What are the complications that resulted from the radiation?

after you’ve finished reading Chapters 5-7, write a thoughtful discussion post about the book–at least 2-3 paragraphs:

What are the complications that resulted from the radiation? What were some of the problems of becoming “exiles,”–especially in terms of self-sufficiency, burial, psychological problems, and land loss?

How would you describe the United States’ “colonial language of control” (pp. 76-79)? And, how would you describe how Barker is trying to show how language can be thought of as resistance (pp. 79-92)? Describe loan words and give some examples.

Noting the passage from Alvin Jacklick on pp. 107-108, Barker notes that the characteristics of the (Marshallese) radiation language become clear. What are these characteristics?

Barker notes that “Use of the Marshallese language to define their experiences enables the radiation populations to ascribe blame for their problems and to vent their anger while avoiding direct confrontation with the US government representatives.” How so? What kinds of examples does Barker give?

Requirements: 1-2 pages

BravofortheMarshalleseRegainingControlinaPost-Nuclear,Post-ColonialWorIdSecondEditionHollyM.BarkerUniversityofWashington*CaseStudiesonContemporarySocialIssues:JohnA.Young,SeriesEditor~••o~WADSWORTH,..CENGAGELearning’Australia.Brazil.Japan.Korea.Mexico.Singapore.Spain.UnitedKingdom.UnitedStates

~_n~WADSWORTH•••.CENGAGELearning’BravofortheMarshallese:RegainingControlinaPost-Nuclear,Post-ColonialWorld,SecondEditionHollyM.BarkerAcquisitionsEditor:ErinMitchellDevelopmentalEditor:LinGaylordEditorialAssistant:MalloryOrtbergMediaEditor:johnChellMarketingManager:AndrewKeayMarketingCoordinator:jackWardSeniorArtDirector:CarylGorskaMarketingCommunicationsManager:LauraLocalioManufacturingPlanner:judyInoueRightsAcquisitionSpecialist:ThomasMcDonoughTextResearcher:PabloD’StairCoverImage:HollyBarkerInternalDesigner,ProductionManagement,andComposition:PreMediaGlobal~2013,2004Wadsworth,CengageLearningALLRIGHTSRESERVED.Nopartofthisworkcoveredbythecopyrighthereinmaybereproduced,transmitted,stored,orusedinanyformorbyanymeansgraphic,electronic,ormechanical,includingbutnotlimitedtophotocopying,recording,scanning,digitizing,taping,Webdistribution,informationnetworks,orinformationstorageandretrievalsystems,exceptaspermittedunderSection107or108ofthe1976UnitedStatesCopyrightAct,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.Forproductinformationandtechnologyassistance,contactusatCengageLearningCustomer&SalesSupport,1-800-354-9706.Forpermissiontousematerialfromthistextorproduct,submitallrequestsonlineatwww.cengage.com/permissions.Furtherpermissionsquestionscanbee-mailedtopermissionrequest@cengage.com.LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011943248ISBN-13:978-1-111-83384-8ISBN-lO:1-111-83384-2Wadsworth20DavisDriveBelmont,CA94002-3098USACengageLearningisaleadingproviderofcustomizedlearningsolutionswithofficelocationsaroundtheglobe,includingSingapore,theUnitedKingdom,Australia,Mexico,Brazil,andjapan.Locateyourlocalofficeatwww.cengage.com/global.CengageLearningproductsarerepresentedinCanadabyNelsonEducation,Ltd.Tolearnmoreaboutwadsworth,visitwww.cengage.com/wadsworthPurchaseanyofourproductsatyourlocalcollegestoreoratourpreferredonlinestorewww.cengagebrain.com.IPrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica12345671615141312

ThisbookisdedicatedtothepeopleoftheMarshallIslandswholiveeachdaywithafirsthandunderstandingoftheeffectsofnuclearweaponstesting,andtothestudentsoftheNuclearInstituteattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslandspreparingtobecometheleadersforthenextgeneration.InlovingmemoryofWalterLawtonBarker,MejjanKabinmeto,andAmbassadorBannydeBrum.WithloveandappreciationtoBill,Caleb,andLucasSherman.

 

ContentsForewordixPrefacexiIntroduction1Chapter1SettingtheStage:TheGeography,SociallPoliticalOrganization,andLanguageoftheMarshallIslands5LocationandEcology5EarlyMigration10TheSocialandPoliticalStructure10TheMarshalleseLanguageandItsDialects12Chapter2AColonialHistoryoftheMarshallIslands16ColonialExpansion16U.S.NavalAdministrationoftheMarshallIslands19TheArrivalofAnthropologists25TheMovetowardSelf-Governance29TheCompactofFreeAssociation30Chapter3TheU.S.NuclearWeaponsTestingProgram34TheOfficialu.S.GovernmentAccountoftheEvents34TheLimitationsonU.S.GovernmentResponsibility.36DeclassifiedU.S.GovernmentDocuments39Conclusion49Chapter4EthnographyandaMarshalleseNarrativeofHistory50WitnessTestimonies:March1,1954-TheDaytheU.S.GovernmentDetonatedtheBravoShot51WitnessTestimonies:EvacuationandtheDecontaminationProcess53WitnessTestimonies:BirthDefects54WitnessTestimonies:OtherMedicalandEnvironmentalProblems55WitnessTestimonies:Interactionswithu.S.GovernmentMedicalProvidersandScientists56AMarshalleseNarrativeofHistory57Conclusion59Chapter5AlienationfromtheLand:TheRongelapExperience60TheImportanceofGeography60TheImportanceofLand61v

viCONTENTSDamage,Injury,andLoss63ExperiencesinExile64TheLossofSelf-Sufficiency66Burial69StigmaJPsychologicalProblemsamongthe”BombedPeople”71Gender,Age,andStatusinExile72Conclusion75Chapter6LanguageandtheTestingProgram76RadiationandaColonialLanguageofControl76LanguageasResistance79Conclusion92Chapter7UncoveringThemesinLinguisticData93AssigningResponsibility94Powerlessness98Women’sReproductivelllnesses101AUniqueMarshalleseRadiationLanguage107Conclusion110Chapter8ChangedCircumstances:PetitioningtheU.S.Government111AdvisoryCommitteeonChangedCircumstances113ContentofthePetition113ReviewofthePetition115Conclusion116IIChapter9OtherCaseStudies117HiroshimalNagasaki117FrenchPolynesia120Chemobyl123Nevada126Hanford128SubjectsofHumanRadiationExperimentation133Conclusion135Chapter10MethodsandCommunityEmpowerment136DevelopingBondsofTrust136LearningtheLanguage136ArchivalResearch137AccesstoInformation137BuildingontheWorkofOthers137LifeStoryandOralHistoryCollection138LocalCounterpartsandKeyInformants139PublicEducationandTrainingofStudents139TranscriptionandTranslation141Observation142ExpecttoBeChallenged143

,,CONTENTSviiFieldnotes144RepeatVisitstotheField144ThePolicyRealm144MethodsoftheNCTProject145Conclusion148Chapter11CompetingNarrativesofHistory149FlawsintheU.S.Government’sAccountingofHistory150ANewNarrativeofHistory152LookingtowardtheFuture153Chapter12TheFailureofReconciliationandtheMobilityofStructuralViolence155RongelapUltimatum156StructuralViolence157MountingTension158MixedMessages161AppliedandPublicAnthropology163BudgetaryCutsThreatenLivesofWashington’sHungryandSick163NuclearClaimsTribunal165AnthropologyandtheRongelapLandClaim166ClimateChangeandSea-LevelRise168Conclusion172Bibliography175AppendixCategoriesforPersonalInjuryAwards,NuclearClaimsTribunal182Glossary184Index185

J..5.•

ForewordABOUTTHESERIESThisseriesexploresthepracticalapplicationsofanthropologyinunderstandingandaddressingproblemsfacedbyhumansocietiesaroundtheworld.Eachcasestudyexaminesanissueofsociallyrecognizedimportanceinthehistorical,geographical,andculturalcontextofaparticularregionoftheworld,whileaddingcomparativeanalysistohighlightnotonlythelocaleffectsofglobalization,butalsotheglobaldimensionsoftheissue.Theauthorswritewithareadablenarrativestyleandincludereferencestotheirownparticipation,roles,andresponsibilitiesinthecom-munitiestheystudy.Theirengagementwithpeoplegoesbeyondbeingmerelyobserversandresearchers,astheyexplainandsometimesillustratefrompersonalexperiencehowtheirworkhasimplicationsforadvocacy,communityaction,andpolicyformation.Theydemonstratehowanthropologicalinvestigationscanbuildourknowledgeofhumansocietiesandatthesametimeprovidethebasisforfos-teringcommunityempowerment,resolvingconflicts,andpursuingsocialjustice.ABOUTTHEAUTHORHollyM.BarkerbeganherworkwiththeMarshallesewhensheservedasaPeaceCorpsvolunteerfrom1988to1990onMiliAtollintheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI).AfterabriefstintwiththeSenateForeignRelationsCommitteeonCapitolHill,HollyjoinedtheRMI’sembassyinWashington,D.C.,whereshewasemployeduntil2008.Whileworkingfull-timeattheembassyinWashington,D.C.,HollyearnedanM.A.inEducationandaPh.D.inAnthropologyfromAmericanUniversity.HollyhasrepresentedtheRMIatcommunity,national,bilateral,andinternationalforums,includingconferencesattheUnitedNationsonsuchtopicsastheextensionoftheNuclearNon-ProliferationTreaty.ShecurrentlyresideswithherfamilyinSeattle,Washington,andisafull-timelecturerintheAnthropol-ogyDepartmentattheUniversityofWashington.ABOUTTHISCASESTUDYInthisbook,youwillfindanabsorbingstoryofhowthepeopleoftheMarshallIslandshavestruggledtounderstandtheeffectsofradiationcontaminationfromnuclearweaponstestingandtomobilizethemselvesagainsteffortsbytheU.S.gov-ernmenttolimititsresponsibilityforthedamagesandinjuriescausedbythetestingprogram.TheauthorpresentstheaccountsshecollectedfromtheMarshallesepeo-pletorevealtheenduringimpactsofradiationonafragileecosystem,includingix

xFOREWORDintergenerationalconsequencesforhumanhealthandthebreakdownofsocialandculturallife.Sheexplainshowsheworkedwiththepeopleshestudied,usingherresearchtohelpdocumentthehumancostsofradiationexposureandtosupporttheirlegalclaimsforjustcompensationfromtheU.S.government.Inaglobalcon-text,sheexaminestheconsequencesandquestionsraisedwhenpowerfulnationscompromisebasicprinciplesofhumanrightsinthenameofpursuingstrategicmil-itaryinterests.ThesecondeditionfollowstheMarshalleseintheirmigrationstotheUnitedStatesandtheircontinuingpersonalandlegalstrugglestocopewithinter-generationalhealthproblems,poverty,andsocialmarginalization.JohnA.YoungSeriesEditorEmeritusProfessorofAnthropologyOregonStateUniversityJohn.Young835@gmail.com

PrefaceIchosethetitleofthisbookfortworeasons.First,IwanttodocumenthowtheBravotest,anatmosphericthermonucleartesttheequivalentof1,000Hiroshimabombs,andtheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramfundamentallyalteredthehealth,environment,language,economy,politics,andsocialorganizationoftheMarshallIslands.Second,IwantreaderstoknowtheMarshallesenotashelplessvictimsrenderedpowerlessbytheeventsthattookplaceintheirland,butasfight-ersandadvocatesfortheircommunities.TheMarshallesepeopledeservepraise(bravo!)forthewaystheyresistU.S.governmenteffortstominimizeorkeepsecretthetrueextentofdamagesandinjuriesfromthetestingprogramandfortheireffortstotelltheworldabouttheirplight,toseekmedicalcareandenvironmentalrestoration,andtoreturnthoseinexiletotheirhomeislands.ThestoryoftheMarshallesepeople’scollisionswithU.S.strategicandColdWarinterestshasawidescopeandcannotbetoldinasinglebook.ThisbookprovidesanoverviewoftheproblemscreatedbytheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramconductedintheMarshallIslandsfrom1946to1958fromtheperspectiveoftheMarshallesepeople.ThroughthewordsandvoicesoftheMarshallese,IhopereaderswillgainanappreciationforthefirsthandknowledgethattheMarshallesehaveabouttheeffectsandconsequencesofradiationexposureandnuclearweaponstestingandwillconsidertheapplicationsoftheseexperienceswhenwe,asasociety,makedecisionsaboutnuclearweaponsandnuclearenergy.TheUnitedStatesachievedglobalsuperpowerstatusasaresultofitsweaponstestingintheMarshallIslands.Thetestsdemonstratedthecapabilitiesofitsnucleararsenal.TheMarshallesewillknowthedestructivepowersofnuclearbombsforgenerationstocome,astheirbodiesandDNApassedtooffspringcarryremindersofthemutageniceffectsofradiationexposures.Thehomelandsofsomecommuni-tiesaretoocontaminatedtoinhabit,theresettledportionofEnewetak’scommunitylivesadjacenttoanunmonitorednuclearstoragefacility,andMarshallesesubjectsunknowinglyparticipatedinsecretU.S.governmentexperimentstounderstandtheeffectsofradiationonhumanbeings.SuperpowerstatusfortheUnitedStatescameatthecostofthehealthoftheMarshallesepeopleandtheirenvironment.Itisimportantthatweacknowledge,understand,andrememberthesecosts.ThecoststotheMarshallese,aswellastheresponsesoftheMarshallesetotheproblemsthrustuponthembythenuclearweaponstestingprogram,arethepri-maryfocusofthisbook.ReaderswillseethatthestoryoftheMarshallIslandsillustratesmanyofthemostfundamentalconceptsofenvironmentaljustice.TheU.S.governmentchosetheMarshallIslandsasatestingsiteforsixty-sevenatmo-sphericatomicandthermonucleartestsinordertokeepsuchtestingfarfromtheUnitedStatesanditscitizens,whocouldhavebeenharmedbyradioactivefallout;toallaygrowingconcernsabouttheuseofNevadaasaprovingground;andtoconductsecretexperimentsinaremotelocation.FromtheperspectiveoftheU.S.government,theMarshallesepeopleandtheirenvironmentwereexpendable.TheU.S.governmentdeemedthehealthandwell-beingoftheMarshallesepeopleandxi

xiiPREFACEthevitalityoftheirlandaslessimportantthanitsownstrategicinterestsatthetime.InChapter5,readerswilllearnwhatthelossofland,thelossofaccesstoresources,andexilemeantoonecommunity,thepeopleofRongelap.Insteadofacknowledgingthefullextentofdamagesandinjuriescausedbythetestingprogram,theU.S.governmentcontinuestowithholdinformationandtodownplaytheeffectsofradiationexposureonthepeopleandtheirland.InsteadofacceptingU.S.governmenteffortstocontrolthescopeofradiologicalproblems,theMarshalleseactivelychallengetheveracityofitsassertions.TheirresistanceisparticularlyevidentintheuniqueradiationlanguagecreatedbytheMarshallese-alanguagethatdemonstratesthebreadthofradiologicalproblemsexperiencedbythepeopleandenablestheMarshallesepeopletoclaimeventsastheirown.ReaderswillnoteinChapters6and7thattheMarshallesehavecreatedthislanguagetocommunicateabouttheirexperienceswithradiation–experiencestheydidnothaveorneedtotalkaboutbeforethearrivaloftheUnitedStatesandnuclearweap-ons.TheMarshallesehavedevelopedanewlanguagetodescribetheirillnessesandthechangestotheirenvironmentandtoexpresstheirfrustrationsandtheblametheyplaceontheUnitedStatesfortheirpredicaments.ThislanguageisparticularlywelldevelopedbytheMarshallesewomen,whocreatedwordstodiscussthegrossreproductiveabnormalitiestheybegantoexperienceaftertheweaponstestingprogram.Whetherreadersareinterestedinenvironmentaljustice,anthropology,ColdWarhistory,PacificIslands,oralhistory,orpublicpolicy,thenuclearlegacyintheMarshallIslandsisastorypeopleshouldknow.ItisahistoryandastorythatI,asanU.S.citizen,cannotwalkawayfrom.Marshallesepeoplecontinuetodiefromillnesseslinkedtothetestingprogramwithoutaccesstohealthcareandwith-outfullorpartialcompensationfortheirsufferings.ManyMarshallesepeoplecon-tinuetoliveinexilefromtheirhomeislandsmorethansixtyyearsafterthetestingprogrambegan.YettheMarshalleseareassertingtheirrightandabilitytotakecon-troloftheirowndestiny.Theyarerestoringcontaminatedlandsandmakingplanstoreinhabittheirislands.Theyarebuildingtheircapacitytoself-governtheirnationafterhundredsofyearsofforeignoccupationbyestablishinginstitutionsthatwillguaranteedemocracyandthatwillguidethemintothefuture.Thetestingprogramanditsconsequencesareonlypartofthestory;whattheMarshallesedoinresponsetothechallengescreatedbythetestingprogramistheremainderofthetale.Thisstoryisnotover.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWithoutthesupportandinputofmanypeople,thisbookwouldnotexist.IwanttoexpressmydeepestappreciationtoJeilarandthelateMejjanKabinmeto,myMarshallese”parents”onMiliAtoll,forshowingmethebeautyoftheMarshallesepeople,culture,andenvironment.Iamalsogratefultomyhusbandandkids,mysiblings,andmymomfortheirlifelongsupportandlove.Inaddition,IwishtothankWilfredKendall,NewtonLajuan,AbaccaAnjain-Maddison,JohnAnjainJr.,LijonEknilang,TinaStege,MarkStege,EmmaandWinthaJoran,andMarySilkfortheirfriendshipandinterestintheseideas;andBillLeap,BrettWilliams,

