Communication will play an intricate role in a project as a well-seasoned project manager will spend over 90% of their time communicating with the team, upper management, the

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C H A P T E R 3

Managing Project Teams

Figure 3.1 Chapter 3 learning objectives

Opening Case: Flexible Project Teams Deliver Project on Time

Consider the difficulty of a project undertaken by MD Robotics to develop a special purpose dexterous manipulator for the Canadian Space Agency. Given the risky nature of spacewalks, this specially developed robotic arm, called “Dextre,” was to be developed to support the astronauts on the International Space Station (see Figure 3.2). To encourage freedom of communication as well as timely problem solving, the executive project team decided to co-locate project staff on a single floor of the MD Robotics facility. The Dextre project group

was divided into smaller subproject teams, which in the spirit of true co-location and collaboration worked in an open office environment designed to promote communication. Project managers were able to freely interact with engineers, and project teams were able to communicate with each other under a “no-surprises rule” implemented by senior management. The no-surprises rule specified that project teams should communicate any needed design changes to other project teams as soon as they were identified. Although the senior

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management team was made aware of any design changes, it did not have to sign off before teams were allowed to implement the changes.

Using this team-based project structure, com- bined with the policy of allowing teams the auton- omy to make developmental changes, MD Robotics

was able to deliver Dextre to the Canadian Space Agency both on budget and on time. Designed for an active life of fifteen years, Dextre was launched in 2008 and continues to support the astronauts on the space station by allowing them to focus on scientific projects.

Based on: Canadian Space Agency (2016a, 2016b); Carey (2005).

Introduction People are the most important and expensive part of an information systems project. Project time estimates for task completion and overall system quality are significantly influenced by the effectiveness of the project team. Unfortunately, good information systems personnel are in short supply. Not only does nearly every industry rely heavily on information systems professionals; an increase in cloud computing and big data analytics is creating even more demand for skilled technology workers.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has reported that high demand for technolo- gy-related workers and escalating salaries could lead to inflation and lower corporate profits as companies scramble to offer competitive salaries to the best and brightest people in this industry. Given the competitiveness of this labor pool, retaining the best personnel is also a critical issue for many organizations. Therefore, finding ways not only to reward people adequately but also to create a positive work experience through well-managed projects, meaningful team assignments, and good interpersonal relation- ships can not only enhance project effectiveness but also help retain employees within the organization. Understanding the issues related to effectively managing project teams is the next step in gaining a comprehensive understanding of information systems project management.

Figure 3.2 The International Space Station. Source: NASA.

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In the next section, we begin by discussing what a project team is, how teams evolve, and the various factors that influence project team performance. This is followed by a discussion of several motivation theories that will help you better understand how team members can be influenced to achieve high work productivity and job satisfaction. Next, we discuss the roles of leadership, power, and conflict within project teams. Finally, we examine several issues related to the management of global project teams.

Developing and Managing the Project Team In the context of organizational work, groups and teams are not necessarily the same thing. A group consists of two or more people who work together to achieve a com- mon objective (Robbins and Judge, 2017). Yet a group may be formed for a temporary purpose, and its members may not necessarily share the same goals. A project team, however, is much more than a group. A project team is mutually accountable to the organization and to its own individual team members; the team members are also highly interdependent, having both shared goals and complementary skills (see Figure 3.3). When project teams are formed, the group of people typically takes some time to evolve into a high-performing project team, which is crucial to successful project completion.

Teams do not automatically become highly interdependent and productive. Researchers have found that teams develop and evolve through various stages as they work together over time (Robbins and Judge, 2017). During project team development, the project team moves through five stages—forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning—to reach optimal performance (Tuckman, 1965).

During forming, team members get to know each other and establish team goals and work assignments. This stage is completed when a majority of the members feel that they are part of the team. At this stage, leaders should coordinate team behav- iors; picking the right team members and setting team goals can contribute to success at this stage. During storming, team members struggle to establish goals, power, and

Project team Two or more people who share the same goals, are interdependent, have complementary skills, and are mutually accountable to the organization and to each member of the team.

