After exploring multiple models of program planning, including foundational knowledge applied in each one. Considering that, compare and contrast the models you’ve explored. What are

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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Exploring Foundation Knowledge of Program Planning 53

adult learning that are especially helpful can be found in Illeris (2004); Merriam (2008); Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007); Jarvis (2006); Reagan (2005); and Tennant (2006, 2012). From the many ways of thinking about learning in adulthood, researchers have highlighted three content areas to illustrate the connections between adult learning and planning education and training programs for adults: experiential learning, transformational learning, and non-Western and Indigenous ways of knowing and learning.

Experiential Learning Experience as a foundation for learning in adulthood has been around since the dawn of humankind, and been discussed in the literature for a number of years (for example, Bergsteiner, Avery, & Neumann, 2010; Dewey, 1938; Fenwick, 2003; Jarvis, 1987, 2006; Kolb, 1984; Knowles, 1980; Silberman, 2007). As observed by Knowles (1980): “adults derive their self-identity from their experience [and] . . . defi ne who they are in terms of the accumulation of their unique sets of experiences” (p. 44). In other words, to not take into account the learning that adults have acquired through their experiences is essentially a denial of who they are, where they have come from, and their differences and similarities. Therefore, it is important to bear in mind the prior and current experiences of potential participants in the program planning process (Gravani, 2012). For example, Joyce, an instructor teaching a series of classes on child rearing to parents, did not take into consideration what they had already learned from their experiences as parents. She learned the hard way that not acknowledging the parents’ experiences made her teaching much more diffi cult, as the participants kept challenging many of her asser- tions, based on their own experiences as parents, and both Joyce and the learn- ers became very frustrated with their never-ending arguments. Taking into account learners’ experiences does not mean that everything they know about a specifi c topic or issue is right, but rather that allowing them to voice their observations and experiences, both the good and the bad, provides motivation for these learners and also often adds new insights into the discussion.

Program planners gather this information in a number of ways, such as formal needs assessments (see Chapter Five ) and target audience analyses (see Chapter Thirteen ). However, generating a clear picture of the experi- ences participants may bring to a specifi c program is not always an easy task, and sometimes the information received is not correct. 2 In addition, program planners and instructors sometimes make assumptions about learners that turn out to be incorrect.

Experiential learning happens in formal settings, such as universities and places of business; in informal locations, such as in people ’s homes

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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54 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

and during walks in the woods; and on one ’s own. It may come through a planned activity that focuses on learning from experience, through discus- sions of topics in areas where learners do have experiences, or through hap- penstance. Some techniques, such as storytelling, fi t well into all these types of learning experiences, whereas others fi t better into one of the settings, such as a group simulation, whether in-person or online (see Chapter Eight ).

A number of authors view refl ective practice as a critical aspect of learn- ing from experience. This form of practice also underlies another theory of adult learning that is discussed in this section, transformational learn- ing. One of the most useful frameworks of refl ective practice that research- ers have found was constructed by Schön (1983), a seminal scholar in this area, through his study of professional practice. He views refl ective prac- tice through two different lenses: “refl ection-on-action” and “refl ection- in-action.” Refl ection-on-action is the most typical way program planners have used refl ective practice, as discussed in the writing of many differ- ent scholars, including Boud, Keogh, and Walter (1996); Fenwick (2003); and Kolb and Kolb (2008). In essence, learners using this form of refl ection examine what they have learned through a specifi c experience after it has happened. Keeping refl ective journals and exploring a specifi c situation with a group, colleagues, or friends are two ways in which refl ection-on- action happens (see Cain, Cummings, & Stanchfi eld, 2005, for a helpful guide for facilitators of refl ective practice). In contrast, refl ection-in-action, which program planners and instructors fi nd more diffi cult to do, usually involves changing one ’s actions or ways of thinking as they are happening. Instructors often use this type of refl ection when they somehow just know that participants do not understand the content they are addressing or that the techniques they have chosen for learning just are not working. One critical thing to remember in using refl ective practice is that it is not just a rational analysis, but that emotions also play an important role in examin- ing our actions and ways of thinking (Dirkx, 2008).