PREFACExiiiPeterKuznik,BarbaraRoseJohnston,BillGraham,JulieWalsh,AlfredCapelle,JoanneEverett,RachelChapman,MiriamKahn,RochelleFonoti,ChristopherBarker,AlejandroEspania,InkAleaga,andKianaFuegafortheirprofessionalencouragement.BillLeap’sencouragementandcoursesinlinguisticsatAmericanUniversityledtothesectionsaboutlanguageandthetestingprogram-thankyou,Bill.IwanttorecognizetheworkofBillGraham,recentlyretiredasthePublicAdvocateattheNuclearClaimsTribunal,forhiseffortstobringjusticetotheMarshallese.ThankyoutoMichaelSullivanandCraigSeverancefortheideastheycontributedtothefinalchapter.Iamdeeplyappreciativefortheediting,encourage-ment,andmentoringofJohnYoung.ManythankstomystudentsattheUniversityofWashington,whoinspiremeandgivemehope.ManyoftheMarshallesewhosharedtheirknowledgeforthisbookhavedied.Theydiedwithoutseeingtheirfamilyandlovedonesachievethefulljusticetheydeserve.TheirstoriesendurewiththehopethatweeducatethenextgenerationaboutthenuclearchallengestheyinheritandtheroleoftheMarshalleseinsecuringworldpeace.GiventhesacrificesoftheMarshallese,wecantakethetimetounder-standtheirexperiencesandstrivetodobetterinthefuture.Pleaseshareanycommentsorthoughts.aboutthisbookwiththeauthorathmbarker@u.washington.edu.

:),..

INTRODUCTIONIhavetoldthisstorymanytimesbefore,butIcanfindnootherwaytobegintoexplainmyworkandmytwenty-yearrelationshipwiththepeopleoftheMarshallIslands.In1987,IgraduatedfromcollegewithaB.A.inEnglish.IhadabsolutelynoideawhattodowithanEnglishmajor,butIwasanxioustogetoutintotheworldandseewhatIcouldfind.Bysomestrokeofluck-atleastIperceiveditassuch-anEnglishmajorisaprerequisiteforteachingEnglishinthePeaceCorps.Throughouthighschool,IwatchedthetelevisionadvertisementsforthePeaceCorps.Thecombinationoftravel,livingoverseas,andtheopportunitytogettoknowacompletelydifferentwayoflifealwaysappealedtome.SoIfilledoutmyapplicationandwaited.Afterseveralmonthsandmanyinterviews,IreceivedapackageinthemailfromthePeaceCorps.TheysentmealetterofinvitationandaglossybookletaboutbeingaPeaceCorpsvolunteerintheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI).ThecoverpictureofthekidsplayingonalongcoconuttreearchingoverabeautifulbeachandlagoonwasallIneededtosee.Iwasecstatic!ThenextdayIwenttotheairporttopickupmymother,whowasreturningfromatrip.Icouldnotwaittotellheraboutmyassignment;Itoldherinthepark-inglotbeforeweevengottothecar.ShewasthrilledthatthePeaceCorpsacceptedme,andIthentoldherIwasgoingtotheMarshallIslands.WhatIdidnotexpect,andwhatIwillneverforget,washerresponse:”Oh,honey,youcan’tgototheMarshallIslands!”MymotherproceededtotellmethattheMarshallIslandswasthelocationwheretheUnitedStatestesteditsatomicandthermonu-clearweaponsduringtheColdWar.Ihadabsolutelynoidea.Imanagedtogetthroughhighschoolandcollegewithoutlearningthishistory.Thatinformationwasnotcontainedintheglossybrochure,andIcertainlycouldnotseeanysignsofradiologicalcontaminationinthephotographs.1

2INTRODUCTIONMyparentsandIdecidedthatIshouldgetmoreinformationfromtheU.S.govem-mentaboutlingeringradiationintheMarshallIslandsandthepossibleeffectsonhumanlife.IcalledthePeaceCorps,andIcalledtheU.S.StateDepartment.BothofficestoldmethatIwouldbeinnodangerifIlivedandatelocalfoodsintheMarshallIslandsbecauseradiationlevelsweretoolowtobeofconcern.IwasnotcompletelyconfidentintheanswersIreceived,butIassumedthatmygovernmentwouldhavemybestinterestinmindifitwasgoingtosendmetotheMarshallIslands.Besides,IreallywantedtoliveonthetropicalislandsthatIenvisioned.SoIdecidedtogo.Iaskedthesamequestionsaboutresidualradiationlevelsduringthesummer-longtrainingformygroupofnewrecruitsandreceivedthesameanswers.WhenitcametimeforthePeaceCorpsdirectorintheMarshallIslandstogiveusourassignmentsattheendofourtraining,Iaskedtobeplacedasfarawayfromthetestingsitesaspossible.Thetestingsiteswerelocatedinthenorthwestofthecoun-try,andtheyplacedmeonanislandinthesoutheast,literallythefarthestdistancepossiblefromthetestingsites.AftersplittingofffrommyPeaceCorpsfriendsassignedtootherislands,Icon-centratedallofmyenergiesontryingtoassimilateintomylifeasavolunteerontheislandofNallu,Mili,anddidnotthinktoomuchabouttheradiationissues.Iwastoobusystrugglingtolearnalanguage,teacheightgradesofstudents,andadjusttobeingtheonlyoutsiderinamile-long,half-mile-widevillage.Nallu,Mili,consistsofonechurch,oneschool,andfIfteenhouses.Ithasnostores,noelectricity,andnoonewhoadmitstospeakingEnglish.Ofthe150orsoresidentsoftheisland,approximately100werechildren.Thekidswerealwayshappytoswimwithmeinthelagoon,playgames,andteachmethelanguage.AfterIadjustedtomylifeasaPeaceCorpsvolunteer,IremembersittingonedayinthecookinghouseofthefamilycompoundwhereIlived.Iwasreadingtheweeklyeditionofthecountry’sonlynewspaper,TheMarshallIslandsJournal,andranacrossanarticleaboutforeignshipsbelievedtobedumpingradioactivematerialsintothePacificOceaninareasnottoofarfromtheMarshallIslands.AtthispointinmyPeaceCorpsexperience,ItalkedabouteverythingwithmyMarshallesehostPapa.Wehadnotelevisionorotherdistractionsintheevenings,somyPapaandIwouldtalkfromdinnertimeuntilmidnightalmosteveryevening.Hewouldsharewithmelocalmythsandlegends,andstoriesabouttheMarshallesepeople,andIwouldtellhimaboutcurrenteventsintheUnitedStates,includingtheStarWarsmissiledefenseprogramlocatedonanotheratollintheRMI,nucleardeterrence,andanynewsitemsthatappearedintheoutdatedcopiesofNewsweekmagazinethatthePeaceCorpsforwardedtomeonNallu.Ihadnowayofknowingatthetimethatthesediscussionswouldbecomethesubjectsofmanyyearsofresearch,includingthisbook.OnthedaythatIreadthenewspaperarticleaboutoceandumpingofradioactivematerials,IwantedtosharethenewswithmyPapa.IlookedthroughthepaperforthetranslationofthearticleinMarshallese,sincethenewspapernormallyprintsmajorstoriesinbothEnglishandMarshallese.IfoundnotranslationoftheEnglish-onlyversionofthestory,andIwasupsetbecauseIthoughttheMarshallesepeople,manyofwhomdidnotspeakEnglish,hadarighttoknowwhatwas

INTRODUCTION3happeningtotheirenvironment.WithencouragementfrommyMarshallesePapa,Iwrotealettertothenewspaper.ThefollowingweekIwenttousetheonlytwo-wayradioontheislandofNallutoparticipateinaPeaceCorpsradiohourreservedforvolunteersthroughoutthenationtocheckinwiththecountrydirectorbasedinthecapitol,Majuro.Thedirec-tortoldmethatmylettertotheeditorappearedinthatweek’snewspaper,whichIwouldnotreceiveforafewmoreweekswhenmymailcouldbeflown,boated,andwalkedtomyisland.Iwaspleasedtohearthisnewsandaskedthedirectortosendmeafewextracopies.ThecountrydirectoragreedandalsotoldmehewouldwritemealetteraboutthesubjectIhadraised.Whenmymailpackagefinallyarrived,Ihurriedtoopentheletterfromthedirector.IthoughthewouldbepleasedthatIwasadvocatingfortheinterestsofthepeoplewehadcometoserve.Instead,hisletterwarnedthatasarepresentativeoftheu.s.governmentIwasforbiddentotalkaboutanyissuesrelatedtotheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramandthat,ifIcontinuedtodiscussthesematters,thePeaceCorpswouldterminateme.ThereactionofthedirectormadeitobviouswhytheU.S.governmentdidnotwantmetotalkaboutthetestingprogram.ItwasthenthatIbegantoquestiontheofficialresponsestomyearlierqueriesaboutradiationsafety.IcontinuedtotalkaboutnuclearissueswithmyMarshallesePapaandfriends,butIstoppedwritingtothenewspaperbecauseIlovedthePeaceCorpsandcertainlydidnotwantthedirectortoterminateme.Bythesametoken,IfeltmyPapaandallMarshallesehadarighttoknowaboutandquestioninformationabouttheconsequencesoftheradi-ationexposure.LittledidIknowthatthiswouldbecomemyfull-timejobwhenIreturnedtotheUnitedStates.WhenmytwoyearsofPeaceCorpsservicecametoanend,IwasdevastatedbecauseIdidnotwantmyrelationshipwiththeMarshallesepeopletoend,butIknewIcouldnotspendtherestofmylifeteachingEnglishonaremoteisland.IcriedincessantlyattheMajuroairportbecauseIcouldnotimaginethatIwasleavingthepeopleIlovedandrespectedsomuch.AfewmonthslaterIwenttoWashington,D.C.,withmyPeaceCorpsfriendstoseewhatjobswecouldfindintheinternationalarena.IworkedbrieflyonCapi-tolHill,butthecultureshockofreturninghomeatthesametimethatCongresswasfeverishlyengagedinthewaragendainIraqwastoomuchforme.InthemidstofthechaosonCapitolHill,IcalledtheMarshallIslands’embassyinWashington,D.C.IspokeinMarshallesetotheDeputyChiefofMissionandtoldhimthatIworkedontheHillandwouldlovetobeabletohelptheMarshallIslands,althoughmyroleasaglorifiedreceptionistdidnotputmeinapositionwhereIcouldeffectchange.TheDeputyChiefofMissionaskedmetocometotheembassythatdayduringmylunchbreak.Idid.TwoweekslaterIwasworkingattheembassy.TheDeputyChiefofMission,BannydeBrum,becametheambas-sadorandwasmybossforseventeenyears.Sadly,likemanyMarshallese,Ambas-sadordeBrumlivedonlyuntilhismid-fifties.WhenhediedinMarch2011,theMarshalleselostagreatleaderwhotirelesslyworkedthehallsofCongressand

4INTRODUCTIONtheadministrationtoadvocateforhispeople,particularlythoseaffectedbythenucleartestingprogram,andIlostoneofmybestfriends.IneverthoughtIwouldgrowupandworkonnuclearissuesatanembassy,butthatiswhereIspentthemajorityofmyprofessionallife.Ihadtogobacktoschooltostudyforadegreethatwouldenablemetoconductresearchandinfluencepublicpolicy.Asanappliedanthropologistattheembassy,Iconductedresearchwithpopu-lationsaffectedbythenuclearweaponstestingintheMarshallIslands,andIhelpedthesepopulationsseektheremediesfortheirproblemstheydeemedmostappropriate.Icontinuetostayinclosecontactwiththem.MytimewiththeMarshallesehasbeentremendouslyrewarding,andIfeelfortunateandhonoredtohavethechancetoworkwiththem.IamcurrentlyalecturerintheAnthropologyDepartmentattheUniversityofWashington,whereIsharemyexperiencesandresearchwithstudents.Iamproudoftheworkofmystudents,manyfeelingcompelledtotakeactionafterlearningabouttheMarshallIslands.Iwilldescribesomeoftheircontributionsinthelastchapter.ManypeopleintheMarshallIslandsknowmuchmoreaboutthissubjectthanIeverwill;thisbookismyefforttoexplainjustapieceofthestory,includingthecontinuouseffortsoftheMarshallesetoseekredress.BravofortheMarshallese,fortheirpursuitofsocialjusticeandforthelessonstheyteachusallaboutresilienceinthefaceofhardship.

l/SettingtheStage:TheGeography,SociallPoliticalOrganization,andLanguageoftheMarshallIslandsFrom1946to1958,theU.S.governmenttestedsixty-sevenatomicandthermonuclearweaponsintheMarshallIslands.Allofthetestswereatmosphericandconductedtospreadradiationthroughoutthenation,essentiallycreatingalivinglaboratorytoteachtheU.S.governmentabouttheeffectsofradiationandthepotentialofitsnewweapons.Thenuclearweaponstestingprogramcausedextensivedamageandinjurytothepeo-pleandtheenvironmentintheMarshallIslands.BeforediscussingtheimpactoftheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramontheMarshallesepeople,itisimportanttoexaminethehistoryandgeographyoftheMarshallIslands,factorscontributingtotheU.S.government’sdecisiontoselectthatnationasitsground-zerolocation.ItisalsoimportanttounderstandtherelationshipoftheMarshallesetotheirlandandenvironment,aswellastheirlan-guage,toseehowthetestingprogramchangedtheirlivedexperiences.LOCAnONANDECOLOGYWhatisitaboutthegeographyoftheMarshallIslandsthatinterestedtheU.S.gov-ernmentinusingthattinyatollnationasatestingsiteforitsnuclearweapons?ThefollowingdiscussionshowshowgeographicisolationanddifferingviewsaboutthehospitalityofthelandresultedintheU.S.government’sdecisiontousetheMarshallIslandsasaprovingground.ItishardtoimagineanynationmoreremoteandisolatedthantheMarshallIslands.ThecountryliesinthemidstofthevastPacificOcean,midwaybetweenHawai’iandJapan,andispartoftheregionknownasMicronesia.Micronesia,or”smallislands,”includesGuamandtheCommonwealthoftheNorthernMarianastothenorth,Palautothewest,NauruandtheGilbertIslandstothesouth,theFed-eratedStatesofMicronesiainthecenter,andtheMarshallIslandstotheeast,clos-esttotheUnitedStates.MicronesiaextendsoveranarealargerthanthecontinentalUnitedStates,butitstotallandareaissimilarinsizetothestateofRhodeIsland.5