Figure 3.3 Comparing work groups and project teams. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

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leadership roles. At this stage, leaders should coach team members; developing mutual trust and acting as a resource to the team can contribute to success at this stage. This stage is completed when a majority of the members have a relatively clear understand- ing of each member’s role within the team. During norming, teams develop a sense of common purpose and specify normal operating procedures. Additionally, during this stage, high levels of team collegiality are typically present, and close friendships are formed. This stage ends with members having a strong sense of proper team behavior. During performing, the team undertakes the actual project work. This stage ends with the completion of the project. During norming and performing, leaders should focus on empowering team members, obtain feedback from the team members, and engage with the team. For permanent, ongoing project teams, performing is the last stage in their evolution. For temporary teams established to complete a single project, there is also an adjourning stage. During adjourning, team members wrap up the project’s final activ- ities and engage in activities related to subsequent team assignments or jobs. During this stage, individuals often respond differently to adjournment—some members will delight in the team’s accomplishments, whereas others will feel a sense of sadness or loss. Leaders should focus on supporting behaviors and facilitate the transition of high performing team members into future leadership roles. As a project manager, you need to understand where your team is in regard to its development, in order to better under- stand its challenges and its potential.

Recognizing the importance of project teams to project success, PMBOK includes two key processes related to project teams, both of which are part of the project execu- tion process group: Develop Team and Manage Team.

One of the main goals of the Develop Team process is to transform the project team members into a functioning team. Often, this includes various team building activities and other social integration mechanisms (von Briel, Schneider, and Lowry, 2018) to develop trust and build a team spirit. In addition, it is during this stage that needed skills are developed using various forms of formal or informal training. Whereas collocating team members is very effective in developing teams, virtual teams can use communi- cation technologies (discussed in Chapter 4) to compensate for spatial or temporal distance. To decide on the activities needed to bring the team from the forming to the performing stage, the project management plan, as well as various project documents (such as the project schedule, team assignments, or the team charter), are used to deter- mine the needed roles and resources; likewise, enterprise environmental factors provide a background on team members’ skills, performance, as well as geographic distribution, and organizational process assets provide information about teams and team perfor- mance on past projects. In addition to helping build a team, the activities conducted to develop the project team may affect the project schedule or team assignments, and team performance assessments can give guidance on areas for improvement, so as to maximize team performance.

The Manage Team process uses various conflict management, decision-making, and leadership techniques to maximize team performance during the execution of a project phase; in addition, the project management information system can help in optimizing the assignment of team members to tasks. Often, you will see project team members receiving team apparel to help keep up the team spirit, as well as certificates of appre- ciation to reward and recognize outstanding contributors to the team. In assessing the necessary activities during the Manage Team process, the project manager uses inputs such as the project management plan, the issue log, project team assignments, in addition to work performance reports, team performance assessments, and enter- prise environmental factors and organizational process assets. Depending on the team’s

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performance and necessary changes, various outputs result from the Manage Team pro- cess. For example, the departure of team members may impact the project schedule or budget, or may result in the need to outsource certain tasks. Thus outputs from the Manage Team process can range from change requests to team assignments to updates to the project management plan or other project documents, as well as enterprise envi- ronmental factors (such as performance assessments).

Contrary to popular views of teams and teamwork, teams are almost never static. Projects add people when needed. Similarly, they lose people when team members are relocated within the organization or quit to take new jobs or for some other reason. This ebb and flow of people on and off a project can be disruptive, and it is rarely anticipated in the project plan. Experienced project managers who have developed the management skills have learned how to deal with the disruptions caused by the flow of people in and out of projects. Less experienced project managers will develop these skills over time. In either case, it is important to recognize that project team membership is fluid and dynamic, and project managers should anticipate and plan for changes in personnel to whatever extent they can.