Transformational Learning Transformational learning is a process in which adult learners question the basic values, beliefs, and perspectives that they hold about their own lives and how they interact with the wider world in which they live. This learn- ing process, fi rst explained by Mezirow (1978), has become one of the most widely studied theories of adult learning (English & Peters, 2012; Mezirow, Taylor, & Associates, 2009; Newman, 2012; Taylor, 2007; Taylor, Cranton, & Associates, 2012; Tennant, 2006). It is also one of the few theories that has been explored outside of Western culture, as discussed in the next

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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56 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

structures of communities. So it is with other experiences that adults

encounter, such as serious illness, death of a child, or becoming

unemployed, that lead them to perceive their worlds diff erently and

act accordingly. But these events are not always negative; there are

many transformative events that are happy events, such as the birth

of a child, earning a GED, or working overseas.

As noted earlier, refl ective practice and, more specifi cally, critical refl ec- tion, are key aspects of the transformational learning process. Mezirow (1991) provides a concise and helpful way of thinking about the basic ele- ments of refl ective practice that form the foundation of transformational learning—content, process, and premise refl ection. “Content and process refl ection are the dynamics by which [people ’s] beliefs . . . are changed” (p. 11), whether the outcome is reinforcing, elaborating, creating, negat- ing, or identifying problems related to those changes. These two forms of thinking allow people to refl ect “on what [they] perceive, think, feel, and act . . . [and] how [they] perform the functions of perceiving” (Taylor, 2009, p. 7). Getting to the essence of who the individuals are and how they per- ceive the world is the heart of refl ective practice, promoting an awareness of why they have changed their perspectives. “Premise refl ection, the least common of the three and the basis for critical refl ection, refers to examin- ing the presuppositions underlying [people ’s] knowledge of the world” (Taylor, 2009, pp. 7–8). In other words, “to refl ect critically [they] must . . . examine the underlying beliefs and assumptions that affect how [they] make sense of the experience(s)” that lead to transformational learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 145).

Hoggan, Simpson, and Stuckey (2009) and Mezirow, Taylor, and Associates (2009) provide excellent descriptions of ways that instructors and facilitators can foster and provide assistance to adults as they move through the process of transformational learning. The authors discuss tech- niques that are well known to educators, such as storytelling, creative and refl ective writing, conversations, and coaching, as well as some that call for different ways of thinking about the learning process. These books are not only useful to educators, but learners could also benefi t from review- ing the techniques, which can be used individually and in informal groups. One major theme found in both of these resources, the power of intuitive knowing and imagination, is especially intriguing. Using the body as a way of exploring people ’s basic assumptions about life through meditation and movement is an example of a technique not often used, in addition to music, action projects, and collaborative inquiry.

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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Exploring Foundation Knowledge of Program Planning 57

Non-Western and Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Learning

Although the focus of this subsection is on examining ways of knowing and learning from a non-Western and Indigenous framework, researchers acknowledge there are no clear demarcations between non-Western and Indigenous ways of thinking about what constitutes knowledge and ways of learning (Merriam & Associates, 2007; Reagan, 2005). They cannot even say that there are systems that describe all Western cultures, as those who have traveled extensively in these nations can attest, even though many people tend to lump them all together. The same statement is also true of ways of knowing and learning among non-Western and Indigenous peoples (also termed “local knowledge” by some). However, what program planners learn from people who represent these differing ways of knowing and learn- ing is very important, and enriches their practice across geographic borders and within their own countries, especially as much of what is known about adult learning is driven by Western ways of knowing and learning.

How do program planners learn about these non-Western and Indigenous ways of knowing and learning? There are a fair number of recent publications that provide very useful overviews of these different forms knowing and learning (Bracken, 2011; Dei, Hall, & Rosenberg, 2000; Hensley, 2009; Iseke, 2010; Merriam & Associates, 2007; Reagan, 2005; Ryu & Cervero, 2011; Semali & Kincheloe, 1999). What is interesting about these publications is that they all include descriptions of specifi c ways of know- ing and learning across a wide variety of peoples from different parts of the globe, such as Malaysia, sub-Saharan Africa, India, New Zealand, Botswana, Hawaii, and China. The cultural differences, discussed in the next sec- tion, are very apparent in these writings and provide us valuable insight into how culture affects learning. Other types of print- and technology- based resources are also highly effective in gaining a deeper understanding of how people from other cultures learn and act on their learning. Although the central topic of many of these resources is not specifi cally learning in adulthood, but how adults learn and grow is interwoven in both nonfi c- tion and fi ctional sources. Especially enlightening examples include: Fifty Miles from Tomorrow: A Memoir of Alaska and the Real People (Hensley, 2009); Namesake (Lahiri, 2003), and Grandmothers Counsel the World (Schaefer, 2006). Another major resource is experienced practitioners who have worked across borders and have incorporated into their practice non-Western and Indigenous ways of knowing and learning as they work with groups from varying populations representing different cultural groups.

