October 25, 2023

Read The Attached and Do The Following: A summary about the chapter (it must be at least 200 words) Implications as a teacher to the new knowledge learned from this chapterSB2_TheBig

Read The Attached and Do The Following:

A summary about the chapter (it must be at least 200 words)

Implications as a teacher to the new knowledge learned from this chapter

SB2_TheBigPicture.pdf

The Reading Deficit

L iteracy is an essential skill needed to participate in today’s world. Whether we are reading a ballot, a map, a train schedule, a driver’s test, a job appli- cation, a text message, a label on a medicine con- tainer, or a textbook, reading is required to fully

function in our society. Unfortunately, an enormous proportion of young citizens cannot read well enough to adequately func- tion or to expand their knowledge about the world. This situ- ation is especially distressing because we now know that the majority of students can learn to read regardless of their back- grounds (Lyon 2002).

The State of Reading Today The focus on learning to read has never been greater. The latest National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) indicates that fourth- and eighth-grade reading scores are abysmally low. According to the achievement-level results in reading, 63 per- cent of fourth graders and 64 percent of eighth graders scored at or below the basic level of reading achievement.

Where the press is free and every man is

able to read, all is safe. — T H O M A S J E F F E R S O N

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

NAEP Achievement Levels basic

partial mastery of knowledge

and skills fundamental for profi-

cient academic performance

proficient

solid academic performance

advanced

superior academic performance

NAEP Overall Achievement-Level Results in Reading

GRADE Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced

Grade 4 32% 31% 28% 9%

Grade 8 24% 40% 32% 4%

National Center for Education Statistics 2017.

The Big Picture

Excerpted from Teaching Reading Sourcebook, Third Edition. Copyright © 2018 by CORE. All rights reserved.Excerpted from Teaching Reading Sourcebook, Third Edition. Copyright © 2018 by CORE. All rights reserved.

Common Core State Standards The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for English Language Arts (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers 2010) are the culmination of an extended, broad-based effort to create the next generation of K–12 standards to help ensure that all students are college and career ready in literacy no later than the end of high school. The Standards aim to be research and evidence based, aligned with college and work expectations, rigorous, and internationally benchmarked. Until now, most states have had their own set of English language arts standards, meaning public education students at the same grade level in different states have been expected to achieve at different levels. It is believed that common standards will provide more clarity about and consistency in what is expected of student learning across the country. They will allow states to share information effectively and will help provide all students with an equal opportunity for an education that will prepare them to go to college or enter the workforce, regardless of where they live.

What’s Not Working? With all this focus on reading and education, one might won- der why scores have not dramatically changed for the better. Research suggests that using ineffective teaching methods along with instructional strategies that are without “enough research evidence” limit student mastery of essential skills and new concepts (Rosenshine 2012; Moats 2007; Sweet 2004). For example, even though extensive research clearly shows that students, regardless of their learning difficulties, reach higher and faster achievement with systematic and explicit instruc- tion, this type of instruction is still not always used (Gill and Kozloff 2004).

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

Sources of Reading Failure Neurological factors

(brain metabolism)

Familial factors (environment)

Socioeconomic factors (poverty)

Instructional factors (teaching)

Educational standards help teachers ensure their

students have the skills and knowledge they

need to be successful by providing clear goals for

student learning. — C O M M O N C O R E

S T A T E S T A N D A R D S

I N I T I A T I V E , 2 0 1 2

CC S S

Online Source Common Core State Standards

Initiative

ô www.corestandards.org

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

The Brain and Reading

Brain research is an area of scientific investigation looking for the best ways to teach students how to read. Functional mag- netic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology has allowed scien- tists to track brain activity. Researchers have discovered that the brain activation patterns of students with dyslexia and other poor readers are different from those of good readers.

Brain Geography The brain is made up of two mirror-image sides, or hemispheres. Each hemisphere of the brain is divided into four lobes, or sec- tions: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. The left hemi- sphere of the brain is associated with speech, language processing, and reading. Within the left hemisphere, the frontal lobe con- trols speech, reasoning, planning, regulating emotions, and consciousness; the parietal lobe controls sensory perceptions as well as links spoken and written language to memory; the temporal lobe is involved in verbal memory; and the occipital lobe is important in the identification of letters (Hudson, High, and Al Otaiba 2007; Shaywitz 2005).

