” draft stage, leadership may have changed, funding sources may have dried up or changed priorities, and the political landscape may be different. Despite all of these possible changing contex- tual conditions, if in fact the program goals are agreed to by a majority of the stakeholders, it is time to move the program forward, with the under- standing in most cases that some components of the program planning process, including the program goals, can and do change as the program is being developed.

As part of their Contingency-Based Program Planning (CBPP) model, Rothwell and Cookson (1997) provide three alternative ways to approach the task of constructing program goals: directive, collaborative, and non- directive. The fi rst is directive in nature because program planners “do not seek very much [if any] input from stakeholders about the purposes of [the program]” (p. 153). Some if not many of you may be wonder- ing aloud—but doesn ’t this contradict what we have been saying earlier about the importance of stakeholders, including the potential participants, in the planning process? In most situations, yes, but in a few cases there are issues and needs that must be addressed, no matter whether the recipi- ents are even interested or want to learn more about the chosen topic areas (see Chapter Six ). For example, education and training programs related to hospital security are required by many countries to become or remain accredited, and requirements for these programs are set by the accrediting associations. In this type of situation a directive approach makes the most sense.

In other cases, being directive in constructing program goals may not be the best or the most productive way to bring about change through the process of education. In such cases, which are often mandated from the top, the recipients and other stakeholders in the process may respond in a number of different ways—from actively challenging the programs to

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 163

attending and seemingly making those changes a part of lives while qui- etly just going back to the ways things have been done before, even though they appear on the surface to have accepted the changes in practices. 1

The collaborative approach is the one most often addressed in this volume. Working in conjunction with stakeholders is the hallmark of this approach, although the degree of collaboration depends on the people with whom planners work and the situation in which planners fi nd them- selves (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Rothwell & Cookson, 1997). In some cases all stakeholders play a major role in all phases of the goal-setting process, but in others they may have only minor roles or serve in an advisory capac- ity. For example, Gboku and Lekoko (2007), writing about developing pro- grams for adult learners in Africa, observe that key stakeholders must be involved at all levels of the process. “At the national and sub-national lev- els, goal-setting might be the focus of early programme development and sessions involving representatives of the different groups who will imple- ment, manage and support the programme at that level, together with the prospective learners” (p. 90). The central government policies related to the issues and problems to be addressed are especially important at this level of stakeholder involvement. “At local level, a community ’s goals for an adult education programme might be formulated through formal meet- ings and informal discussions with the perspective learners, community leaders, and with local government offi cials and NGOs” (p. 90). It is at this level that negotiation and mediation are often needed to bring the different parties to some agreement as to the major issues and needs upon which the goals are eventually formulated. This stage of the process often brings up the problem of power dynamics among the various groups and orga- nizations, which brings to the forefront the skills of program planners to negotiate among the various stakeholder groups (Cervero & Wilson, 2006) (also see Chapter Four ). Although most program planning situations do not require government involvement in setting goals and objectives for the program, this practice is the norm in most African countries, as few pro- grams will be effective on a long-term basis if the national and local gov- ernments are not involved in this part of the process.

In the facilitative approach for constructing program goals, rather than taking on a leadership role “program planners [facilitate] decision mak- ing among participants and/or other stakeholders but make [few, if any] decisions themselves about [the] program… goals” (Rothwell & Cookson, 1997, p. 154). These decisions are instead made by program recipients or stakeholders through, for example, teams or committees put together by local community members. This type of goal setting is typical of what

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 165

navigate, especially in voluntary action groups. On the one hand, planners want to be helpful to the groups they are working with in assisting them to frame the direction they want to go. However, their professional judgment sometimes leads them to feel a need to step in and become more directive to ensure that the process does not become so unwieldy that very little related to the task at hand will actually be accomplished. In other words, program planners using this approach must remember that they are work- ing with a “grassroots” effort, which means that the leadership for estab- lishing the program goals and tasks lies with the local community group.