Factors That Influence Project Team Performance Researchers have identified four primary factors that lead to effective teams: work design, composition, context, and process (see Figure 3.4). While the mere presence of these factors does not guarantee a productive project team, the presence makes higher performance much more likely. Numerous work design factors can be configured to

Figure 3.4 Project team performance factors. Adapted from: Robbins and Judge (2017).

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influence team member performance. For instance, work design that provides team members with autonomy, skill variety, task identity, and significance has been found to be highly motivating. Likewise, team composition can also play a major role in project team performance. Factors that have been found to be important include member abil- ity, personality, role diversity, size, flexibility, and preference for teamwork. Of these, per- sonality and team size have been found to play a significant role in many project teams. For example, research has found that it can be very difficult to blend some personality types into an effective team. Because of this, many organizations give potential team members personality tests like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) to more effectively match team members, identify leadership and interpersonal communication preferences, and help them learn more about each other.

Nonetheless, there is no universal agreement that such personality tests are accurate or even helpful. Likewise, team size can also significantly influence team performance. As the size of the team increases, it becomes increasingly difficult to effectively com- municate and coordinate project activities. The rule of thumb is to use the fewest people possible; the most effective teams rarely have more than ten members (see Figure 3.5). If more than ten members are needed for a very large project, smaller subteams should be used to minimize communication and coordination problems. Getting the right people, and the right number of people, on your project team can make it easier for the group to perform.

All good sports teams have players with clearly defined roles and abilities. Like- wise, a good project team needs members with a diversity of skills and abilities. It is also important to select members who are flexible—in regard to task activities and roles—and who clearly want to belong to the team. To be effective, project teams must

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A widely used personality test.

Figure 3.5 Team communication and management complexity increase rapidly with group size

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agree on a broad range of member roles and must design work processes that ensure that all members contribute equally to the team’s performance. An experienced project manager has a deep understanding of the variety of roles and skills needed to build a successful team. Researchers have found that people can also have different types of work personalities within software development teams, including the following (How- ard, 2001; see Figure 3.6):

1. Deliverer. A person who is good at getting things done quickly and is good in emergency situations such as repairing a system failure.

2. Prototyper. A person who is useful for projects where the system requirements are initially unclear or in situations where building the right system is more import- ant than building something quickly.

3. Perfector. A person whose work is meticulous and who is useful when everything must be done correctly, such as a system that could impact human safety.

4. Producer. A person who is good at getting a lot of work accomplished but may ignore standard conventions such as structured methods and documentation.

5. Fixer. A person who has a deep understanding of a system and can quickly exam- ine a problem and make a needed repair.

6. Finisher. A person who is good at meeting deadlines but may ignore rules or procedures in order to do so.

Four contextual factors—adequate resources, leadership, trust, and performance eval- uation and rewards—have also been found to be important for achieving high team performance. It is obvious that teams must have adequate resources or will feel it is impossible to succeed. High-performing project teams must also have clear leadership and structure so that members will know who is responsible for completing various tasks, as well as how schedules, tasks, and roles will be assigned. High-performing teams must also trust each other because doing so allows members to work independently and cooperatively. Lastly, a team-oriented performance evaluation and reward system is needed to achieve maximum team effort, commitment, and performance.

Figure 3.6 Information systems project teams need members with differing work personalities

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Finally, three process factors also have been found to significantly shape the perfor- mance of project teams. Teams that share a common purpose and goals, have confidence in their ability to be successful, and have low-to-moderate levels of conflict typically perform better than teams that don’t. In sum, many factors influence a team’s per- formance. Understanding how various factors shape team performance will help you design a more effective team and achieve higher performance.