Within and between these lobes, there are areas that are espe- cially important for skilled reading: Broca’s area, the parieto- temporal area, and the occipito-temporal area (Shaywitz 2005). Broca’s area is important for the organization, production, and

parieto-temporal area

Broca’s area occipital lobe

cerebellumtemporal lobe

parietal lobe

frontal lobe

L E F T H E M I S P H E R E

O F T H E B R A I N

D Y S L E X I A

a specific learning disability

that is neurobiological

in origin; characterized by

difficulties with accurate

and/or fluent word

recognition and by poor

spelling and decoding

abilities

occipito-temporal area

Online Source IDA: International

Dyslexia Association

About Dyslexia

ô www.dyslexiaida.org

manipulation of language and speech (Joseph, Nobel, and Eden 2001). The parieto-temporal area analyzes words by pulling them apart and linking the letters to their sounds—conscious, effortful decoding (Shaywitz 2005). The occipito-temporal area identifies words rapidly and automatically on sight, instead of analyzing them sound by sound.

How the Brain Reads In her research, Shaywitz (2005) found that the parieto-temporal and occipito-temporal areas in the back of the brain are espe- cially important to skilled reading but have different roles. The parieto-temporal system’s slow, analytic, step-by-step decoding function seems to be relied upon more by beginning readers. In contrast, the occipito-temporal area is the “express pathway to reading.”

According to Shaywitz (2005), during brain imaging skilled readers show the highest level of activation of the occipito- temporal area. It is the hub where, for example, all the relevant incoming information about a word—how it looks, how it sounds, and what it means—is tightly bound together and stored. After a reader has analyzed and correctly read a word several times, then he or she forms a neural model of that specific word that is then stored permanently in the occipito-temporal area. After that, just seeing the word in print immediately activates the neural model and all the relevant information about that word. This all happens automatically, without the reader’s con- scious thought or effort.

As they read, good readers activate the back of the brain and also, to some extent, the Broca’s area in the front of the brain, an area that helps in slowly analyzing a word. On the other hand, poor readers underutilize the areas in the back of the brain. Evidence-based reading instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics can change brain activity in struggling readers and assist in the activation and use of the areas in the back of the brain (Shaywitz et al. 2004; Aylward et al. 2003).

At all ages, good readers show a consistent

pattern: strong activation in the back

of the brain with lesser activation in front. — S H A Y W I T Z , 2 0 0 5

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

Sources Overcoming Dyslexia

Overcoming Dyslexia (2005) by

Sally Shaywitz, M.D. New York:

Vintage.

Proust and the Squid

Proust and the Squid: The Story

and Science of the Reading Brain

(2007) by Maryanne Wolf. New

York: Harper Perennial.

Scientific Approach to Reading Instruction

The term scientifically based reading instruction was first defined in the Reading Excellence Act of 1998 as “the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge relevant to reading development, reading instruc- tion, and reading difficulties.” According to Stanovich and Stanovich (2003), reflective teachers use scientific thinking every day—they “inquire into their own practice and . . . examine their own classrooms to find out what works best for them and their students.”

How to Recognize Effective Research Educators can use three simple questions to distinguish between research that confirms the effectiveness of an instructional practice and research that does not: (1) Has the research been published in a peer-reviewed journal? (2) Have the research results been replicated by other scientists? (3) Is there a con- sensus that the research findings are supported by other studies?

I N D E P E N D E N T P E E R R E V I E W Articles published in peer-reviewed journals have gone through a process of review. This process of quality control exposes ideas and experimenta- tion to examination and criticism by other scientists in the same field.

R E P L I C A T I O N O F R E S U L T S B Y O T H E R S C I E N T I S T S

To be considered scientifically based, a research finding must be presented in a way that enables other researchers to reach the same results when they repeat the experiment. True scientific knowledge is public and open to challenge.

C O N S E N S U S W I T H I N T H E R E S E A R C H C O M M U N I T Y

Scientists do not simply evaluate data from a single study; they evaluate data from many studies. Research findings are most often accepted after the scientific community agrees that suffi- cient evidence has converged to support one finding over another.

Research—when it is based on sound

scientific observation— provides reliable

information about what works and why and

how it works. — R E Y N A , 2 0 0 4

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

Has the research been published in a peer-reviewed journal?

Have the research results been replicated by other scientists?

Is there a consensus that the research findings are supported by other studies?

Essential Components of Reading Instruction

Charged with conducting a rigorous and comprehensive review of reading research, the National Reading Panel (2000) pro- duced a report for Congress focused on five essential compo- nents of reading instruction: phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. In addition to these components, the Sourcebook covers instruction in print aware- ness, letter knowledge, irregular words, and multisyllabic words.

Print Awareness Print awareness is knowing about the forms and the functions of print; it is a child’s earliest introduction to literacy (Gunn, Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998). Awareness of the forms of print includes knowledge about the conventions of print—conven- tions that govern the physical structure of written language and text organization. Students with print awareness know how to handle a book, where on a page to begin reading, and the dif- ference between a letter and a word. Awareness of the functions of print includes knowing that print is a communication device.