Defi ning Program Objectives

Program objectives provide clear statements of the specifi c results to be achieved through education and training programs in alignment with the program goals. Program planners may choose to develop these objectives separately or work on them simultaneously. In addition to giving a clear statement of the specifi c direction of a program, these objectives also serve as the foundation for instructional plans (see Chapter Eight ), concrete guidelines for developing transfer of learning plans (see Chapter Nine ), and benchmarks against which programs are evaluated (see Chapter Ten ). Developing these objectives requires program developers “to think through [with the appropriate stakeholders] what is to be taught or done by participants, the resources required to achieve programme objectives, and the end product expected” (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007, p. 94).

There are two types of program objectives: educational and operational (Knowles, 1980). The educational program objectives refl ect what participants are expected to learn as a result of attending a specifi c education or training program. This learning results in changes in individual participants, groups of learners, organizational practices and procedures, or in communities or segments of society. Program objectives that focus on change in individ- ual participants are often translated into learning objectives (see Chapter Eight ). Samples of program goals for different kinds of education programs for adults are displayed in Exhibit 7.1 ; here, these goals are matched with program objectives so the linkages between them can be seen.

The operational program objectives are not always directly linked to the program objective. However, in some situations they are, in terms of enabling participants to meet the program goals and objectives. This type of objective outlines how program staff will improve the quality and quan- tity of program resources and other basic operational aspects of the pro- gram. People who plan programs often overlook those program objectives

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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166 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXHIBIT 7.1

Sample Program Goals and Educational Program Objectives

Program Goals Program Objectives

Community Literacy Program

To develop a literacy program where

participants from all walks of life and

ethnic backgrounds feel welcomed,

respected, their voices heard, and their

messages responded to in a timely

manner.

To off er formal classes, individual tutoring, and advisement

in settings that are accessible to the participants, at times

when they are able to attend, and with child care services

available.

To ensure that 70% of adults who are eligible and enroll

in this program are able to read and write at a level suffi cient

to work in entry-level positions within a three-year time

period.

To assist program participants who

are currently applying for work or will

apply within six months of completing

the program to fi nd employment.

To provide on-site employment counseling to all participants

who request this service. To integrate into the formal

instructional materials learning objectives that pertain to

skills needed by job applicants (for example, fi lling out job

applications, reading want ads).

To set up a system for participants to interview for job

openings through local employment agencies.

To make sure that at least 40% of their program

participants who apply for work either during or

six months after the program are able to fi nd

employment.

Participatory Planning in Africa

To provide rural women farmers in

Nigeria the recognition that is warranted

related to the major roles they play in

the agricultural sector.

To gain the support of tribal elders from three rural

villages in Nigeria to permit women from their village

to both plan and participate in a two-week training

program sponsored by an international nongovernmental

agency and the local government. This program focuses

on improving women ’s knowledge and skills in the

production and marketing of wheat as an alternative

crop for both family consumption and to sell in the local

markets.

To have tribal elders from these three villages identify

fi ve women from each village to be a part of the planning

team.

To guarantee these women will receive training in how to

plan and evaluate a gender-sensitive program.

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 167

Program Goals Program Objectives

To involve rural women in the planning

of training programs geared to

their needs and the realities of their

circumstances.

To pilot test the program with fi fteen women from each

village, including members of the planning team.

To revise the training program, with the original team

who developed the pilot program, based on feedback

received from the women who attended, the instructors,

and representatives from other stakeholder groups such as

government offi cials from the region and funding agencies.

To provide open access to this program to all

women from the three villages who have not had a chance

to attend. The planning team is responsible for collecting the

evaluation data and disseminating the results to the village

elders, the women who participated in the program, and the

stakeholders. *

Grassroots Education

To respond to the needs expressed by

adults with Attention Defi cient Disorder

(ADD) who have expressed an interest

and willingness to assist others who

have this condition.

To form a group of volunteers who have expressed an

interest and willingness to plan and coordinate this initiative

in their local community.

To plan and initiate educational and support programs open

to all adults with ADD and their families and friends who live

in or near their community.

To provide participants in the program with up-to-date and

accurate information materials and strategies for locating

their own materials.

To facilitate educational programs on topics of interest to the

participants and build a network of experts who can provide

information and discussions on new developments in the

knowledge and treatment of adults with ADD.

To initiate opportunities for participants to share their

thoughts and feelings about living with ADD and the coping

strategies they use.