6CHAPTER1TheMarshallIslandscontains1,225individualislands.Alloftheseislandsarelow-lying,withanaverageelevationofjustsixorsevenfeetabovesealevel.Mostoftheislandsareextremelynarrowinwidth,andboththeoceanandthelagoonarevisibleoneithersideoftheislands.Noneoftheislandshasmountainsorrivers.Abundantcoconuttreesandalargeexpanseofwatersurroundingtheislandsarewhatvisitorstendtonoticewhentheyfirstarrive.IrememberclearlythedayIarrivedintheMarshallIslandsforthefirsttimewithmyPeaceCorpsgroup.Whenourplane,afterafive-and-a-half-hourflightfromHawai’i,firstcircledthemainislandforalandingatthecapitaloftheMarshallIslands,Majuro,Ihadneverseensuchtinystripsoflandorsuchvibrantcolorsinthewater.Theoceansurroundingtheislandsissodarkthatitseemsalmostblack,andtheshallowwatersthatcoverthenetworksofcoralreefsareaspectrumofvividgreens.Whenitwastimefortheplanetolandontherunway,itwasdifficulttoseetheislandbelowus.Forawhileitseemedliketheplanewasgoingtolandonthewater;thelandseemedtoreappearatthelastminute,momentsbeforetouchdown.OnemaninournewlyarrivedPeaceCorpsgrouphadneverseentheocean.HewasafarmerfromKansas,andtheexpanseofoceanmadehimextremelynervous.Fromhisperspective,hewasusedtohavinglandallaroundhim,areasfarmedandcontrolledbyhumans.Thepotentialforoutburstsorstormsfromtheocean-anoceanvisibleineverydirection-wastoomuchforhimtoendure.Afterafewdays,hereturnedtoKansas.Forme,therealityofmycommitmentfortwoyearsdidnotsinkinuntilIreceivedmyin-countryposting.Eachvolunteerdepartedforadifferentisland.WhenItookmycardboardboxesofsuppliesdowntotheboatdock,IsawthatmyridetoMiliAtollwasaboardwhatlookedlikeafewpiecesofplywoodwithanengine.Itwasacapra(driedcoconutmeat)boatonitswaytopickupbagsofcoprafromMili.Nervously,Iwavedgood-byetomyPeaceCorpsfriendsonthedock.Thedoorclosedbehindme,andIwasina10-bylO-footroompackedwithpeopleandcargo.Someonemaderoomformetosit,andIsathuddledinthesamepositionthroughthesixteen-hourjourneytoNallu,Mill.Theboathadnobathroomandnoroomtoliedownorstretchout.HowcouldIbesounfortunatetobeassignedtoanislandwithoutanairport,Ithought.AfewwomentriedtotalktomeinMarshallese,butallIcouldrememberfrommysummerlanguagetrainingwas”Ennabaabiraeippa”(“Friedchickentastesgoodtome”)and”Kwajetalnania?”(“Whereareyougoing?”),whichseemedobvious.WhentheboatarrivedinNalluandthedooropenedforthefirsttimesinceourdepar-ture,thecaptainoftheboatyelled,”PeaceCorps!”Themenontheboatmadeaquickprocessiontocarrymyboxesfromtheboattotheshore.(peopleneverseemedtomindwadingthroughwaterandgettingtheirbluejeansorentirebodiessoaked.)IwastheonlypassengertogetoffatNallu.Isatonthebeachbymyselfwithmyboxesastheboatchuggedaway.WhileIwasrelievedtobeofftheboat,IlookedaroundandrealizedIcouldnotseeasinglehouseorperson.Sincetherehadbeennowindowsontheboat,theshorewhereIsatwasallIknewofmysurroundings.Ihadnoradioormeansofcommunicatingwithanyone.IcouldnotaskthePeaceCorpsofficeinMajuroforhelp.Iburstintotearsandcurledupintothefetalposition.Irememberthinkingatthetimethat,ifIsurvivedthisexperience,Icouldhandleanysituationtheworldcouldthrowmyway.ThePeaceCorpsslogan,TheToughestJobYou’llEverLove,hadnewmeaning.

SETTINGTHESTAGE7AsIwassittingonthebeachfeelingsorryformyself,ayoungMarshallesegirlcameskippingalong.Shesawmesittinginthesand,shrieked,andranintheotherdirection.IlaterlearnedIwasthefirstwhitepersonshehadeverseen.ThereasonnopeoplewerearoundwasbecauseitwasSundaymorningandtheentirecommunitywasatchurch.Inafewmoments,thelittlegirlbroughtthewholetowntome,inmypatheticstateofbeing.IwipedawaymytearswhenIsawthemapproaching.Twopeoplemadetheirwaytothefrontofthestaringpackandshookmyhand.TheysaidtwowordsthatIunderstood:”Mama”and”Papa.”Ifollowedthemandthesecondprocessionofmybelongingstoacompoundinthecenteroftheisland.MynewMarshalleseparentswentintoahutandyelledabunchofwordsIdidnotunder-standtopeopleIcouldnotsee.NextthingIknew,afamilywasthrowingallofitsbelongingsoutside,andmysoggyboxeswereputinside.MyMamaandPapagesturedformetogointothethatchhut.Idid-andclosedthedoorbehindme.IlaydownonthegroundandpeeredoutofacrackbelowthedoortogetasenseofthealienworldIhadjustencountered.Iwastooscaredtomove.Ididnotknowwhattodo.Eventually,myMarshalleseparentscamebacktothehut.Icouldnotunder-standawordtheysaidtome.TheyusedsignlanguagetoaskmeifIwantedfood.Inodded.Theymademotionsforabath.Someonefilledabucketwithrain-waterandescortedmetoabigbushthatservedasmycover.EverytimeImoved,scoresofeyesobservedme.Iwasasdifferenttothemastheyweretome.ThefamilyIlivedwithobviouslysawmyduressandrightlydeterminedthatIwouldneversurvivewithoutthem.ItookeverybitoffoodIhadbroughtfromthecapitaltothefamilycookinghouse.Iatethreemealsadaywiththefamilyfortwoyears.Initially,wegotbyonalotofsignlanguageandlongsilences.Throughpatientinstructionontheirpart,Ieventuallylearnedthelanguageandbegantocommunicatewiththem.Ispentatleastfivehoursofeverydayjustsittingandtalkingwiththefam-ily.EventhoughmyfamilyintheUnitedStatesisextremelyclose,noonehasthetimetositandtalkforsolongeachday.Ihadneverspentsomuchtimetalkingtothesamepeople.Consequently,myrelationshipwiththefamilygrewquicklyanddeeply.IneverimaginedthatthebestpartofthePeaceCorpswouldbetherelationships;beforeIleftformyassignment,IhadgrandioseideasthatIwouldgoanddogoodworkthatwouldmakealastingimpactonacommunity.WhenIleftthePeaceCorps,IcouldnothelpfeelingthatIreceivedsomuchmorethanIgave.Imetawholevillageoffriendsandbecametheeleventhchildinawonderfulfamily.Myfamilytaughtmeaboutanentirelynewwayoflife.Ilearnedtocatchcrabsfordinnerundertherocksontheoceanside.Itriedtocookbreadfruitandweavematslikethewomen,butIalwaysseemedtofailatthesetasks.Isnorkeledinthelagoonwithsharks,andwhenIgotthirsty,Iclimbedcoconuttrees(whennoonewaslooking,sincewomendonotusuallydothis).Yes,therewereplentyoffrustratingandlonelytimes,too,butwhatIwillalwaysremembermostishowmyhostfamilytookmeinandtookcareofme.IfeltagratitudetomyfamilyandtheMarshallIslandsthatIhadtopayback.ThinkingbacktowhenIfirstarrivedintheMarshallIslands,Irealizethatoneofthereasonsoutsidersfeelsodisorientedthereisthatthereissolittlelandamidstavastocean.TheMarshallIslandsconsistsofjustseventysquaremilesofland.Thislandextendsacross750,000squaremilesofocean,anarearoughlythe

8CHAPTER1MarshallIslandsHO98i/(.’2001(.loll’leten,!1~2~Q””U*Nationalcapital”.J’~raongi’85–…..,”••……….,…~;..~tu”J.KIRIBATIII••But.ri,,’i~Wajuro~A.A~Q•••••••,;,J”””.LANDSkllJitOMiliQ-&KI10K’KiJiNamOfikItsAMOCEANPACIFIC,,_,,’OEnewetokFEDERATEDSTATESOFMICRONESIA’KoSnle’~5Figure1.1MapoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands.Source:NationalResearchCouncil(1994).equivalentofthelandmassofMexico.Almostalloftheislandsareclusteredintwenty-ninecoralatollsandfivelarge,stand-alonecoralislandsthatbegantoevolveapproximatelyseventymillionyearsago(seeFigure1.1foramapoftheMarshallIslands).AnthropologistRobertC.Kistedescribesacoralatollascomposedofanumberofislands…restingonacoralreefthattypicallyenclosesalagoon.Someatollshavepassagesthatallowentrancetothelagoon;othersdonotandareclosedatolls.Atollsoriginatedasfringingreefsaroundvolcanicpeaksthatsankbeneaththeseamillionsofyearsago.Asthepeaksgraduallysubmerged,coralgrowthcontinuedtobuildupward,andreefsremainedclosetotheocean’ssurface.Theislands

SETTINGTHESTAGE9A:HighVolcanicIslandB:AtollIslandOceanSunkenvolcanoOceanInternaldrainageFigure1.2Submergedvolcanoes/atoll.Source:U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior(1988:50).themselvesareamixtureofcoraldebris,sand,andhumus.Beingflat,orlowelevation,andseldomreachingmorethanthreetotenmetersabovesealevel,theyareextremelyvulnerabletotropicalstorms.(Kiste1994:7)TheseatollsandislandsintheMarshallIslandsextenddowntwoparallelislandchains:theRatak,orsunrisechain,totheeastandtheRalik,orsunsetchain,tothewest.Themostwell-knownatollsintheMarshallIslandsareBikiniandEnewetak,theground-zeroatollsfortheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.ManyU.S.servi-cemenspenttimeeitherontheseatollsoronshipsthatpatrolledtheareaduringthetestingprogram.KwajaleinAtoll,withthelargestlagoonintheworld,isalsowellknownbecausetodayithousestheRonaldReaganBallisticMissileTestSiteandplaysamajorroleinU.S.governmenteffortstotestamissiledefenseshield.Asdiscussedearlier,outsiderswhotraveltotheMarshallIslandsoftendescribetheenvironmentintermsofitslimitedland,dryconditions,andsparseresourcesavailableforhumansurvival.ThefIrstanthropologistswhoworkedintheMarshallIslandschar-acterizedthelow-lying,dryatollsashaving”[s]lenderresources…[wherep]racticallynosoilcoversthecoral,andtheinhospitablesand[that]willgrowfewplants”(Krieger1943:21).IncomparingtheislandsandatollsinthenorthernPacifIc,earlyanthropolo-gistscharacterizedthedriercoralatollsintheMarshallIslandsas”present[ing)thegreatestchallengetohumanoccupancy”(Mason1968:278).ThisistheviewadoptedbytheU.S.governmentwhenitdecidedtotestitsweaponsonlandthatnoonesuppos-edlycaredabout.

10CHAPTER1TotheMarshallese,thelimitedfoodandwaterresources,seasonalityofstaplefoods,droughts,andfaminesmakesurvivalchallenging,butnotimpossible.Survivaliscontin-gentonspecificandaccurateknowledgeofthelocalresourcebase.Insteadofviewingtheircountryasstripsofdrylandwithscantresources,asdidearlyanthropologistsandoutsiders,theMarshalleseconsiderthesurroundingseasandmanyislandsasprovidingthemwithmultipleopportunitiestocultivatetheresourcesnecessaryforsurvival.ThedifferentperceptionsaboutthehabitabilityandviabilityoftheMarshallIslandsestablishedbeforethenucleartestingprogramcommencedwouldcreatedis-cordbetweentheMarshalleseandtheU.S.governmentbothduringandafterthetest-ingprogram.FortheMarshallese,theirnationwasnotabarrencollectionofsandbarsthatscarcelysupporthumanlife.Instead,thediversearrayofaquaticandterrestrialresourcesavailabletotheMarshalleseenablesthemtolivesustainablyintheirenvi-ronment.Bycultivatingresourcesfromtheland,sea,andsky,theMarshalleseareabletoadjusttoseasonalandclimaticvariationsandensuretheydonotdepleteresourcesinanyonelocation(JohnstonandBarker1999,2008).FortheU.S.gov-ernment,theharshandseeminglydesolateenvironmentwasperfectforconductingmilitaryactivitiestoodangerousorsecretivetoundertakeintheUnitedStates.EARLYMIGRATIONItisdifficulttoascertainwhenthefirstsettlersarrivedintheMarshallIslandsandwheretheyarrivedfrom.FewmaterialartifactsfromthepastexistinMicronesiabecausetheMarshallesemadetheirwaresfromlocalresourcesthatdecomposeandleavelittleevi-denceforarchaeologists.MotivationsforthemigrationandsettlementacrossthePacificincludedecologicalpressures,quarrelingfamilies,andthedesireofrivalsiblingsfromthefamiliesofchiefstoestablishnewbloodlinesandpowerbasesondistantislands(Kirch1984).Therearetwotheoriesofsettlementfortheregion.SomepostulatethatthefirstsettlersofMicronesiawerePacificislandpopulationsthatmigratedfromMel-anesia.Successiveadvancementsinmaritimeandagriculturaltechnologyenabledpeo-pletomigratetowhatarenowtheMelanesianareasoftheSolomonIslands,Vanuatu,andNewCaledoniaandthentotheCentralPacific.Morerecenttheoriesaboutsettle-mentproposethatearlysettlerscamefromTaiwanmorethanfivethousandyearsagothroughaseriesof”settlementpausesandexpansionpulseslinkedtotechnologicalandsocialinnovations”(Gray,Drummond,andGreenhill2009:479).Micronesianlan-guagessharetraitswitheasternMelanesianandSoutheastAsianlanguages.THESOCIALANDPOLITICALSTRUCTUREWithoutquestion,landisthemostimportantresourceintheMarshallIslands.Notonlydoeslandprovidetheresourcesnecessaryforsurvival,butalsoitlinkspeopletotheirancestorsandtheirfamiliesandprovidestheresourcesnecessarytomain-taintheculture.Landismatrilineal,meaninglandispassedfromgenerationtogen-erationthroughthewomen.TheMarshallIslandsisamatrilinealsocietyorganizedbyitsaccesstolandandresources.Traditionally,theoldestwomaninafamilypassesonthelandrightstoothermembersofherfamily.Whentheoldestwomanofonegenerationdies,theland

SETTINGTHESTAGE11rightspasstoherbrothersandsistersinorderoftheirage,beginningwiththeeldest.Whenallthesiblingsofagenerationdie,thelandpassesthroughthenextgenerationbeginningwiththechildrenoftheoldestwomaninthepreviousgeneration.FamiliesintheMarshallIslandsarelarge.Severalgenerationsofanextendedfamilyoftenresideonthesameproperty,eitherinasinglehouseorinneighboringhouses.Traditionally,whenamanmarries,hewillliveonthelandofhiswife’smother.Landownershipremainstheprerogativeofwomen,buturbanizationandchangesinlandtenurerulescausechangesinfamilyrelationsandpowerstructures.Manyfamiliesleavetheouterislandstoseeksocialservicesandopportunitiesintheurbanareas-schools,hospitals,employment,andsoon.Thepowerofwomenisattenuatedwhenfamilymembersmovetothecapitalandhavelessinterestinmain-tainingresourcesbecausetheymightnotreturntoliveontheirland.Therelationshipbetweenlandandfamilyisalsoshiftingaswomenincreasinglyinvestamalememberoftheirfamilywithresponsibilityformanagingtheuserightsoftheland.TheMarshalleserefertotheirlineageorclanlinesasbwij.Customaryrulesprovidelanduserightstomembersofalineage:Thelineage(bwij)membersmayliveonandexploittheresourcesofthelandparcelor,iftheypossessrightsinmorethanonelandparcel,asisusuallythecase,merelymakecopraonitanduseitsfoodresourcessuchas:coconuts,breadfruit,arrow-root,panda-nus,bananas,andtaro.Pigsandchickensarekeptandfishandshellfishareobtainedfromtheadjacentmarineareas.(Tobin1958:7-8)Thebasicunitoflandinheritanceisasmallparcelreferredtoasaweto.Theselandparcelsarecrosssectionsoflandextendingfromtheoceantothelagoon(Figure1.3).MostMarshalleseconstructtheirhomesonthelagoonsideofthelandparcelstopro-videshelterfromthewindandstorms.Almostalllandparcelshaveaccesstotheoceanandlagoon.Avillagepathusuallyrunsdownthecenterofanisland,passingthrougheachlandparcel,connectingthecommunity.Sometimesfamiliesbreaklandholdingsintosmallerportions,oftenmarkingtheboundaries(kotanweto)withlocalplantsorprominentoutcroppingsinthex1O-g~'”‘”>-2’2’.9!00′”‘””,0-~ro.2CC”0:DE”oc-g~sCO”ro.Q'”DOo~~.~0:>”O~'”16.m0::O::]?~”‘”$0lD'”0Ul{il'”.<Q”.cBreadfruitzone.cFigure1.3Diagramofaweto.Source:NotesontheOccurrence,Utilization,andImportanceofPolynesianArrowrootintheMarshallIslands,BackgroundStudyNo.39,byDirkSpennenmann.Majuro:IndependentNationwideRadiologicalSurvey@I992.Reprintedwithpermission.