Tips from the Pros: How to Pick a Project Team

Experienced project managers become experts in how to best select the right members for a team. According to Bill Hagerup, a project management specialist at Ouellette & Associates Inc., a consulting firm in Bedford, New Hampshire, building a successful team takes the right mix of “soft” skills, personalities, and attitudes. Picking people exclusively for their technical skills is often a mistake. Some other tips include: • Keep teams small and manageable. You often have

to balance departmental representation with over- all team effectiveness, but teams bigger than five members are typically difficult to manage.

• Get the right personalities. Look for people with strong work ethics and positive, upbeat personali- ties. One cynic can spoil the entire team’s outlook, whereas positive upbeat personalities can lift the team’s spirit.

• Embrace diversity. Because technology profes- sions tend to attract similar types of people, work hard to build diversity on your teams so that they will not be as susceptible to groupthink and narrow solutions.

• Reuse successful teams. It takes a lot of work to build and nurture a successful team, so reuse suc- cessful teams whenever possible.

• Plan ahead to get the right people. The best people for a team are often very busy, so it is important to plan ahead to line up key people well in advance.

• Use your network. Getting the best people to join a team often requires that you convince their boss or others that it is in the organization’s best inter- est for this person to be on your team. Use your friends and close colleagues to identify and recruit the right people. When choosing project team members, there

are a few other things to keep in mind. Given the importance of communication to project success, team members should be excellent communicators. Likewise, even though the project team members are often not involved in the project management aspects, they should still have a basic understanding of project management principles. Further, project team members should be highly organized, have an ability to “read” and motivate people, have accurate estimating skills, and be self-assured and willing to stand up for the project when needed.

Based on: Jones (2017); Melymuka (2004).

Motivating Team Members One of the keys to project success is having a project team with motivated members. Motivation refers to an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (Robbins and Judge, 2017). Intensity refers to how hard someone tries to attain the goal. However, intensity alone may not result in favorable results, unless the Direction of that intensity is channeled toward attaining the appropriate goal. Direc- tion thus is focused on the quality of the effort. Persistence refers to how long someone maintains an effort toward the goal. To be ultimately successful, a person needs all three traits. For example, a person can work hard, but if this effort is not directed correctly or is not sustained, success may not be possible. Motivating team members is thus critical to reaching optimum team performance.

Over the years, a lot of research has been conducted to identify why and how people are motivated. From this research, it has been found that different people are motivated by different things and in different ways. For example, some people are primarily moti- vated by external factors such as financial rewards, whereas others are motivated by

Motivation An individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

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internal factors such as a sense of accomplishment. Also, different theories of motivation are useful for understanding work productivity as well as job satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude a person has toward his or her job, absenteeism refers to the failure to report to work, and turnover refers to the rate at which people voluntarily or involuntarily leave an organization. Some theories have been good for understanding job satisfaction, whereas others have been useful for understanding work productivity. In sum, understanding why and how people are satisfied and how they are motivated to come to work, to stay with the organization, or to work hard is important for all project managers. Consequently, we briefly review various motivational theories to help you better understand motivation. More in-depth discussions of motivation can be found in Robbins and Judge (2017) or Verma (1996).

Need Theories of Motivation For more than fifty years, researchers have examined various theories of how different personal factors can shape a person’s motivation. Although support for these theories has been mixed when examined in controlled research settings, they are nonetheless widely used within organizations when designing work practices and reward systems. In this section, we briefly examine the most popular need theories of motivation.

Hierarchy of Needs One of the most famous motivational theories is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954), which states that people have five basic needs, which differ in importance: phys- iological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization (see Figure 3.7). As each low- er-level need is met (or substantially met), the next higher-level need becomes the individual’s motivating focus. This means that if you want to motivate people, you need to understand where they are in this hierarchy and use mechanisms to help them satisfy needs at the next higher level. However, research has found that unsatisfied needs do not necessarily motivate, that satisfied needs do not always activate movement to higher levels in the hierarchy, and that more than one need from different levels may be desired simultaneously. As a result, researchers have continued to look for a more sophisticated understanding of motivation.