One of the major questions arising from gaining knowledge about non- Western and Indigenous ways of knowing and learning that is extremely

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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58 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

important to the practice of program planners is regarding whose defi ni- tion of knowledge counts (Dei, Hall, & Rosenberg, 2000; Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Reagan, 2005). People must be willing to invite and listen to multiple voices and move beyond their own perspectives and strong options about what is legitimate knowledge, as opposed to what many have termed folk- lore, outdated traditions, or hearsay. For example, “evidence-based” evalu- ation has entered our language of practice as not only the best, but for many the only way projects will be judged. Evidence-based evaluation means that planners can demonstrate in a rational and unbiased manner the out- comes of an educational program. It is a very manageable way to evaluate programs that are technical in nature, such as teaching a specifi c skill or knowledge base. However, the system breaks down when other forms of knowledge are the norm, such as spiritual ways of knowing; viewing one ’s self, and thus one ’s knowledge, as intimately tied to the natural world; and the importance of emotions in learning. For example, Walter (2007) demon- strated through his study of activist Buddhist monks in rural Thailand how these three latter forms of knowledge worked together in “a popular move- ment to protect local forest, land, and water resources” (p. 329).

Although there is not a system for categorizing non-Western and Indigenous ways of knowing and learning, themes have begun to emerge from the literature that appear to be similar among these populations (Abrokwaa, 1999, Castellano, 2000; Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Merriam & Kim, 2008; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Viergever, 1999). Among these themes, four are most often cited: the communal nature of learning, the oneness of learners with their natural world, the oral tradition of learning, and knowledge as holis- tic and grounded in the experience of daily living and culture. For example, the connectedness among learners and the importance of taking into account relationships among learners cannot be overlooked by program planners. One method of allowing this connectedness is the oral tradition of learning, such as storytelling, use of proverbs and metaphorical language, or wise sayings. This method can be incorporated into a number of different components of the pro- gram planning process, including needs assessment, instruction, transfer of learning, and evaluation. The oral tradition of learning is also important in the other two topic areas we have discussed in this section (experiential learning and transformational learning).

Cultural Diff erences

For far too long, taking into account cultural differences has not been a serious concern of many program planners when designing educational programs.

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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Exploring Foundation Knowledge of Program Planning 59

The majority of the literature in this arena has focused on the United States and other Western nations, and when culture is taken into account in this literature it often addresses the needs of people of color. The exception to this body of literature has been the more recent interest in understanding non- Western and Indigenous ways of knowing and learning, as discussed earlier. For example, many program planners have attended professional meetings which generally seem to take a very similar format: general sessions, fi fty- minute breakout sessions, roundtable discussions, and poster sessions. These formats do not necessarily fi t well with diverse audiences who come with many different preferences for and ways of knowing and learning. Some learners prefer more informal methods of learning, from hall conversations to learning groups consisting of people with similar cultural backgrounds. Others would like space set aside for sessions designed for diverse groups of people, and allow time for the groups to spend more than the traditional fi fty- minute session together. An example of this type of session would be to have members of the group learn about unique aspects of the different cultures they represent. Another type of session would be content oriented, where presenters would use alternate techniques of teaching that demonstrate dif- ferent ways of knowing and learning, such as art, music, and meditation.

When acknowledging and honoring cultural differences, program planners need to have a basic understanding of how culture is defi ned, how to build relationships across cultural borders, and how cultural dif- ferences affect communication. Each of these topics is discussed in the fol- lowing subsections.

How Culture Is Defi ned Rothman (2007) “defi nes culture as a set of values, beliefs, and practices grounded in common history and experiences shared by a group, which is viewed as distinct and different from that of other groups” (p. 8). Cultural differences that manifest themselves in programs for adults are fostered by a number of cultural factors that span from organizations and communities to regions and nations (Smith & Sadler-Smith, 2006). Examples of these fac- tors include ethnicity, social class, gender, language, and spirituality. These factors must be taken into consideration in planning programs, depend- ing on the specifi c planning situation and content 3 (Merriam & Associates, 2007; Merriam & Ntseane, 2008; Netting, O ’Connor, & Fauri, 2008; Reagan, 2005; Tisdell, 2003). One factor is that many descriptions abound, and those given are the most useful in the program planning process.