12CHAPTER1land.Toclaimtherighttousealandparcel,apersonmustknowitsboundariesandhistory.Becauselandiscriticaltosurvival,”theMarshallesejealouslyguardtheirlandrightsandwillnotwillinglypartwiththem”(Tobin1967:3).IntheMarshallesepropertyrightssystem,nosinglepersonownstheland.Marshallesecultureandsocietyrevolvearoundathree-tierapproachinvolvingchiefs(iraij),landmanagers(alab),andworkers(ri-jerbal)(Tobin1953,1958;Mason1968;Kiste1974).Inwesternterms,theiroijarethechiefswhomaintainauthorityovertheclansandtheland.Thechiefsareresponsiblefortakingcareoftheirpeople,andthepeople,intum,mustprovidefoodandlabortotheirrespectivechiefs.Thelandmanagersactonbehalfofthechiefs,assumingday-to-dayresponsibilityforproperlymaintainingthelandandprovidingforeveryone’sneedsaccordingtocus-tom.Theri-jerbal-literallyri,or”people,”andjerbal,or”work”-aretheworkers.TheMarshallesealsorefertotheri-jerbalasthekajar,or”strengthoftheclan,”becausetheyprovidethestrengthandsupportnecessarytocultivatetheland.Theworkershaveasymbioticrelationshipwiththeirchiefsandlandmanagers.Inthisarrangement,everyonebenefits:Thelandwouldnotbeproductiveunlesstheworkersmaintainedit.Bythesametoken,theworkerswouldnothavethemeanstosurviveunlesstheirchiefsandlandmanagersproperlyallocateduserights.Someparcelsoflandaresacredandareconsideredforbidden(rna)toordinaryMarshallese;thislandcanremainofflimitsbecauseitisstrictlyfortheuseofchiefsoritisalocationformedicinalplantsthatonlytraditionalhealerscanaccess.Maintenanceofthepropertyandresourcesiscriticaltoensurethecontinuedlivelihoodofeveryoneinthelineageorcorporationwithrightstotheproperty.Inadditiontocaringforpropertyandresourcesforthewell-beingoftheexistinggen-eration,peoplewithlandrightsworkcollectivelyandsustainablytoensurethecon-tinuingproductivityoflineageholdingsforsucceedinggenerationswhowillinherittheland.Inasocietythatisorganizedaroundrespectforthelandandtheneedtopassthelandtofuturegenerationstoensuretheirsurvival,whatcomplicationsresultfromtheintroductionofradiationintothelocalenvironment?Likekinship,thepoliticalsystemisconnectedtotheland.EachofthemajoratollsandlargeislandsintheMarshallIslandselectsasenatortotheNitijela,orparliament.TheparliamentisacombinationoftheBritishandAmericansystemsofgovernance.Thepeoplechoosetheirindividualsenators,andthesenatorsdecideamongthemselveswhoshouldbepresident.Thepresidentthenchoosesmembersofthecabinetfromtheremainingsenators.ThepresidentoftheMarshallIslandsin2011isJurelangZedkaia.PresidentZedkaiaisthefifthpresidentoftheMarshallIsland.sandalsoahighchief.THEMARSHALLESELANGUAGEANDITSDIALECTSGiventheconsiderabledistancesbetweentheatollsandislands,itmayseemsurpris-ingthattheMarshalleselanguagevarieslittlefromplacetoplace.Theirnavigationalprowess,knownthroughoutthePacificregion,allowedtheMarshallesetotravelfre-quentlybetweenislands.Thisabilitytoroutinelymoveacrosslongdistanceswasundoubtedlyafactorinestablishinguniformityinthelanguage.

SETTINGTHESTAGE13TABLE1.1RAUKANDRATAKDIALECTVARIATIONVowelvariationofthewordSelectionofinterveningvowelsLongerwordsintheRalikdialectRaliklokiaikujiepRataklakaekujepEnglishEquivalentdirectional,gotowardneedorwantbasketSource:ByronBender,”ALinguisticAnalysisofPlaceNamesoftheMarshallIslands”(unpublishedPh.D.dissertation,IndianaUniversity,1963).AvailableattheAleleMuseuminMajuroandthePacificCollectionattheUniversityofHawaii.AlllanguagesinthePacific,includingMarshallese,belongtotheAustronesianlan-guagefamily,whichencompassesone-sixthoftheworld’slanguagesandstretchesfromtheedgesofSouthAmericatoSoutheastAsia,ThewideberthofthislanguagefamilyisaresultoftheextensivemigrationsacrossthePacificregion,primarilybysea.SomecommonwordsexistbetweentheMarshalleselanguageandotherlanguagesinMicronesia,particularlythoseinPohnpeiandChuuk,buteachlanguageintheregionisdistinct.TheMarshalleselanguagehastwodialects,theRalikandtheRatakdialects,whichcorrespondtothetwochainsofislandsthatrunnorthtosouth.Thetwodialectsdonotdiffergreatly,andspeakersofthedialectshavenoproblemsunderstandingeachother(Table1.1).Thefirstlinguisttodocumentthelanguage,ByronBender,identifieddifferencesbetweenthetwodialects,primarilyinthevowels.Tracesstillexistofamucholder,traditionalformofMarshalleselanguagereferredtonowaskajinetto,orthe”oldlanguage.”SomeoftheMarshalleseeldersknowthemeaningsofolderwordsandphrases,andsomeelderscanstillrecitechants(roro)inkajinetto.Themeaningsofmostofthesechantshavebeenlostovertheyears,buttheeldersknowenoughofthewordstounderstandwhethertheyarerecitingachanttoinstructlistenersaboutnavigationorwaroraprayertoasharkgodbeforefishing.Theelders’abilitytorememberthemeaningsofsomeofthewords,despitethefactthattheoldlanguageisnolongerfunctionalandwasneverputintowrittenform,demonstratestheremarkablepersistenceoforaltraditionsamongtheMarshallese.In1998,anelderlywomanfromRongelapAtoll,KajimAbija,recitedachantforme.Unfortunately,Ididnothaveataperecorderatthetime.Afterward,KajimexplainedthatthechantinstructsnavigatorstolookforaparticularpatternofwavesthatemergeswhentheseabouncesoffofKapijinamuReef,alargereefonRongelapAtoll.Becausetheislandsliesoclosetothesea,navigatorsdonotseethelanduntiltheyhavealmostreachedtheirdestination.Therefore,theymustrelyonthewaveandoceancurrentstoguidethemtotheislands.Marshallesenavigatorsusedchartsmadefromsticksandshellstoshowthemthelocationoftheatollsandthemajoroceancurrents.Inadditiontotheoldlanguage,evidenceexistsofanancientreligiouslanguageusedtoshowrespectforsacredareasandthechiefs(iroij).Inalllikelihood,thearrivalofmissionariesinthenineteenthcenturyreplacedtheindigenousreligionwithChristianity.Fromthechanting,wehaveindicationsthattheMarshallesereligionwasdevotedtothemythicalcharactersthatpersonifythenaturalworld.Theyrecognizedagodoffish(iroijrilik)andagodofbreadfruit(jebro),amajorstapleintheMarshallesediet

14CHAPTERJOneoftheftrstanthropologiststoworkintheMarshallIslandswasJackTobin.Tobindescribedahistoricalreligionthatprotectedandreveredplantandanimallifethroughthecreationofnaturepreservesandsimultaneouslyrecognizedtheuniqueroleoflineagechiefsinprotectingthesesanctuaries.AccordingtoTobin,theMarshal-lesehadritualsthatexistedfrom”timeimmemorial”forapproachingislandssetasideforanimalsandbirds.TheMarshallesecreatedtheseanimalsanctuariestolimitandcontrolhumanconsumptionandtoensuresurvivalofthosespecies.Elaborateritualsexistedtoscripthumanbehavioronthoseislandsandoftenrequiredtheparticipationofachief,ensuringthatcommonpeopledidnotaccessthelandwithoutpermission.Tobindocumentedaritualinwhichpeopleaskedpermissiontothekanal,ortreegod,toaccompanypeopleontheirannualfoodgatheringtripstoislandssetasideasbirdsanctuaries.Uponarrival,womenhidundermatsinthecanoesforfearofbringingbadlucktoftshingorbirdandeggcollection.Forthemen,itwastabootospeakordi-naryMarshallese.Instead,theyhadtouselaroi},anesotericlanguage,toconcealtherealnamesandprotecttheidentitiesoftheanimalsandthechiefs.Uponarrivingatabirdsanctuaryisland,peopleusedspecialchantstorequestthestrengthnecessarytohaultheircanoesuponthebeachandthenwaitedforasignalfromatreethattheywerefreetogatherfood.Tobinnotes:Thechiefwasthefirstpersontostepashore.Everyoneassembledonthebeachbeforepro-ceedinginlandandcutaleaforcoconutfrond.WiththechiefleadingthewaytowardLawilema(theknnaltree),theywalkedinsinglefile,eachindividualcarefullysteppinginthefootprintsofthepersoninfrontofhimsothatonlyonesetoffootprintswouldappear,asifonlyonepersonhadbeenthere.StrictsilencewasobservedonthewaytoworshipLawilema.Whenthegroupreachedthetree,eachmanplacedhiscoconutleafoverabranchofthetreeandthensatdowninfrontofthetreeandwaitedforabreezetocomeandblowtheleafoff.Whenthisoccurred,thekebbwiinbwil(ritualnameforthechiefonthisoccasion)wouldannounce:Wurin(wearelucky).(Tobin1958:51-52)Thesamelinguistictendencytodemonstraterespectbyusingpseudonymsremainstoday.Outofdeferenceandrespect,theMarshalleseoftenusenicknamesorvaguewordsthatenablethemtorefertochiefswithoutusingpropernames.Thispractice,alsoseeninotherareasofthePaciftc(suchasSamoa;seeDuranti1991),usespolitenesstoacknowledgethehigherstatusofthechiefsandthelowerstatusofthespeakers.TheMarshallesealsousenicknamesorvaguepronounstorefertotheanimals,thetrees,andthepeopletodenoterespect(Table1.2).kemkemrakemjeelkemeankemwajkejkejrakejeelkejeankejwajTABLE1.2MARSHALLESEPRONOUNSus,excludinganyoneelseintheareathetwoofusthethreeofusthefourofusthefiveormoreofusus,allinclusivethetwoofusthethreeofusthefourofusthefiveormoreofus

SETTINGTHESTAGE15TABLE1.3MARSHALLESEPLACENAMESAtollNames:RongelapRongerikAilinginaeron(hole,referringtothelagoon)+lap(large)=[atollwith]largelagoonron(hole)+rik(small)=[atollwith]smalllagoonailin(atoll)+in(in)+ae(current)=atollinthecurrentIslandNames:Eneaitokene(island)+aitok(long)Enebarbarene(island)+barbar(rocky,lotsofreef)Aerokenae(current)+rok(south)+en(awayfromspeaker)WeloNames:=longisland=islandwithlotsofreef=distantislandtothesouthMarrenMonbakoAibwejmar(bushes)+en(awayfromspeaker)mon(house)+bako(sharks)aibwej(water)=distant[weto]withbushes=houseofthesharks=[wetowith]waterSource:ByronBender,”ALinguisticAnalysisofPlaceNamesoftheMarshallIslands”(unpublishedPh.D.dissertation,IndianaUniversity,1963).AvailableattheAleleMuseuminMajuroan?thePacificCollectionattheUniversityofHawaii.AnalysisoftheMarshalleselanguagealsodemonstratestheinterconnectednessbetweenthepeopleandthelandandthesocialsignificanceoflandandnaturalresources.Eachlandholdinghasauniquenameandsocialhistoryoftenevidentinthenamesoftheatolls,islands,andlandparcels.Forexample,thenamesoflandparcelsareplacenamesthatdescribetheirphysicalcharacteristicsandwhyandhowpeopleinher:-itedandusetheland(Table1.3).TheMarshallesealsogivenamestoreefsthatindicatehowtqeyserveasimpor-ltantreferencepointsforresourcecollection,navigation,anddesignationofprop-ertyboundaries.ThenextchapterdescribeshowcolonialpowersexploitedtheMarshalleselandanditspeopletoadvancetheirowninterests.

2/AColonialHistoryoftheMarshallIslandsCOLONIALEXPANSIONAlthoughPacificislandcommunitiesmigratedandtraveledtotheMarshallIslandsforthousandsofyears,itwasnotuntiljustunderfivehundredyearsagothatthewesternworldlearnedoftheislands’existence.Thearrivalofwesternvisitors,orri-paellesinMarshallese(literally,”peoplewithclothes”)wasanythingbutbenign.ThroughoutMicronesia,westernvisitorsdisrupted,andindeliblychanged,theislands:EarlyEuropeanexplorers,missionaries,seacaptains,traders,navalofficers,andmapmakersgavenamestotheseislandsthatcommemoratedtheirownsovereigns,ships,nativelands,orthemselves.Throughthesebestowalsofnamesandaccompanyingactsofdescrip-tion,theothernessoftheislandsandtheirpeoplewasrenderedintermsthatwerefamiliar,intelligible,andencouragingtothosewithanexpansionistagenda….[V]iolence,domina-tion,exploitation,andracismwouldallcharacterizetovaryingdegreesthetenuresofeachmetropolitanpowerthatgovernedMicronesia….Eachcolonisingnationwouldattempttojustifyandenhanceitsrulethroughritualsofpossession,denigratingdescriptionsofMicro-nesiansocieties,theusurpationofindigenouspoliticalauthority,andthepromotionofalien,disruptivesystemsofreligion,education,andeconomy.(Hanlon1994:93)Despitethedamagingaspectsofcolonialdomination,colonialpowerslargelyover-lookedanyinconveniencesorhardshipsresultingfromtheiroccupation.Duringthisera,colonizersproclaimedtheywerebestowingonlocalMicronesianpopulationsalltheben-efitsofcivilization,includingeducation,healthcare,andwageemployment(Hezel1995).SpanishRuleIn1594,theTreatyofTordesillasgaveSpainownershipofalltheMicronesianislands.ThefirstknowncontactbetweentheEuropeansandtheMarshalleseoccurredin1529,however,whenSpanishexplorerAlvarodeSaavedrawentashoreonwhatweassumetobetheislandsonBikiniorEnewetakAtoll.Despitetheoccasionalvis-itsbySpanishexplorersinthesixteenthcentury,primarilytoexchangegoodsforwaterandsuppliesnecessarytosupportlongvoyages,thewesternworldhadnorealcontactwiththeMarshallIslands.CenturieslaterthestrategicpositioningoftheMarshallIslandsbetweenAsiaandtheAmericasmadeitanimportantrestingandrefuelingstopfortranspacificships.Asdiscussedlater,thispositioningwasanassetcriticaltothedefenseinterestsoftheU.S.16