ERG Theory A related theory, ERG theory, refined the hierarchy of needs theory, and argues that there are three core needs—existence, relatedness, and growth—of which more than one may be operating at the same time. Additionally, if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is unrealized, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases (Alderfer, 1969). Within ERG theory, existence focuses on satisfying our basic material needs and most closely relates to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. Relatedness focuses on maintaining interpersonal relationships and most closely relates to Maslow’s social needs. Lastly, growth focuses on personal development and most closely relates to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization categories. Researchers have found ERG theory to be more valid than Maslow’s hierarchy of needs because it more closely reflects our knowledge of how the importance of various factors can simultaneously motivate an individual.

Job satisfaction The general attitude a person has toward his or her job.

Absenteeism The failure to report to work.

Turnover The rate at which people voluntarily or involuntarily leave an organization.

Hierarchy of needs A hierarchy of needs— physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization— where as each need is met, the next higher level need becomes the motivating focus.

ERG theory Three core needs— existence, relatedness, and growth—of which more than one may be operative at the same time; if the fulfillment of a higher-level need is unrealized, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need becomes the motivating focus.

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Two-Factor Theory

Another need theory, the motivational-hygiene theory, or simply the two-factor theory (Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman, 1959), predicts that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to dissatisfaction (see Figure 3.8). In particular, intrinsic factors (i.e., motivational factors), like achievement, recog- nition, advancement, and responsibility, are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors (i.e., hygiene factors), like salary, relationships with colleagues, and work condi- tions, are associated with job dissatisfaction (see Table 3.1). In other words, people will not be dissatisfied if extrinsic factors are adequate, but they won’t necessarily be satisfied either. For a person to be satisfied, intrinsic factors must also be adequately met. As with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the two-factor theory is not universally accepted, but due to its intuitive appeal, many managers and organizations have embraced its concepts.

Theory of Needs

One last needs theory is the theory of needs, which proposes that individuals’ motiva- tion can be explained by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation (McClelland, 1961). The need for achievement refers to having a drive to excel beyond a set of stan- dards. The need for power refers to having a drive to control the behavior of others. The need for affiliation refers to having the desire for close and friendly interpersonal rela- tionships. Researchers have shown that high achievers are not necessarily good manag- ers, but that good managers have a high need for power and a low need for affiliation. Of

Figure 3.7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Two-factor theory Intrinsic factors (motivational factors) are related to job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic factors (hygiene factors) are associated with job dissatisfaction.

Theory of needs Individuals’ motivation can be explained by their need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

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all need theories, this theory has been found to best predict work productivity, whereas the others have had the most success in explaining a person’s job satisfaction.

Process Theories of Motivation Process theories attempt to understand a person’s behavior based on intrinsic or personal factors used to motivate specific behavior. In general, this perspective on motivation suggests that project managers need to create a proper environment, work processes, and rewards to inspire the greatest motivation in people. Several of the most notable process theories of motivation are described next.

Theory X and Theory Y Theory X and Theory Y reflect contrasting views of human behavior, management, and motivation (McGregor, 1960). Whereas Theory X assumes that people dislike work,

Figure 3.8 Contrasting views of job satisfaction in Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Adapted from: Verma (1997).

Table 3.1 Common Hygiene and Motivational Factors

Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors • Company policies and administration • Relationship with supervisors, peers, and subordinates • Working conditions • Salary and benefits • Status • Security

• Opportunity for achievement • Opportunity for recognition • Challenges and variety of the work itself • Sense of responsibility • Opportunity for advancement • Opportunity for personal growth

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are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to work hard, Theory Y assumes that people like work, are creative, like autonomy, and seek responsibility. A project manager who believes in Theory X will typically be autocratic, leave no doubt with others about who is in charge, and have little concern about the feelings of others. A Theory Y manager will be participative and encourage a high level of involvement by team members in their assignments, work processes, and decisions. Theory Y has been found to be a much better management philosophy for motivating professionals and highly educated individuals.

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