“To have a culture, there must be something signifi cant that links indi- viduals together. Knowing and understanding what links people to one

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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60 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

another or bonds the whole community is necessary” to the practice of pro- gram planning (Netting, O ’Connor, & Fauri, 2008, p. 217). For instance, a community may identify itself by ethnic background, religion, and family and kinship networks. Adults can all think of communities of this nature, such as Irish Catholics in the United States, or the Indian or Chinese com- munities in Singapore.

To explore how these factors affect program planning, we will exam- ine one of these factors, spirituality and religion, to see the connections between how learning is viewed and the planning process. We chose this factor because it has had an enormous impact on program planners work- ing “across borders” and yet it is not often recognized, let alone discussed (Tisdell, 2003). The importance of this factor cannot be overlooked in today ’s world, as religion and spirituality are driving forces for formal and informal educational programs and social action (Merriam & Associates, 2007; Merriam & Ntseane, 2008; Tisdell, 2003; Walter, 2007). Unfortunately, spirituality and religion also cause grave divisions between and among groups that may be “hidden” at one end of a continuum, with the other end leading to outright war and violence, such as the continued confl ict between Israel and Palestine.

Tisdell (2003) has written an especially useful volume that explores the connections between spirituality and culture. Through stories of real peo- ple she brings to life these connections and highlights themes that capture the essence of spirituality, such as spiritual development over time, the inter- section of “gender and culture in relationship to spiritual development . . ., the process of claiming a sacred space, and [the] role of spirituality in claim- ing a positive spiritual identity” (p. xv). She weaves into these stories impli- cations for the practice of educators, and includes a more in-depth discussion of these practices in Part Three of the book. Tisdell focuses on approaches that instructors in formal settings can use to bring spiritually grounded and culturally relevant pedagogy into their instructional processes. More specifi – cally, she outlines seven elements of this form of pedagogy, which include: an emphasis on authenticity (both spiritual and cultural); an environment that allows for the exploration of the cognitive, affective and relational, and sym- bolic aspects of learning; and collaborative work that envisions and presents manifestations of multiple dimensions for learning and change. Tisdell does stress, however, that culturally relevant teaching is not easy; instructors need to be highly committed to mastering all of the intricacies that are demanded when choosing to address subject matter in this way.

Merriam and Associates (2007) provide examples of spiritual and reli- gious practice that connect to education, including those of Indigenous

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-09 07:37:00.

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Exploring Foundation Knowledge of Program Planning 61

peoples, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Islam, for example, calls for a lifelong learning mandate that has two major purposes. The fi rst is to obtain knowledge that leads one to God, the source of all knowledge. The second purpose requires that this knowledge be used for the good of soci- ety, which dictates their actions with humankind (Kamis & Muhammad, 2007). Hinduism also stresses two types of learning: “gaining knowledge from the world, so it is outer directed,” and “self-understanding, the source being the person ’s own spirit .  .  . through meditation” (Thaker, 2007). The fi rst form of knowledge comes through life experiences and formal study, which are viewed as important processes of learning.

Cultural factors naturally lead to cultural differences, which are impor- tant to take into account in program planning. Ginsberg and Wlodkowski (2009) speak about the current enrollment in colleges and universities in the United States, and how the U.S. population has dramatically changed in the past thirty years. As they observe: “If [people] look only from the perspective of ethnicity and language, [they] realize . . . that every one in four people speak a language other than English in their home” (p. 5), and that ethnic backgrounds of the population are quite diverse. These popula- tion changes have led to major changes in the ethnic mix at many colleges and universities, and also have affected students’ ability to use well what is termed “college-level English.” In addition, “73% of all college students today can be identifi ed as ‘nontraditional learners’” (p. 5). Nontraditional learners are most often categorized as twenty-fi ve years of age and older, with the majority of these students being adult women. Serving these stu- dents’ cultural differences, as program planners and instructors, calls for much more than respecting “similarities and differences among human beings,” but even more important, “to move beyond simply developing sensitivity to active and effective responsiveness” (p. 11). This same senti- ment holds true for working as planners and instructors in a variety of formal and informal settings with learners who display cultural differ- ences. More specifi cally, building relationships and communicating well with these learners and other stakeholders in the educational enterprise are major ways that program planners can act responsibly where diversity in cultural backgrounds is most often the norm, which is the focus of the next section.

Relationship Building

Building relationships means that planners are able to interact well with the various

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