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS17government.In1788,JohnMarshall,aBritishcaptainandthenamesakeofthenation,andThomasGilbert,thenamesakeoftheneighboringGilbertIslands,arrived.MarshallandGilbertstoppedintheislandsduringtheirvoyagetotransportconvictstoAustralia.Afterthisencounter,theMarshallIslandsbegantoappearonEuropeanmaps.Inthemid-l850s,AmericanProtestantmissionariesarrived,oftenaccompaniedbyconvertednativeHawaiians,whomorecloselyresembledtheMarshallesethandidtheAnglo-AmericanmissionariesandwhowereinstrumentalinhelpingconvincetheMarshallesetoembraceChristianity.Themissionariespermanentlyalteredtraditionalsociety,asthey”convertedtheMarshalleseingreatnumbers,leavingthemwithanestablishedchurchheadedbyordainedMarshalleseministers,atasteforformaleduca-tion,andasenseofmodestyindressthatwasmuchlikethemissionaries’own”(Hezel1995:45).AlthoughsomepopulationsintheMarshallIslandsinitiallyresistedmis-sionization,suchasthepeopleofMiliwhofoughtandkilledmanymissionaries,tothisdayapproximately99percentoftheMarshallesepopulationremainsChristian.ThemissionizationoftheMarshallIslandswassocompletethatonlyasmatteringofevidenceofthetraditionalreligionremains,andfewislandersevenrememberthatitexistedbeforecontactwiththemissionaries.AcenturyaftertheinitialAmericanmission-ariesarrived,theU.S.governmentwouldinvokethenameofGodasameanstopersuadetheMarshallesepeopleoftheimportanceofusingtheirlandfornuclearweaponstests.GermanRuleGermancommercialinterestsintheMarshallIslandsgreatlyimpactedthenation.ThemostprofoundshiftinthemodemeconomyoccurredduringtheGermanadministra-tion.Bythe1870sand1880s,GermantradersandtheGermannavybeganlarge-scaletradingoperations.GermanysecuredtheexclusiveuseoftheharboratJaluitAtollandspecialtradingprivilegesintheRalikchainofislandsbyconcludinga”treaty”withapowerfulchiefin1878.In1885,theMarshallIslandsbecameaGermanprotectorate.GermanruleoftheMarshallIslandswasindirect.Thechiefsretainedtheirpower,andtheGermansactedprimarilyasadministratorsoftheislands.Inthisregard,theearlycolonizersfurtherstrengthenedthepowerofthechiefsbyhelpingthemgainaccesstowesterngoodsandcashwithoutrequiringthechiefstorelinquishtheirpolit-icalstructuretoforeignoccupants(Hezel1995).TheearlyeconomyoftheMarshallesewasbasedoninterislandandinteratollexchange.Betweentheatolls,peopletradedfood,suchaspreservedarrowrootandpandanus.Withinislandcommunities,peopleworkedcollaborativelyandlivedsus-tainablyfromtheresourcesprovidedbytheirlocalenvironment.TheGermans’mainobjectiveintheMarshallIslandswastheeconomicexploitationofcopra,ordriedcoconutmeat,aproductusedtomakeoils,soaps,andshampoos.Germantradersclearedbreadfruitandfood-producingtreesandencouragedtheMarshallesetoplantcoconuttreesoneveryisland.TheMarshalleseharvestedthecoco-nutsandprovidedcopratotheGermansforexport.Asystemofwagelabortookholdthroughthecopraindustry.Otherthantheinfrequentandinformalexchangeswithships,thiswasthefirsttimetheMarshallIslandsbecameaparticipantintheworldeconomy.ManyMarshalleseidentifytheeraofGermanruleasthebeginningofashiftfrom

18CHAPTER2communalandfamily-orientedself-sufficiencytoindividualincomegeneration.Today,copraremainstheprimarysourceofrevenuefortheMarshalleseresidingontheouterislands(areasotherthanthetwourbancentersofMajuroandEbeye).Thepriceofcopraisverylow,andouterislandresidentsworkextremelyhardforlittlemoney.JapaneseRuleDuringWorIdWarI,JapancapturedtheMarshallIslandsfromGermanyandassumedauthorityovertheislands.Japan’sinvolvementintheMarshallIslandswasmuchmoredirectthanthatofitspredecessor.TheJapanesehadfourspecificgoalswithregardtoitsislandterritory:”economicdevelopmentandexploitation,colonizationforJapaneseemigration,integrationwithJapan,andmilitarization”(U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior1987:336).By1938,JapanconsideredtheMarshallIslandsaclosedmilitaryareaandrestrictedforeigners’movementintheterritory.TheMarshallesedescribetheJapaneseregimeasstrict,buteffective:theJapanesebuiltschoolsandroadsandprovidedformaleducationtotheMarshallese.WiththeonsetofWorIdWarITandtheneedtoprotectitsislandterritory,theJapa-neseadministrationoftheislandschangedfromciviliantomilitary.UnderJapanesemilitaryoccupation,theMarshallesesufferedgreatly.TheU.S.militarycutofffoodshipmentstoJapaneseislandstrongholds,causingstarvationfortheJapaneseandMarshalleseresidents.StarvationwasparticularlypronouncedontheatollsofMili,Figure2.1AnAmericanGlofferswatertoaMarshallesewoman.

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS19Maloelap,andWotje,wheretheJapanesebasedtheirtroops.TheJapanesegatheredallexistingfoodresourcesfortheirownuse,whiletheMarshallesewerestarvingasaresultofthemeagerrationstheyreceivedandwerehung,beaten,andevenbeheadedforattemptingtostealorclimbtreesatnightinsearchoffood.TheJapaneseforbadetheMarshallesefromtakingevenasinglecoconutorothermorseloffoodfromtheirtrees.In1942,theMarshallIslandsbecameafiercebattlegroundastheAlliesbegantoattacktheJapaneseforces.ManyMarshalleseservedasscoutstohelptheUnitedStatesplanstrategicattacksagainsttheJapanese.TheUnitedStatesrepeatedlybombedtheislandsandatollswheretheJapanesepositionedtheirdefenses.Duringthebombing,manyMarshalleselosttheirlives,andentireMarshallesevillagesburned(Figure2.1).By1944,theUnitedStatessuccessfullydefeatedJapan,andtheAlliedforcesseizedcontroloftheMarshallIslands.u.s.NAVALADMINISTRATIONOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDSAftertakingcontroloftheMarshallIslandsfollowingthewar,theU.S.Navyimme-diatelyunderstoodthegeographicandstrategicimportanceofthearea.FromaU.S.militaryperspective,thegeographicisolationoftheMarshallIslandswasideal,pro-tectingU.S.governmentactivitiesfromthescrutinyofboththeSovietUnionandtheAmericanpublic.DuringtheheightoftheColdWarandthecompetitionbetweentheAmericansandtheRussianstodevelopandtestnuclearweapons,theMarshallIslandsprovidedanideallocationtoconducttopsecretexperiments,whilesimulta-neouslyensuringtightcontrolovereveryonewhoenteredthetestingarea.Inadditiontoitsisolation,theMarshallIslandswasthousandsofmilesawayfromtheUnitedStates.Bytestinghigh-yieldweaponsintheMarshallIslands,theU.S.governmentcouldreduceradiationexposureforAmericancitizensandallaycriticismaboutcontinuedexperimentaltestinganditsradiationhazardsintheUnitedStates.TheU.S.governmentultimatelytestedonehundredtimesmoremegatonsofexplosivesintheMarshallIslandsthanitdidattheNevadatestsite.InAugust1945,soonaftertheU.S.governmentclaimedcontroloftheMarshallIslandsandjustbeforethebattleinthePacificdrewtoaclose,U.S.warplanesdroppedatomicbombsonthepopulationsofHiroshimaandNagasaki,Japan.Instantly,theheatofthebombsincineratedthousandsofpeople,andfireravagedthetwocities.Manysurvi-vorssufferedordiedfromradiation-relatedillnesses(seeChapter9formorediscussion).TheU.S.governmentmaintainedthattheatomicweaponswerenecessarytoputanendtothewar.HistoriansnowknowfromrecentlydeclassifieddocumentsthatdroppingthebombsonHiroshimaandNagasakiwasunnecessarytowinningthewarbecausetheU.S.governmentalreadyknewthattheJapaneseplannedtosurren-der(Alperovitzetal.1996).WorldWarIIandtheJapaneseenemyprovidedanopportunityfortheUnitedStatestotestitsnuclearweaponsforthefirsttimeoncivil-ianpopulations.Untilthistime,theU.S.governmenthaddetonatedonlyonebomb,Trinity,intheNewMexicodeserttomakesurethenewweaponwouldwork.DespitethedestructivecapacityoftheatomicbombswitnessedinJapan,theUnitedStatesdidnotfullyunderstandtheeffectsoftheseweaponsonhumanbeings,

20CHAPTER2infrastructure,ortheenvironment.HiroshimaandNagasakiansweredsomeimmediatequestionsaboutthedestructivenessofnuclearbombs,butotherquestionsremained.Togainabetterappreciationofitsnewestweapon,theU.S.governmentturnedtoitsnewlyacquiredterritory,theMarshallIslands.ThegeographicisolationandsparsepopulationoftheMarshallIslands,coupledwithtightcontroloverentryandexitpoliciesintheterritory,madeiteasyfortheU.S.governmenttoconducttopsecretactivitiesintheislands.In1946,whiletheMarshallIslandswasstilladministeredbytheU.S.Navy,PresidentHarryTrumanauthorizedanucleartestingprogram.Subsequently,U.S.Navyofficersmetwiththepeopleandlea-dersofBikiniAtollandrequestedpermissiontousetheirhomeislandstotestatomicweapons.TheU.S.governmentinvitedphotographers,journalists,andHollywoodfIlmcrewstoBikinitorecordU.S.NavyCommodoreBenH.Wyatt’srequesttotheBiki-nians.AccordingtotheaccountsofWyatt’sinteractionswiththeBikinians:ChurchserviceshadjustendedwhenWyattarrivedtomeetwiththepeople,whosatcross-leggedonthegroundunderBikini’scoconutpalmsneartheirthatched-roofvillage….TheNavyreported[:]”Itwasanhistoricoccasion,thisimpactoftheaccumulatedscientificknowledgeofcenturiesuponaprimitivepeople,anditwasstagedwithsincerityandpoise.”WyattknewhowtoappealtotheBikinians.HedrewupontheBible,thecommondenom-inatorbetweentheBikiniansandtheAmericans,anddeliveredashorthomily.AccordingtoWyatt’sownaccount,he”comparedtheBikinianstothechildrenofIsraelwhomtheLordsavedfromtheircommonenemyandledintothePromisedLand.”Hedescribedthepoweroftheatomicbomband”thedestructionithadwroughtupontheenemy,”andhetoldthepeoplethattheAmericans”aretryingtolearnhowtouseitforthegoodofmankindandtoendallworldwars.”TheNavyhadsearchedtheentireworldforthebestplacetotestthesepowerfulweapons,andBikiniwasit.Wyattthenasked,”WouldJudaandhispeoplebewill-ingtosacrificetheirislandforthewelfareofallmen?”(WeisgalI1994:107)InresponsetoCommodoreWyatt’srequest,Juda,adescendantofthebloodlinethatsettledBikiniAtoll,indicatedthattheUnitedStatescouldusetheislands.WhenJudastatedtoCommodoreWyattandthefilmcameras,”MenotemjejrejpeditopeinAnij,”or”EverythingisinGod’shands,”heexpressedhisfaithinGodtoleadtheBikinians.TheMarshallesecreditAmericanProtestantmissionarieswithbringingmeram,or”enlightenment,”totheislandsbyendingthewarringandfightingbetweenatollpopulationsandteachingthepeopletoembracethevaluesintheBible.SincethemissionariesthatcametotheislandswereAmericans,theUnitedStates’requestforassistancetohelppromoteworldpeacehadcredibilitywiththeMarshallese.TheBikinianswantedtomakeasacrificethatwouldhelptheUnitedStatesandallofhumankind.Furthermore,theBikinianssawtheUnitedStatesasafriendandallyafteritliberatedthemfromthebrutalJapanesemilitaryregime.HonoringarequestbytheUnitedStateswasonewaytoexpressappreciation(Almej1999).TheU.S.governmentevacuatedtheBikiniansfromtheirhomeislandsinMarch1946inpreparationforthefirsttests.OperationCrossroadswasthenameselectedforthishighlypublicizedseriesofweaponstests.ThenamereflectsahistoricjuncturefortheUnitedStatesinthedevelopmentofnuclearweapons.OperationCrossroadsconsistedoftwoatomictests:TestAble,anairdropoverBikinionJune30,1946,andTestBaker,anunderwatertestdetonatedinBikini’slagoononJuly24,1946.The

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS21U.S.governmentplacedninety-fivevessels,includingdecommissionedAmericanaircraftcarriers,capturedJapanesebattleships,andaGermancruiser,inBikini’slagoonbeforethetests.Researchersstrappedpigs,rats,sheep,andgoatstotheves-selstoseehowtheywouldwithstandtheblasts.ShotAblemissedthetargetbyahalfmileandonlysankafewships.TheBakershot,detonatedninetyfeetbelowthewater,sentalargeplumeofradioactiveseawaterintotheairandsankmanyships(Figure2.2).Observersofthetestsonnearbyshipscouldhearthefaintcriesoftheanimalsinthedistance(Welsome1999:172).Hoursafterthetests,fifteenthousandAmericansoldierswentbacktoBikini’slagoontosurvey,handscrub,anddecontam-inatetheships(Figure2.3).TheseAmericansoldierswerethefirstgroupexposedtodangerouslevelsofradiationfromthetestingprogramintheMarshallIslands.DuringOperationCrossroadsandeachsubsequenttestseries,theU.S.govern-ment’sabilitytomaintainsecrecyandrestrictaccessensuredthatonlyU.S.governmentscientists,researchers,andcontractorshadaccesstothetestsitesorthehighlyconfiden-tialdataabouttheeffectsofthetests.ThefewjournalistsallowedtowitnesstheeventssubmittedtheirstoriesforapprovalbyU.S.governmentofficialsbeforebeingpermittedtocirculatethem.Throughoutthetestingprogram,theU.S.governmentdidnotshareevenbasicinformation-suchasthenumberoftests,theiryields,andthepathofthefalloutcloudsforeachtest-withtheMarshal1esepeople,theAmericanpublic,ortheinternationalcommunity(Barker1997).Figure2.2BakershotsinkingshipsinBikini’slagoon.