Letter Knowledge Letters are the components of written words. They represent sounds systematically in the spelling of words. Learning letters requires becoming familiar with 26 uppercase and 26 lowercase letter shapes and associating these letter shapes to their letter names. Handwriting practice helps young students to learn and recall letter shapes (Ehri and Roberts 2006; Berninger 1999).

Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness is an umbrella term that includes the awareness of the larger parts of spoken language, such as words, syllables, and onsets and rimes—as well as the smaller parts, phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest unit of spoken language that makes a difference in a word’s meaning. For example, the phonemes /s / and /f / are different; the meaning of the word sat is different from the meaning of the word fat.

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

SECTION II: EARLY LITERACY

Chapter 3: Print Awareness

Chapter 4: Letter Knowledge

Chapter 5: Phonological Awareness

S E E A L S O . . .B

Foundational skills . . . are necessary and important

components of an effective comprehensive

reading program designed to develop

proficient readers with the capacity to

comprehend texts . . . . — C O M M O N C O R E

S T A T E S T A N D A R D S , 2 0 1 0

CC S S

READING STANDARDS

Foundational Skills

Print Concepts

Demonstrate understanding

of the organization and basic

features of print. (RF.K-1.1)

Phonological Awareness

Demonstrate understanding

of spoken words, syllables, and

phonemes. (RF.K-1.2)

CC S S

According to the National Reading Panel (2000), phonemic awareness instruction is most effective when students are taught to use letters as they manipulate phonemes.

Phonics Phonics is a method of instruction that teaches students the systematic relationship between the letters and letter combina- tions (graphemes) in written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken language and how to use these relation- ships to read and spell words. Phonics instruction—which is intended for beginning readers in the primary grades and for older students who are struggling to read—can help students learn how to convert the printed word into its spoken form (National Reading Panel 2000). This process, called decoding, involves looking at a word and connecting the letters and sounds and then blending those sounds together. Phonics instruction also helps students to understand the alphabetic principle— written letters represent spoken sounds. In other words, letters and sounds work together in systematic ways to allow spoken language to be written down and written language to be read.

Irregular Word Reading Not all words are regular or can be read by sounding them out. An irregular word contains one or more sound/spelling correspondences that a student does not know and therefore cannot use to decode the word. Within a reading program, there are basically two types of irregular words: words that are permanently irregular and words that are temporarily irregular (Carnine et al. 2006). Some of the most common words in English are irregular. These high-frequency words appear often in printed text and therefore are crucial for comprehension.

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

SECTION III: DECODING AND

WORD RECOGNITION

Chapter 6: Phonics

Chapter 7: Irregular Word Reading

Chapter 8: Multisyllabic Word Reading

S E E A L S O . . .B

READING STANDARDS

Foundational Skills

Phonics and Word Recognition

Know and apply grade-level

phonics and word analysis skills

in decoding words. (RF.K-5.3)

CC S S

Multisyllabic Word Reading While phonics instruction gives students the basic tools to decode most single-syllable words, explicit instruction in rec- ognizing syllables and morphemes gives students additional strategies for reading longer multisyllabic words. To read words in text fluently and accurately, the brain’s orthographic proces- sor must learn to “see” common letter patterns and recurring word parts (Moats 2005). In multisyllabic words, these multi- letter patterns, or “chunks,” may be syllables, affixes, or phono- grams (Ehri 2002).

Fluency According to Hudson, Lane, and Pullen (2005), reading fluency is made up of at least three key elements: “accurate reading of connected text at a conversational rate with appropriate prosody or expression.” Each of these elements—accuracy, rate, and prosody—has a clear connection to reading comprehension. Differences in reading fluency distinguish good readers from poor; a lack of reading fluency is a good predictor of reading comprehension problems (Stanovich 1991). Teachers can think of reading fluency as a bridge between the two major compo- nents of reading—decoding and comprehension.

Vocabulary Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. It occupies an important position both in learning to read and in comprehending text (National Reading Panel 2000). According to Michael Graves (2000), there are four components of an effective vocabulary program: (1) wide or extensive independent reading to expand word knowledge, (2) instruction in specific words to enhance comprehension of texts containing those words, (3) instruction in independent word-learning strategies, and (4) word consciousness and word-play activities to motivate and enhance learning. Not surprisingly, vocabulary development is especially important for English-language learners (ELLs).