* Although rural women in Africa are very active participants in the agricultural sector in Africa, they are often either

not off ered participation in training programs related to improving their own skills and livelihoods or they are sadly

underrepresented.

that are directed at improving the quality of the program operations. Yet, as appropriate, if developing these kinds of objectives is included as a regular part of the process of constructing the overall objectives, the overall quality and effi ciency of programming will improve in many cases. In addition, although operational program objectives are probably more applicable to

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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168 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXHIBIT 7.2

Program Objectives Focused on Program Operations

Program Operations Program Objectives

Adequate physical facilities To provide adequate physical facilities that would accommodate

disabled persons.

Equipment To write a grant for changing a face-to-face program to an

e-learning program that includes the computers, software, and

the course management system needed to deliver the program.

Revenues To set the registration fee for the program over costs by 10%

with the proceeds used to create a new program.

Education program To establish a training program for volunteers who could assist

program staff in planning and carrying out educational pro-

grams and activities for low-income families.

programs housed in formal education and training organizations or units, these types of objectives are also useful to those who conduct educational activities as part of their other job responsibilities. Examples of operational program objectives are given Exhibit 7.2 .

Constructing Program Objectives

Constructing program objectives, like constructing program goals, is a challenging activity. The challenges stem from three sources. First, at the heart of formulating program objectives is defi ning specifi c program out- comes. These outcomes can be elusive, especially at the beginning of the process. For example, those working in literacy programs know that one of the major objectives of these programs is that adults who lack literacy skills will be able to read and write. But what does being able to read and write mean? Does it mean reading at a specifi ed grade level, having the reading and writing skills necessary to be a productive worker or member of soci- ety, or both of these outcomes and more? Second, in the actual writing of program objectives, the parameters are not always clear.

As with program goals, program planners do not usually develop program objectives in a vacuum. It would be relatively easy to sit in the offi ce, carefully crafting program objectives, but the risk is very high for producing impractical or irrelevant projected outcomes. Instead, similar to the process of developing program goals, the other stakeholders such as program participants, work supervisors, and cooperating organization,

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 169

should assist in developing and reviewing objectives. This involvement can be handled in a number of ways. For example, education and training staff could request that key supervisors of potential participants help draft or review program objectives for their people. They could also ask a sam- ple of potential participants to help. Questions and comments from both of these groups could be solicited on the relevance and usefulness of the objectives and on their understandability (especially concerning practical application and usefulness). In addition, if a formal education or training committee exists, this committee may serve as a review board and work to give advice and counsel in the initial writing or the redrafting of the objec- tives (see Chapter Five ).

Finally, when developing program objectives at a national or inter- national level it is less likely, as noted earlier in this chapter, that others outside the sponsoring organization(s) will be involved in drafting these objectives. If other stakeholders are involved at this level, most often an advisory group is formed to provide feedback on program objectives to the planning group of the sponsoring organization(s). These advisory groups are carefully chosen by the sponsoring organizations, and normally involve those from stakeholders groups with political clout and national or inter- national experts in the content of the program. These objectives may then be put out for public comment either through face-to-face public forums or via a web site set up for this purpose. However, for the most part, stake- holder involvement at this level is often very limited.

When writing program objectives, it is important for program plan- ners to consider how the program will be evaluated (see Chapter Ten ). One of the major aspects of the plan that evaluators examine is whether there is a match between the program objectives and program outcomes, and if not, why not. This process can be diffi cult as there are differences among program planners in their beliefs about whether program objec- tives should be stated in measurable terms (a common belief), or whether these objectives can also encompass outcomes that cannot be expressed in “seeable” performance (Chan, 2010; Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Mehrens & Lehmann, 1991; Morell, 2010; Wholey, Hatry, & Newcomer, 2010). In addi- tion, some program planners take the position that education and training programs have some outcomes that are measurable and some that are not. Likewise, outcomes can be either intended or unanticipated, because it is almost impossible to know beforehand all the benefi ts a program could produce. Therefore, in constructing program objectives, it is important to state both measurable and nonmeasurable objectives and to be fl exible in renegotiating and reshaping those objectives so that unanticipated but

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170 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

important achievements and outcomes of the program are highlighted. This notion of measurable and nonmeasurable and intended and unan- ticipa

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