22CHAPTER2Figure2.3Todecontaminatethemselves,U.S.governmentworkersscrubwithTidedetergent.ItwasnotuntilJuly1947,afullyearafterOperationCrossroads,thattheMarshallIslandsofficiallybecameatrustterritoryoftheUnitedStates.Intheshuf-flingofnationalandpoliticalboundariesafterWorldWarII,theUnitedNationsestablishedeleventrustterritories.TheTrustTerritoryofthePacificIslands(TIPI),whichincludedtheMarshallIslands,wastheonlytrusteeshipdesignatedasa”strategic”territory.ThetermsofthetrusteeshipgrantedbytheUnitedNationsrequiredtheUnitedStatestopromotethehealthandwell-beingofthecitizensofthetrustterritoryandto”protecttheinhabitants[ofthetrustterritory]againstthelossoftheirlandsandresources”(UNTrusteeshipCouncil1958).Despiteitspromisestocareforthepeopleandtheirland,theUnitedStatesdeter-minedthatthestrategicdesignationenabledtheuseofitstrustterritoryforclosedmilitaryoperations.From1946to1958,theU.S.governmentdetonatedsixty-sevenatomicandthermonuclearweaponsintheair,ontheland,andintheseassurroundingtheMarshallIslands.Sixofthesedetonationscompletelyvaporizedcoralislandsthatnolongerexisttoday;giantcratersinthelagoonsofBikiniandEnewetakAtollsbearthescarsmarkingthelocationswhereislandsoncestood(Figure2.4).EighteenofthetestsdetonatedintheMarshallIslandswereinthemegatonrange.Nearly80percentofalltheatmospherictestseverconductedbytheUnitedStatestookplaceintheMarshallIslands.Thirty-threeoftheweaponstestsinthe

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS23II11_..~~…””_'”‘_1Figure2.4AcraterfromaweaponstestonBikiniAtoll.MarshallIslandsindividuallyhadgreateryieldsthanthelargestatmospherictestconductedbytheU.S.governmentinNevada(0.deBrum1999).InthecaseoftheBravotest,theforceoftheexplosionpulledthecrushedcoralofvaporizedislandsandthesurroundingwaterintothegiantmushroomcloudsthatgrewtotwenty-fivemilesindiameter.Crushedcoralandwatermixedwiththeradioactiveparticlesreleasedintheblastfelltothegroundintheformofradioac-tivefallout.ScientistsmonitoredthemovementofradiationfromtheMarshallIslandsastheatmospherecarriedittoneighboringcountriesinthePacific-andtoeverycontinentintheworld.Onalocallevel,theforceofnumerousblastsobliteratedlandsandnaturalresourcesthatthepeopledependedonforsurvival.TheradiationreleasedfromthetestsexposedeveryatollintheMarshallIslandstoradiation.Thelevelsofradiationwerehighest,however,inthenorthernatollsclosesttotheground-zerolocations.WhenradioactiveashfellonislandsinhabitedbyMarshallesepeople,theyinhaledradiationintotheirlungs.Inareaswherefalloutwassevere,radioactivefalloutstucktothesun-protectingandsofteningcoconutoilpeopleappliedtotheirskinandhair.TheMarshallesehadheardaboutsnowfromtheirforeignoccupiers,buthadneverseenit.Whentheradioactiveashfelltotheground,childrenthoughtitwassnow.Theyplayedwithandevenatetheash.AtnotimedidtheU.S.governmentwarncommunitiesaboutthedangersoffalloutorinstructthemaboutsimplesafetyprecau-tionssuchasstayingindoorsandavoidingcontactwithorconsumptionoftheash.Inadditiontothedirectinhalationoforexposuretoradiation,theMarshallesepeo-pleateanddrankfoodandwatertaintedbyradiationasthefalloutcontaminatedresourcesandenteredthefoodchain.Consequently,thehealthofthepeoplewasharmed

24CHAPTER2notonlyfromdirectexposuretoradiation,butalsofromlivingoncontaminatedislandswhereradiationtaintsthewaterandfoodchain.Manyofthenorthemmostislandsremaintooradioactivetodayforpeopletoliveonorsubsistdirectlyfromlocalfoods.Althoughitisdifficulttopinpointexactlywhichhealthproblemsresultfromradiationexposure,itisclearthattheintroductionofradiationintotheMarshalleseenvironmenthascausednumerousandpreviouslyunheardofhealthproblems,suchasanarrayofcancersandthyroiddiseases.RadioactivefalloutexposedtheMarshallesepeopleandtheirenvironmenttodangerouslevelsofradiationandconsequentlyalteredthehealth,economy,culture,nutrition,andwell-beingoftheislandersinthedecadesthatfollowed.PopulationsrelocatedfromtheirhomeislandsbytheU.S.governmentexperi-encedadifferentsetofhealthproblemslinkedtonutritionandlifestyle.Ifpeoplecouldnotcultivatelocalresourcesintheirnewlocation,theyreceivedfoodsubsi-dies,suchascannedgoodshighinfatandsodium.Asaprecautioninconductingsmallertests,theU.S.governmentinitiallyevacu-atedtheMarshalleselivingdownwindfromthetestsites.Whenthedaycametotestthelargestthermonuclearweaponever,theBravoshot,theU.S.governmentdidnotevacuateMarshallesecommunitiesdespiteknowingthatthewind,whichwouldcarryradioactivefalloutfromthedetonation,wasblowingdirectlytowardinhabitedislands.ThegovernmentoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)believesitwasnoaccidentthattheU.S.governmentpurposefullylefttheMarshallesepeopleinharm’swayandexposedthemtoradioactivefallout(T.deBrum1994).Designedtoproduceasmuchlocalfalloutaspossibleforscientificpurposes,theBravoshotwastheequivalentofmorethanonethousandHiroshima-sizedbombs.Bypromisingtokeepfalloutinthelocalarea,researchershelpedallayinternationalcriti-cismaboutthelevelsofworldwidecontamination(AtomicEnergyCommission1954).Despiteeffortstolocalizethefallout,radiationfromtheBravotestspreadthroughouttheworld.OnescientistfoundradioactivityinthethyroidglandofaslaughteredsteerthatgrazedongrassinMemphis,Tennessee.Thescientistsuspectedthatradioactivityinthesteer’sthyroidcamefromfalloutproducedintheMarshallIslands.Themonitoringofthousandsofthyroidglandsofslaughteredsteerscon-firmedhishypothesis:”Weknewinoneweektheentirecountry[theUnitedStates]wascontaminated….Nobodybelievedyoucouldcontaminatetheworldfromonespot”(Middlesworth,quotedinWelsome1999:303).NobodytoldtheMarshalleseabouttheeffectsofBravointheirownnation,letaloneitseffectsworldwide.Basedonunmistakablesignsthattheirislandswerebecomingcontaminatedbythenuclearweaponstests,theMarshallesepeoplepetitionedtheUnitedNationsin1954andin1957toaddresstheproblemscausedbythetesting.EarliertheMarshallesehadvoicedtheirconcernstotheadministratorsofthetrustterritory,buttheU.S.governmentdidnotrespond.TheonlyotherplacetheMarshallesecouldvoicetheirconcernswastheUnitedNations.The1957petitionexpressedtheMarshallesepeople’sconcernaboutdamagetotheirhealthandthelong-termimplicationsofbeingremovedandlivingawayfromtheirhomeislands:We,theMarshallesepeople,feelthatwemustfollowthedictatesofourconsciencestobringforththisurgentpleatotheUnitedNations,whichhaspledgeditselftosafeguardthelife,

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS25liberty,andthegeneralwell-beingofthepeopleoftheTrustTerritory,ofwhichtheMarshallesepeopleareapart….TheMarshallesepeoplearenotonlyfearfulofthedangertotheirpersonsfromthesedeadlyweaponsincaseofanothermiscalculation,buttheyarealsoveryconcernedfortheincreasingnumberofpeoplewhoarebeingremovedfromtheirland….LandmeansagreatdealtotheMarshallese.Itmeansmorethanjustaplacewhereyoucanplantyourfoodcropsandbuildyourhouses;oraplacewhereyoucanburyyourdead.Itistheverylifeofthepeople.Takeawaytheirlandandtheirspiritgoesalso….(UNTrusteeshipCouncil1958)WilliamLodge,theU.S.ambassadortotheUnitedNations,askedtheSecretaryGen-eralnottointroducethe1957MarshallesepetitiontotheUnitedNationsuntilaftertheUnitedStatescompleteditslasttestingseriesin1958(Lodge1958).TheSecretaryGen-eralagreed,andtheUnitedNationsconsideredtheMarshallesepetitionfouryearsaftertheMarshallesefirstusedpoliticalchannelstocomplaintotheUnitedNationsabouttheeffectsofthetestingprogram.Asthecolonialadministratorofthetrusteeship,theU.S.governmentstillspokefortheMarshallIslandsattheUnitedNations,andtheMarshal-lesewerepowerlesstostopthedestructionrenderedagainstthemandtheirislands.TheMarshalleselanguage,likeotherlanguages,reflectsthehistoryofitsspeakers(Ngugi1986).AsdiscussedinChapters6and7,thesenseofpowerlessnessandtheactiveresistancetoU.S.governmentdominationandcontrolofthetestingagendaareevi-dentintheMarshalleselanguage.TheabusesandradiationexposuresimposedontheMarshallesebytheU.S.governmentledtotheselectivevictimizationoftheMarshallesepeople,apopulationthattheU.S.governmentconsideredexpendableandnotasimportantasthepursuitofU.S.governmentstrategicinterests(Johnston1994).Thissenseofvic-timizationisevidentinthelanguageoftheradiationpopulations,whousetheirspeechtodescribetheeventstheywitnessedandcontinuingchangestotheirhealthandenviron-ment.Thevictimizationthatpeoplefeltduringthetestingprogram,however,nowisgivingwaytoalocaldesireamongmanywhowereprofoundlyaffectedbyradiationtoreassertcontroloftheirlivesandbuildstrongercommunities.Inrecentyears,theMarshallesehavebecomeincreasinglyeffectiveatlearninghowtoinfluenceU.S.governmentpolicyonradiationissuesbylobbyingCongressandworkingdirectlywiththeexecutivebranch.THEARRIVALOFANTHROPOLOGISTSMuchofmyworkasananthropologistintheMarshallIslandsisinfluencedbypreced-inganthropologists.Goodorbad,thecommunitieswhereweworkformulateopinionsaboutanthropologistsbasedonourcolleagues’previousactionsandresearch.Ofcourse,peopleunderstandthedifferencesbetweenindividualanthropologists,butwearealljudgedaccordingtoourcollectivereputationaswell.Asanthropologists,wehaveseveralobligations:frrst,andmostimportantly,tothecommunitieswhereweworkandalsotoourcolleagues.Inthissection,Iwillreviewtheworkofanthropologistsonnuclearweaponstestinganddiscusstheimportanceofappliedanthropologyasanempowermentmechanismforcommunities.AnthropologyduringtheTimeoftheTrusteeshipFromthemomentitbecameinterestedintheMarshallIslandsfromastrategicperspec-tive–evenbeforetheMarshallIslandsbecameapartofthetrustterritory-theU.S.

26CHAPTER2governmentemployedanthropologiststolearnmoreaboutthepeopleandtheculture.In1943,anthropologistWilliamKreigerproducedawarbackgroundstudyfortheSmithsonianInstitutionthatdetailedlocalpowerstructuresandgavetheU.S.militaryclearexamplesforthebestmeanstoworkwithandgaincontrolovertheMarshallese.UnderstandingofthepsycheandsocialorganizationoftheMarshallesehelpedAmeri-canforcesgaintheircooperationinweakeningthegripofJapaneseforces.AfterWorldWarII,theU.S.governmenttriedtouseanthropologicalresearchtodemonstrate”scientifically”theprimitivismofthepeopleandcreateajustifica-tionforitscontrolandadministrationofthearea.Thus,thetaskofearlyanthropol-ogists,mostlyAmericans,hiredtoworkintheMarshallIslandswastojustifyU.S.colonialism(Hanlon1994).TheU.S.governmentemployednumerousanthropologistsinthePacificregion.MargaretMeadcollaboratedwiththeU.S.militaryandexertedatremendousinfluenceonanthropologyintheregion.MeadchallengedantinuclearsentimentsintheUnitedStatesandbelievedthatthewesternizationandmilitarizationofthePacificwerethebestavenuesformodernizingtheregion(GilliamandFoerstel1992).TheU.S.ArmyaskedMeadtoproduceknowledgeaboutthepeopleandtheircultureforstrategicpur-poses(ibid.,127).IntheveinofMead,earlyanthropologistsinMicronesiahelpedpro-ducestudiesthatexplainedlocalpowerstructuresandthebestmeanstogainthecooperationoflocalpopulations.TheU.S.governmentneededMarshalleselabortoconstructbuildings,airfields,andinfrastructuretosupporttheweaponstesting.AnthropologistsinMicronesiaworkedwiththeU.S.militaryontwostrategicinitia-tives:inthelate1940s,theUnitedStatesCommercialCompanyconductedaneco-nomicsurveytoimprovethenavy’sabilitytoadministertheislands(Mason1989;Alcalay1992),andfrom1947to1959,thenavysponsoredaCoordinatedInvestigationofMicronesianAnthropology(CIMA),whichspreadthirty-fiveanthropologiststhroughoutMicronesiato”compil[e]basicscientificinformationontheislandsandto’providedatarelevanttothepracticalproblemsofadministeringtheareaanditspeo-ples'”(MarshallandNason,quotedinAlcalay1992:185).TheU.S.administratorsinthetrustterritoryassignedanthropologiststothedistrictandlocallevelstoserve”asintermediariesbetweentheMicronesiansandthe[U.S.g]overnment”(Mason1989:7).BecauseU.S.strategicinterestsinthetrustterritorycenteredonthenuclearweaponstestingprogram,mostoftheseanthropologistsworkedintheMarshallIslands.AftertheUnitedNationsplacedtheMarshallIslandsundertheadministrationoftheU.S.government,oneofthefirstanthropologiststoarrivewasJackTobin,whosejobwastopreparereportsfortheOfficeoftheHighCommissioneroftheTrustTerritoryofthePacific.Tobin’sworkfocusedonthesociopoliticalandlandtenureproblemsresultingfromdisplacement.ThepeopleofBikini,forexample,refusedtorecognizetheirparamountchiefsrighttogovernonKili,theislandwherethecom-munityresettled,becausehedidnotownthelandonKili(Tobin1953).AstheBikinianscontestedtheauthorityoftheirchiefduringexile,TobinreportedtotheU.S.administeringauthoritythat”thepeoplehavedecidedthattheywillstayundertheU.S.government”(Tobin1953:22).TheU.S.governmentwasundoubtedlypleasedtolearnfromTobinthattheBikinianshadhandedoverthetraditionalcare-takingroleoftheirchief.

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS27AlexanderSpoehrandLeonardMasonwerealsoamongthefIrstanthropologistsonthegroundintheMarshallIslands.Mason’sresearchintotheeffectofdisplacementduetothenuclearweaponstestingalertedthehighcommissionerofthetrustterritoryaboutthenearstarvationoftheBikinicommunityaftertwoyearsoflivinginexileonRongerikAtoll.Masondocumentedanaccidentalfrrethatdestroyedcriticalfoodresourcesandtheextensiveuseoflimitedresourcesonasmall,confInedislandthatresultedinacriticalfoodshortage.Masonnotedthatinanattempttoavertstarvation,thedesperateBikiniansdestroyedalltheplantsonRongerikandchoppeddowncoco-nuttreestoeatthecore,orheart,ofthepalm(Mason1948).ItisalsonoteworthythataftertheiremploymentwiththeTrustTerritoryofthePacifIcIslands(TIPI)govern-mentended,bothTobinandMasonremaineddeeplyconcernedforthewell-beingoftheMarshallesepeopleforthedurationoftheirprofessionalcareers.Tobin’sandMason’semployer,theTIPIgoverningbody,wascontrolledbytheU.S.government,whichusedtheinformationgatheredintheirreportsforitsownpurposes.Inthiscase,theprimarypurposewastopursuetheU.S.government’sstra-tegicinterestsintheMarshallIslands.AlthoughTobinandMasonwerenotoffIciallysanctionedtopursuetheinterestsofthelocalpeopleastheygatheredinformation,bothbecamemastersoftheMarshalleselanguageanddevelopeddeeptieswiththelocalcommunities.Consequently,theybecameadvocatesforthelocalpeople.Mason’sreportaboutthenearstarvationoftheBikinians,forexample,convincedtheU.S.governmenttofIndanalternativelocationfortheBikiniansduringtheirexile.AftertheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramendedin1958,theU.S.gov-ernmentallowedanthropologistswithoutaffIliationstotheU.S.governmenttoentertheMarshallIslands.ByronBendermasterfullycompiledalistofMarshalleseplacenamesandtheirmeaningsandbecamethefIrstlinguisticanthropologisttoworkintheMarshallIslands.NancyPollockstudiednutritiononNamuAtoll.TheonlyanthropologisttoresearchanissuerelatedtothenuclearweaponstestingintheperiodbeforethetrusteeshipendedwasRobertKiste.Kiste’s1974monograph,TheBikinians:AStudyinForcedMigration,remainsaclassicforPacifIcscholars.Kiste’sresearchpoignantlyillustratesthepowerlessnessoftheBikiniansinthefaceoftheU.S.government’sstrategicandmilitaryinterestsandthesocial,cultural,political,andeconomicproblemsthatresultedwhentheU.S.governmentremovedaMarshallesecommunityfromitsland.Kisteshapedpeople’sunderstandingofthelong-termproblems-notjusttheimmediatethreatsfromradia-tionexposure–causedbythenuclearweaponstestingprogram.Tobin,Mason,andKistehelpedlaythefoundationforunderstandingthehumanconsequencesexperi-encedbythepopulationsdisplacedbytheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.AnthropologyinthePost-Trust-TerritoryEra!TherelationshipbetweentheU.S.andtheMarshallIslandsgovernmentsevolvedfromanunequaltrustterritoryrelationshiptoanindependentrelationshipbasedonfree’Thissectiondiscussesanthropologistsdoingworkrelatedtothenucleartesting.Itdoesnotincludeotheranthropologists,suchasJulieWalshKroeker,whoseworkonthepowerofchiefsandtheeduca-tionalneedsofMicronesianimmigrantsIgreatlyadmire.