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

SECTION IV: READING FLUENCY

Chapter 9: Fluency Assessment

Chapter 10: Fluency Instruction

S E E A L S O . . .B

SECTION V: VOCABULARY

Chapter 11: Specific Word Instruction

Chapter 12: Word-Learning Strategies

Chapter 13: Word Consciousness

S E E A L S O . . .B

READING STANDARDS

Foundational Skills

Fluency

Read with sufficient accuracy

and fluency to support compre-

hension. (RF.1-5.4)

CC S S

LANGUAGE STANDARDS

Vocabulary Acquisition and Use

Determine or clarify the meaning

of unknown and multiple-mean-

ing words and phrases. (CCR.4)

Demonstrate understanding of

figurative language, word rela-

tionships, and nuances in word

meanings. (CCR.5)

Acquire and use accurately a

range of general academic and

domain-specific words and

phrases. (CCR.6)

CC S S

Comprehension Reading comprehension is the process of extracting and con- structing meaning from written texts. It has three key elements— the text, the reader, and the activity and related tasks (RAND Reading Study Group 2002; Snow 2003). Good comprehen- sion instruction requires teachers to consider all of these factors. More important, it involves showing students how these factors affect their understanding when reading. Recent innovations in comprehension instruction have been built on a foundation of what good readers do. Research has shown that the effective reading processes, or strategies, of good readers can be explic- itly taught and that doing so improves comprehension (National Reading Panel 2000).

Reading Assessment

Scientifically based research studies have repeatedly demon- strated the value of regularly assessing students’ reading progress (e.g., Fuchs and Fuchs 1999; Shinn 1998). Reliable and valid assessments help monitor the effectiveness of instruction. An assessment is reliable if it provides a dependable, consistent mea- surement of a particular trait or ability; it is valid if it actually measures that trait or ability (Torgesen 2006).

Types of Assessment There are basically four types of assessments—screening, progress monitoring, diagnostic, and outcome. Screening assessments identify those students who are at risk for reading difficulty. If screening results indicate a potential difficulty, the student is usually provided with additional support and increased progress monitoring. In cases where screening results indicate a severe reading problem, immediate diagnostic evaluation may be warranted. Diagnostic assessment is usually reserved for stu- dents who, according to progress monitoring, fail to respond to additional support (Hosp, Hosp, and Howell 2007).

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

SECTION VI: COMPREHENSION

Chapter 14: Literary Text

Chapter 15: Informational Text

S E E A L S O . . .B

MTSS for Reading Success, p. 743

S E E A L S O . . .B

READING STANDARDS

Literature • Informational Text

Key Ideas and Details

Craft and Structure

Integration of Knowledge and

Ideas

Range of Reading and Level of

Text Complexity

CC S S

T E X T C O M P L E X I T Y

the inherit difficulty of

reading and comprehending

a text combined with reader

and task variables

T H E B I G P I C T U R E

The Big Picture

Reading Assessments

T Y P E

Screening

Progress Monitoring

Curriculum Embedded

General or External

Diagnostic

Outcome

P U R P O S E

• To identify students who are at risk for

reading difficulty and may benefit from

additional support

• To determine the most appropriate

starting point for instruction

• To determine whether students are

making adequate progress

• To determine whether instruction needs

to be adjusted

• To measure the extent to which students

have learned the material taught in a

specific reading program

• To measure critical reading skills

(phonological awareness, phonics,

fluency, vocabulary, or comprehension)

in general

• To predict success in meeting grade-

level standards by the end of the year

• To pinpoint a student’s specific area

of weakness

• To provide in-depth information about

students’ skills and instructional needs

• To provide a bottom-line evaluation of

the overall effectiveness of a reading

program

A D M I N I S T R A T I O N

• To elementary students, three

times a year (e.g., fall, winter,

spring)

• To secondary students, at the

end of the previous school year

• To students reading at the

expected level, three times a year

• To students reading below the

expected level, monthly or

bimonthly

• To students reading significantly

below the expected level,

weekly or biweekly

• Only after other forms of assess-

ment reveal that an individual

student is reading below the

expected level or not making

sufficient progress

• To all students, at the end of the

school year or semester

�

Comprehensive Assessment Plan Assessment not only directs students’ reading development, but also supports educators by helping them to make instructional decisions and monitor program implementation (Diamond 2005). According to Torgesen (2006), a comprehensive assess- ment plan is “a critical element of an effective school-level plan for preventing reading difficulties.” The plan has four main objectives which correspond roughly to the types of assess- ment: (1) to identify students at the beginning of the school year who are at risk for reading difficulties and who may need extra support or intervention, (2) to monitor students’ progress during the school year to determine whether the at-risk students are making adequate progress and to identify any other stu- dents who may be falling behind, (3) to collect student assess- ment data that inform instruction, and (4) to assess whether instruction is sufficient enough to ensure that all students achieve grade-level expectations.

Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is an assessment tool that usually includes a set of standard directions, a timing device, a set of passages, scoring rules, standards for judging performance, and record forms or charts (Hosp et al. 2007). With CBM students are tested on the curriculum they are being taught. Because CBM emphasizes repeated measurement over time, it is

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Read The Attached and Do The Following: A summary about the chapter (it must be at least 200 words) Implications as a teacher to the new knowledge learned from this chapterSB2_TheBig

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