28CHAPTER2association.AnthropologyintheMarshallIslandsalsoevolvedfromitscolonialori-ginstoindependentresearchandscholarship.LaurenceCarucci,forexample,spentseveraldecadesdocumentingthehardshipsandtransitionsoftheEnewetakcommu-nityasaresultofitsforcedresettlementtoUjelangAtollandthereturnofalargepor-tionofthecommunitytoEnewetak.ThepeoplefromEnjebiIslandofEnewetakAtollhavenotresettledtheirhomeislandduetohighlevelsofresidualradiologicalcontam-ination.ThisresettledcommunitylivesonRunitIsland,adjacenttoanuclearwastestoragefacilitythatcontainsradiologicaldebrisandcontaminatedsoilfromthetestingprogram.TheareasofEnewetakAtollwhereaportionofthepopulationhasreturnedwerescrapedofthetoplevelofsoil,includingthetreesandplants,inanefforttoreducehumanradiationexposure.CaruccialsoresearchedthechangesinChristmasritualsforthepeopleofEnewetakasaresultoftheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingpro-gram.Carucci’sresearchincludesdescriptionsoftraditionalChristmasdancesincor-poratingthemesaboutnuclearbombsormissiles,aswellaschangestothetraditionalholidaydietasaresultofU.S.governmentfoodsubsidiesprovidedtothepopulation.ThecommunitiesofBikini,Rongelap,Utrik,andEnewetakallreceiveU.S.govern-mentfoodassistanceeitherbecausethecropsontheiratollsremaintoocontaminatedforhumanconsumptionorbecausefoodsuppliesarelimitedintheareaswheretheU.S.governmentrelocatedthecommunities.Inthepost-trust-territoryera,theNuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT),establishedaspartofthenuclearsettlementprovisionoftheCompactofFreeAssociation(dis-cussedlaterinthischapter),providedanunexpectedandinterestingvenueforanthro-pologicalwork.TheNCTwasestablishedattheendofthetrustterritoryasanalternativetotheU.S.courtstoconsiderclaimsforpersonalinjuryandpropertydamagearisingfromthetestingprogram.LaurenceCarucci,NancyPollock,GlennAlcalay,BarbaraRoseJohnston,andI(asdiscussedinChapter5)allworkedasanthropologicalconsultantstotheNCT.Carucci’sparticipationinthefirstlandclaimdemonstratedtheroleanthropologistscanplayasculturalbrokers.CaruccilivedandworkedwiththeEnewetakpeopleformorethantwodecadesandhelpedtheNCTjudgesunderstandtheseverehardshipsencounteredbytheEnewetakeseasaresultoftheirdisplacementfromtheirhomeislands,theproblemstheyfacedduringtheirrelocation,andtheircurrentchallenges.Afterreturningtoaportionoftheiratoll,theEnewetakesestartedrebuildingtheircommunityfromscratch,implementingintensiveagriculturalprogramstorestorethesoilandtoplanttrees.Carucci,aswellastheattorneyfortheEnewetakese,DavorPevec,successfullypersuadedtheNCTtoaward$34milliontothecommunityforthehardshipsitenduredasaresultofthetestingprogram.AlthoughthejudgesmadetheawardtotheEnewetakese,theNCTcannotpaytheclaimantsthatawardbecauseofinsufficientfunds(seeChapter12).AllanthropologistsworkingfortheNCT,withtheexceptionofNancyPollock,workedforthelocalgovernmentsorthePublicAdvocatetohelparticulatethediffi-cultiesexperiencedbycommunitiesintheRMIasaresultoftheweaponstestingpro-gram.PollockservedasaconsultanttothePublicDefender.Astherespectivetitlessuggest,thePublicAdvocateadvocatesfortheinterestsoftheclaimantsandassiststhemwiththeircasesbeforetheNCT,whilethePublicDefenderprotectsthecorpusoftheNCT’sfundsbymakingsureclaimsarelegitimate.Althoughitisdifficulttounderstandhowananthropologistcouldundertakeresearchintendedtochallengethe

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS29claimsofradiationsurvivors,Pollock’sparticipationinthedeliberationsallowedtheNCTtoconductfairhearingsandtofullyconsiderthemeritoftheclaims.SimilarlytoCarucci,GlennAlcalaytranslatedhisdecadesofworkwiththeUtrikpeopleintoapowerfulcaseforcommunitydamagespresentedtotheNCT.AlcalaycompletedhistestimonytotheNCTin2002.Outofalltheanthropologiststhatresearchedissuesrelatedtotheweaponstestingprogram,Alcalayproducedthemostgroundbreakingwork.AsaPeaceCorpsvolunteer,helivedonUtrikfortwoyears.Helearnedthelanguageandtheculture,andhedevelopedadeeprapportwiththepeoplethatremainsongoing.ThePeaceCorpsassignedAlcalaytoUtrikduringthetimethattheU.S.DepartmentofEnergysentmedicalresearchersfromBrookhavenNationalLaboratorytostudytheeffectsofradiationexposureonhumanbeings.AlcalaygainedafirsthandunderstandingoftheU.S.government’sexploitationofthecommunityforresearchpurposesbyobservingtheU.S.government’sfailuretotranslateinformationaboutmedicalproceduresandtheirresultsforthecommunityortoobtaintheconsentofthepeoplefortheprocedures.TheseexperiencesledAlcalaytobecomeanadvocateforthecommunitiesmostaffectedbythetestingprogram.AfterreturningtotheUnitedStates,AlcalaysuccessfullyusedpoliticalchannelsandthemediatobringattentiontotheabusivepowerrelationshipbetweentheU.S.governmentandthepeopleoftheMarshallIslands.HeappearedbeforetheUnitedNationsanddiscussedtheinjusticeshewitnessed,andheassistedmajorAmericantelevisioncompaniesinputtingtogetherdocumentariesabouttherealconsequencesoftheweaponstestingprogram.Understandingthepowerofthemedia,AlcalayalsopublishedseveralarticlesabouttheU.S.government’scover-upofinformationintheMarshallIslands.Afterreceivingtrainingasamedicalanthropologist,Alcalaycon-ductedhisdissertationresearchontheincidenceofwomen’sreproductivehealthpro-blemsintheMarshallIslands.ThisresearchwasthefirsttochallengetheU.S.government’sinsistenceindenyingtheexistenceofsecond-generationproblemslinkedtoradiationexposureintheMarshallIslandsandthefirsttosystematicallydoc-umentthewidespreadextentofreproductiveabnormalitiesintheMarshallIslands.THEMOVETOWARDSELF-GOVERNANCETheMarshallIslandsremainedunderU.S.colonialcontrolthroughouttheweaponstestingperiod.Afterthetestingprogramendedin1958,Micronesiansdiscussedplanstoregaintheirautonomy.In1965,representativesfromalloftheTIPIislandsformedtheCongressofMicronesiatoprepareforgreaterself-governanceintheseislands.By1978,forty-eightdelegatesintheMarshallIslandsgatheredtowritethenation’sConstitution.ThePreambleoftheConstitutionreflectstheperse-veranceoftheMarshallesepeople,theirprideintheirislandtraditions,andtheirdifficultiesresultingfromcolonialcontrol,war,andnuclearweaponstesting:WE,THEPEOPLEOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS,…havereasontobeproudofourforefatherswhoboldlyventuredacrosstheunknownwatersofthevastPacificOceanmanycenturiesago,ablyrespondingtotheconstantchallengesofmaintainingabareexistenceonthesetinyislands,intheirnoblequesttobuildtheirowndistinctivesociety.Thissocietyhassurvived,andhaswithstoodthetestoftime,theimpactof

30CHAPTER2othercultures,thedevastationofwar,andthehighpricepaidforthepurposesofinter-nationalpeaceandsecurity.Allwehaveandaretodayasapeople,wehavereceivedasasacredheritagewhichwepledgeourselvestosafeguardandmaintain,valuingnothingmoredearlythanourrightfulhomeontheseislands.(Preamble,Section5.5)OnMay1,1979,MarshallesecitizensformedthegovernmentoftheMarshallIslands,andthenationbecameself-governing,althoughstillundertheauspicesoftheU.S.trusteeship.By1982,thecountrychangeditsofficialnametotheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands.THECOMPACTOFFREEASSOCIATIONAfterapproximatelyfifteenyearsofpoliticalstatusnegotiationsinvolvingtwoAmericanpresidentsandtheirrepresentativesandmorethanthirtyhearingsinbothhousesofCon-gress,theRMIandtheUnitedStatesredefmedtheirpoliticalrelationship.VotersintheMarshallIslandsapprovedtheCompactofFreeAssociationwiththeUnitedStatesin1983;threeyearslatertheU.S.CongressadoptedtheCompactasPublicLaw99-239,finallybringingtheCompactintoeffect.TheCompactrepresentedacriticaljunctureinreturningtheMarshallIslandstoinde-pendenceforthefirsttimeinmorethanfourhundredyears.BoththeUnitedStatesandtheMarshallIslandsunderstoodthatatrusteeshipnolongerservedtheirbestinterests.TheCompactalsocreatedanewcategoryofpoliticalaffiliationbetweennationscalledfreeassociation.ThisuniquerelationshipexistsbetweentheU.S.governmentandthreeofthenationstoemergefromtrusteeship:theRMI,theFederatedStatesofMicronesia(FSM),andPalau;thethreenationsarecollectivelyknownastheFreelyAssociatedStates(FAS).TheUnitedStateshasaclosermilitaryrelationshipwiththeMarshallIslandsthanitdoeswitheitheroftheothertwofreelyassociatedMicronesianstatesbecauseoftheU.S.Army’sleaseofKwajaleinAtoll.Noothernation,evenamongtheNATOallies,hasaclosermilitaryalliancewiththeUnitedStatesthantheMarshallIslands(Zackios2001).TheMarshallIslandsentrustsitsdefensewhollytotheUnitedStates.TheUnitedStatesalsomaintainsplenarypowerstoexerciseitsowndefenseintheMarshallIslands,covering750,000squaremilesofland,air,andoceanthatstrategicallysitbetweenAsiaandtheUnitedStates.MarshalleserecruitsserveineverybranchoftheU.S.armedservices,thoughtheyarenotcitizensoftheUnitedStates.TheRMIisfullyself-governingwithseparatenationalityandcitizenshipandisamemberstateoftheUnitedNations.Atthesametime,theCompactprovidesMarshallesecitizenswiththerighttoenter,live,work,andgotoschoolintheUnitedStates.The177AgreementThe177Agreement(Section177oftheCompact)isacriticalcomponentbecauseitaddressestheconsequencesoftheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.Underthe177Agreement,”[t]heGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesacceptsresponsibilityforcom-pensationowingtocitizensoftheMarshallIslandsforlossordamagetopropertyandperson…resultingfromthenucleartestingprogram”Accordingly,theU.S.govern-mentinitiallyprovidedtheMarshallIslandswith$150millionforallpast,present,and

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHAllISLANDS31futuredamagesandinjuriesresultingfromthenuclearweaponstestingprogram.The$150millionamountwasapoliticaldecision,notanamountbasedonactualdamagesandinjuries(Hills1999).Idiscussthisissueingreaterdetailinthenextchapter.AssistanceforRadiologicalProblemsbeyondthe177AgreementInadditiontotheprovisionsofthe177Agreement,theCompactagreestoprovidethepeopleofRongelapandUtrikwithamedicalcareprogramoperatedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE).HeretheU.S.governmentlegallydefinesitsresponsibilitiesinverynarrowterms,asevidentinthedeterminationofeligibilitytoparticipateintheDOEmedicalprogram,aswellasinthelimitationsitplacesongeographicareaslegallydefinedasexposedtoradiation.TheCompactrigidlyimposeslegaldefinitionsofexposurethatdirectlydeterminewhichMarshallesereceiveordonotreceivemedicalassistancefortheirradiation-relatedneeds.ThesectionoftheCompactpertainingtoagreementsbetweentheMarshallIslandsandtheUnitedStatesmentions”specialmedicalcareandlogisticalsupport”fromDOEforthepopulationdefinedas”exposed”toradiationfromthetestingprogram(Section103(h),Pub.L.No.99-239).Itlimitsthispopulationofpeopleexposedtoradi-ationto”theremaining174membersofthepopulationofRongelapandUtrikwhowereexposedtoradiationresultingfromthe1954UnitedStatesthermonuclear’Bravo’test”(ibid.).WhentheCompactcameintoeffectin1986,only174peopleoftheoriginal226peopleexposedtoradiationonRongelapandUtrikAtollsonMarch1,1954,remainedalive.Today,approximatelyonehundredofthosesurvivorsarealiveandeligi-bletoparticipateintheDOEmedicalprogram.TheDOEmedicalprogramwasnotanewcreationundertheCompact.Imme-diatelyfollowingthenear-lethalexposureoftheMarshallesefromtheBravotest,theAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC),thepredecessorofDOE,sentamedicalteamtotheMarshallIslands.AsshowninChapter4,thepeoplefromRongelapandUtrikwereunknowinglyenrolledinatopsecretmedicalresearchprogramtostudytheeffectsofradiationonhumanbeings.InadditiontoextendingtheoriginalDOEmedicalmonitoringprogramtothe”exposed”population,theCompactexpandedittoincludeacontrolpopulationof”unexposed”Marshallese.Beyondthemedicalprogram,theCompactalsorequiredDOEtoprovideanenvironmentalmonitoringprogramintheareaswithresidualradio-logicalcontamination.Forseveraldecades,LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryinCaliforniahasbeenDOE’scontractorfortheenvironmentalmonitoringprogram.KwajaleinandMutualSecuritiesTheRMI’sinvolvementinU.S.securitymatterswasnotlimitedtotheColdWar,asitcontinuestoplayacriticalroleinsupportingU.S.strategicinterests.Thebilateralrela-tionshipbetweentheRMIandtheUnitedStatesisbasedonanotionofmutualsecuri-ties:theUnitedStatesgainsmilitarysecurityfromtherelationship,andtheRMIgainseconomicsecurityintheformoffmancialassistancefromtheU.S.government.SpecificprovisionsoftheCompactattempttofostereconomicdevelopmentintheRMI,aconditionnecessarytosupportthesecurityrequirementsoftheUnitedStates.

32CHAPTER2FromaMarshalleseperspective,thisarrangementworksoutonlyifthetermsarefairforbothsides.KwajaleinlandownersbelievetheUnitedStatesbenefitsmorefromthecurrentrelationship.AlthoughseparatefromtheCompact,theUnitedStatesmaintainsaleaseagree-mentforKwajaleinAtoll,whichhastheworld’slargestlagoon,offeringaperfectlocationfortheU.S.Armytotestitsmissiledefensecapabilities.TheU.S.ArmyusestheRonaldReaganBallisticMissileDefenseTestSiteonKwajaleintoconductdevelopmentaltestingoftheaterandstrategicballisticmissilesandmissileintercep-tors,tosupportNASAspaceoperations,andtoassisttheU.S.spacecommandwithsatellitetrackingandsurveillance.SimilartoEnewetakandBikiniduringtheColdWar,KwajaleinAtollismilitarilyandstrategicallyimportanttotheU.S.government.OnOctober3,1999,theU.S.governmentlaunchedaballisticmissilewithamockwarheadfromVandenbergAirForceBaseinCalifornia;a”killvehicle”sentfromKwajaleinignoredadummytar-getandstrucktheintendedmissileat16,000milesanhour,1,400milesawayfromKwajalein.TheU.S.Armyconductedtwoadditionaltestssuccessfullyin2001andraisedtheBushadministration’sinterestincontinuingdevelopmentofamissiledefenseshield?InApril2011,amissilefromKwajaleinflyingtowardHawai’isuc-cessfullylocatedanddestroyedamissilelaunchedfromaU.S.navalship.InApril2003,theU.S.andRMIgovernmentsagreedtoextendtheeconomicpro-visionsoftheCompactofFreeAssociationtotheRMIforanadditionaltwentyyears.TheextendedeconomicsupportintherenewedagreementrecognizestheU.S.govern-ment’sinterestinensuringthestabilityoftheMarshallIslands,acomponentofU.S.militarysecurityintheregion.Theconcernforstabilityisparticularlyrelatedtoopera-tionsonKwajaleinAtoll,whichdependonthesupportoftheMarshallesepeople,alocalandhealthylaborforce,astablegovernment,andastrongbilateralrelationship.TheCompactextensionalsochangedsomeimmigrationrules-forexample,requiringcitizensoftheFAStocarrypassportstoentertheUnitedStates-andprovided”Com-pactimpact”money:$30millionannuallytoassistAmericanSamoa,Hawai’i,Guam,andtheNorthernMarianaIslandsinoffsettingtheimpactofFASimmigration.AtthebeginningofnegotiationstoextendtheCompact,theRMIgovemmentaskedtheU.S.governmenttorenegotiatetheleaseagreementforKwajaleinaswellasSection177provisionsdealingwithcompensation,buttheU.S.governmentdeniedtherequest,keepingKwajaleinasaseparatenegotiationandrefusingtostrengthenMarshalleserightstorequestgreatereconomicassistance.TheRMIgovernmenthadnooptionswhentheUnitedStatesdeniedtherequest,demonstratingthegreaterpowerthattheU.S.governmentmaintainseveninthepostcolonialera.TheeconomicsecuritytheRMIreceivedfromthefirstCompactwasscheduledtoterminateinOctober2003,whereastheU.S.government’srightstoKwajaleinweretocontinueuntil2016.InMay2003,theU.S.andRMIgovernmentsinitiallyagreedtoa$12millionannualleasepaymentthatwouldextendtheleaseuntil2066withan2Poradditionalinformation,seetheU.S.Army’swebsite,http://www.smdc.army.mi1lKMR.html.andJoannWypijewski,”ThisIsOnlyaTest,”Harper’sMagazine,December2001.

ACOLONIALHISTORYOFTHEMARSHALLISLANDS33optionforanadditionaltwentyyearsafter2066.DissatisfiedlandownersfromKwajaleinstatedthatamountwastoolowandrequested$18millionannually;theyalsoassertedthattheU.S.governmentneededtodomoretoimprovethehealth,economy,andeducationofEbeyeIsland,wheremostMarshallesewhoworkonthemissilebasereside.Foreightyears,theU.S.andKwajaleinleaderscouldnotreachagreement,butinMay2011,theKwajaleinlandownerscapitulatedandreceived$32inbackpay.AprovisionofthenewagreementrequirestheU.S.governmenttogivesevenyears’noticeifitplanstoterminatethelease.

3/Theu.s.NuclearWeaponsTestingProgramTHEOFFICIALU.S.GOVERNMENTACCOUNTOFTHEEVENTSAsdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,theU.S.governmentsuccessfullyconfineditsresponsibilityforradiation-relateddamagestofouratollsintheMarshallIslands.Atthetimeofthenegotiationstoterminatethetrustterritoryrelationship,theU.S.gov-ernmenthadcompletecontrolofallscientificandmedicalinformationrelatedtothetestingprogram.TheMarshallesedidnothaveanyscientistsordoctorsinvolvedinorknowledgeableaboutthetestingprogram.Asaresult,theU.S.governmenthadcom-pletepowertodefinetherangeoftheirdamagesandinjuries.InordertodevelopapositionontheconsequencesofthenuclearweaponstestingprograminpreparationfornegotiationoftheCompactofFreeAssociation,theU.S.governmentconductedaradiologicalsurveyofthefourteennorthernmostatollsintheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI).Thestudy,undertakenin1978,characterizedthenorthernatollsintermsofdegreesofradiationcontaminationandtheresultingrisksforhumanpopulationsthatresideontheatolls.TheCompactreferstothe1978surveyas”represent[ing]thebesteffortof..,[theU.S.]Government[to]accuratelyevaluateanddescriberadiologicalconditionsintheMarshallIslands…and[it]canbeusedfortheevaluationofthefoodchainandenvironmentandestimatingradiation-relatedhealthconsequencesofresidingintheNorthernMarshallIslandsafter1978″(177Agreement,Articlevm,Pub.L.No99-239).Inthe1978DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)report,theauthorsassignanumbertoeachofthefourteenatollareasstudiestoindicatethelevelofpersistentradiationtheyfound:a1indicates”theleastamountofradioactiveatoms”anda4represents”thelargestamountofradioactiveatoms”(Bair,Healy,andWachholz1982:9).Inthesur-vey,onlytheuninhabitedareasofBikini,Enewetak,andRongelapreceiveratingsof4.ThevillageareawheretheRongelapeseresettledin1957wasrated3,indicating”alargeramountofradiation”(ibid.).Usingthis1978survey,U.S.governmentnegotiatorssucceededincodifyingwithintheCompactanextremelynarrowparameterforU.S.governmentresponsibil-ity.TheCompactandthe177Agreementspecifiedonlyfouratollsthatwereaffectedbyradiation:Bikini,Enewetak,Rongelap,andUtrik.BikiniandEnewetakAtolls34

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM35experiencedseverecontaminationastheground-zerolocationforsixty-sixofthesixty-seventests.!TheU.S.governmentalsoacknowledgedthatfalloutfromtheBravotestin1954exposedresidentsofRongelapandUtrikAtolls;itcouldnotdenythathighlevelsofradiationexistedontheseatollsbecauseithadevacuatedalltheresidentsoftheseplacesafterBravoandenrolledtheminaprogramtostudytheeffectsofradiationonhumanbeings.Thedraftingandapprovalprocessofthe177Agreementwashighlycontentious.IndividualsinboththeRMIandtheUnitedStatesarguedthatitwasimportanttoacceptthe177AgreementinordertopreventadelayintheterminationofthetrusteeshipandtohaltclaimsbyindividualMarshallesecommunitiesinU.S.courts.Inthe177Agree-ment,theU.S.governmentagreedtoprovide$150millionasaone-timesettlementforallpast,present,andfutureconsequencesofthetestingprogram,afterwhichtheRMIhadtoabandonallclaimsinU.S.courts.Asanalternativetothecourts,the177Agree-mentestablishedaNuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT)intheMarshallIslandstoconsiderindividualclaimsforpersonalinjuryandpropertydamages.TheU.S.governmentpro-videdtheNCTwithover$45milliontomakeitsawards.InaJanuary2003report,Gov-ernorRichardThornburgh,theattorneygeneralunderGeorgeH.W.Bush,concludedthatthisamountwasmanifestlyinadequatetocoverthescopeofdamagesandinjuriesrecognizedbytheNCT.TheinitialmoneygiventotheNCTbytheU.S.governmentturnedouttobeinsufficienttopayforpersonalinjuryclaims,withnomoneyleftovertopayawardsmadebytheNCTforsubstantiallanddamageandlossofproperty.WhentheUnitedStatessetaside$150millionforthe177Agreement,itexpectedthattheRMIwouldestablishanendowmentfundthatwouldgenerate$270millionovertheinitialfifteenyearsoftheCompact.DuetopoormarketperformanceandinvestmentchoicesbytheAmericancompanythatmanagedthefund,itdidnotper-formaswellasexpectedandgeneratedlessmoneyforuseunderthetermsofthe177Agreement.Furthermore,theactualnumberofclaimsfiledwiththeNCTfarexceededinitialestimates.ThroughtheNCTprocess,peoplefromeveryatollintheMarshallIslands,notjustthosefromthenorthernareaadjacenttothetestingprogram,successfullydemon-stratedtotheNCT’sjudgesthattheyhadcontractedillnesseslinkedtoradiationexposure-presumablyasaresultofthetestingprogram.TheNCTcurrentlyrecognizesthirty-fiveillnessesaslinkedtoradiationexposure,includingavarietyofcancers,thy-roiddiseases,andskinorbonemarrowproblems(seetheAppendixforafullaccount-ingofradiologicalillnessesrecognizedbytheNCT).PeopleareeligibleforanawardiftheywerepresentintheMarshallIslandsduringthetestingprogramandcanprove,usuallyintheformofamedicalrecord,thattheyhavecontractedoneoftherecognizedradiationillnesses.Thesizeoftheawardrangesfromalowof$12,500forcertainthy-roiddisordersto$125,000formanyofthecancers.Apersonwhohascontractedmorethanoneillnessiseligibletoreceivecompensationintheformofmultipleawardsifthejudgesvalidatetheseparateclaims.OncetheNCTmakesapersonalinjuryaward,thatpersonbecomeseligibletoparticipateinthe177HealthCareProgram,aU.S.govern-ment-fundedgeneralhealthprogramoriginallysetupforthe”fouratolls.”ITheremainingtesttookplaceonabargeintheoceannearEnewetak.

36CHAPTER3InadditiontoestablishingandfundingtheNCT,the177Agreementprovides•$2millionannuallyforfifteenyearstoassistwithhealthcareservicesforthepeopleofEnewetak,Bikini,Rongelap,andUtrikandforNCTclaimantswhohavecontractedaradiation-relatedillness(anamountthatprovideslessthan$8perpatientpermonth),•$3millionformedicalmonitoringandsurveillance(aone-timeamountthathasalreadybeenspent),and•$183millioninpaymentsforclaimsfromthetestingprogram(allocatedtothecommunitiesonaquarterlybasisoverthefifteenyearsoftheCompact):•$75milliontothepeopleofBikini,•$48.75milliontothepeopleofEnewetak,•$37.5milliontothepeopleofRongelap,and•$22.5milliontothepeopleofUtrik.Manyofthecommunitiesmostaffectedbythetestingprogram,includingthefouratolls,feltbetrayedbytheRMlgovernment’sultimatedecisiontoacceptthe177Agreementbecausetheyvieweditaswoefullyinadequatetoaddressthefullscopeofdamagesandinjury.Thenationalgovernmentdetermined,however,thatithadcon-cludedthebestdealitcould,giventhecircumstancesandknowledgeatthetime.Iturgentlywantedtoconcludetheagreementtoendthetrusteeship.Toappeasecriticsofthesettlement,negotiatorsincludedtheChangedCircumstancesProvision,whichallowedtheRMltopetitionCongressforadditionalassistanceifitcouldproducenewinformationaboutthedamagesandinjuriesfromthetestingprogramandifthesenewdamagesandinjuriesrenderedtheinitial$150millionsettlementmanifestlyinadequate.THELIMITATIONSONU.S.GOVERNMENTRESPONSIBILITYThe1978surveypresentsradiationlevelsfromthattime.Itmakesnomentionofradiationlevelsduringthe1940sand1950s,whichwereattheirhighestwhenMarshallesepopulationslivedinthesurveyareas.DOE’sassertionofitspowertoconfinethediscussionofradiationexposuretonarrowparametersenabledtheDOErepresentativeworkingontheCompactnegotiationstoeffectivelyeraseU.S.gov-ernmentresponsibilityforacuteexposuresduringearlierdecadesandtoignoretheneedsofanycommunitiesbeyondthosethesurveyidentifiedasareasofconcern.WithintheMarshallIslands,thefouratollcommunitiesreceivingcompensationunderstoodthevalueofofficiallyminimizingthenumberofatollsaffectedbythetesting.ItcreatedapoliticalbenefitbyprovidingthemwithfundingandprogramsfromtheUnitedStates.IftheU.S.governmenthadrecognizedmorecommunitiesasaffectedbyradiation,thefouratollcommunitieswouldundoubtedlyhavereceivedlesscompensation.Thetestingprogramthuscreatedhavesandhave-nots,introduc-ingnewdivisionsandjealousiesthatdividedthenation.ThefouratollcommunitiesusedfinancialcompensationfromtheUnitedStatestohireAmericanlawyerstorepresenttheirinterests,therebyincreasingtheirpowerandinfluencerelativetootheratolls.Tothisday,thefouratollscontinuetocontractwith

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM37aggressivelawyersandlobbyistsonCapitolHillwholookoutfortheirbestinterests.Meanwhile,themajorityoftheatollpopulationsexposedtoradiation,andignoredbytheU.S.government,donothavethefinancialorhumanresourcestoforcefullybringtheirconcernstotheattentionofU.S.policymakers.MostoftheseatollcommunitiesdependontheRMIgovernmenttoassist.Communitiesnotincludedinthefour-atolldesignationhavenoprogramsaddress-ingresidualradiationintheirenvironmentandnorightstoreceivetreatmentformedi-calproblemsresultingfromradiationexposure.TheU.S.governmentmaintainsthatthe1978surveyprovidesthedefinitivescientificproofthatothercommunitiesdidnotreceiveharmfulexposuretoradiation.Incommunitiesbeyondthefouratolls,peopledescribetheradioactiveashthatfellontheirislands,buttheydonothavescientificdocumentsorknowledgetorefutethe1978surveyortovalidatetheirexposures.Inaddition,singlingoutfouratollsisproblematicbecauseitdefinesradiationcon-taminationintermsoffinite,geographicaldefinitionsofcommunities.TheCompactrefersonlytothepeoplewhoresidedonthefouratollsduringthetestingprogram.ThisdefinitionofatollcommunitiesconfinespeopletoasingletimeandplaceandignoresthemorefluidandculturallyappropriatedefinitionofcommunityintheMarshallIslands.PeoplemovethroughouttheMarshallIslandsconstantlytovisitfamilyandmakeuseofareaswheretheymaintainlandrights.Theymayvisitforafewdays,weeks,oryears.ThisconstantmovementofpeopleprovidestheMarshal-lesepeoplewithmultipleidentities.TheCompact’sfailuretoaccountforlandrightsonmultipleatollsandmovementofpeopleinandoutofthefouratollsandothercom-munitiesintheRMIisanotherreasonsforitsfailuretoprovideforandcompensateallpeopleaffectedbytheweaponstestingprogram.Peopleresidingonatollsinthesouthernareaofthecountrymaystillhavelandrightsonthefouratolls.Iftheywerenotresidingonthoseatollsduringthetestingpro-gram,theyarenotonlydeniedaccesstotheirlandandnaturalresources,butalsodonotreceivefoodsupportorotherU.S.governmentassistance.Someofthesepeoplemayhavelivedorworkedoncontaminatedlandsafterthetestingprogram,yettheycannotreceiveassistanceunlesstheylivedontheislandsduringthetesting.Inonecase,aMarshallesepastorandhisfamilymovedfromAmoAtollinthesouthoftheMarshallIslandstoliveandworkonRongelapAtollwhentheU.S.governmentinitiallyresettledthecommunityinahighlycontaminatedenvironment.AlthoughtheylivedwiththeRongelapcommunity,theydonothavelandrightsontheatoll.Asaresult,theyarenotentitledtothemedicalprogramsavailabletotheRongelapese,despitethefactthattheycontractedcancersandotherradiologicalproblemsafterprolongedresidence.OneofthemostpoignantexamplesofpeoplewhohavenorightstomedicalcareandyetreceivedhighlevelsofradiationexposureistheMarshallesecleanupworkers.Afterthetestingprogramended,theUnitedStatesattemptedtocleanupandrestoreBikiniandEnewetakAtolls.Thecleanupinvolvedremovingthetoplayerofsoilandcontaminateddebris-piecesofmetal,buildings,andotherrubblefromthestructureserectedforthetestingprogram-fromtheatolls.TheU.S.governmentcontractedwithMarshalleseworkerstodothework.Theseworkers,andsometimestheirfamilies,livedontheground-zeroatollsinthe1970sand1980swhentheselandswerestillhighlycontaminated.Theirjobsconsistedofbulldozingcontaminatedmaterialsintothe

38CHAPTER3~——————,—…d’…:…•.”‘””‘:”-•••••JiIII!!’l~••~’,’~>,.-,…Figure3.1RunitDomeonEnewetak…..JiIf’7:’~..~……”..’;~-~oceanor,inthecaseofRunitIslandonEnewetak,intoalargecraterhollowedoutbyoneofthetests;thecraterwasfinallycappedwithcementandcontinuestofunctionasanuclearwastestoragefacility(Figure3.1).Ground-movingactivities,particularlybull-dozing,weredangeroustotheworkers,astheybreathedinplutoniumparticlesreleasedfromthesoilintotheair.Plutoniumismostdangeroustohumanbeingswheninhaled.ManyMarshalleseworkersandtheirfamilieswhoresidedonBikiniandEnewe-takbecameillasaresultoftheirexposuretoradiation.FrustratedbytheirinabilitytogetmedicalcareorcompensationfromtheU.S.government,theworkerscreatedtheMarshallIslandsRadiationVictimsAssociation(MIRVA).TheU.S.governmentstillfailstorecognizetheplightoftheseMarshalleseworkers;MIRVAcontinuestorequestassistanceforitsmembers,althoughmanyofitsmostvocalmembershavedied.Asdiscussedlaterinthebook,manyothergroupsofpeopleexposedtoradia-tionremainoutsidethepurviewofU.S.governmentassistanceandrecognition.”Exposed”and”Unexposed”InthesamemannerthattheU.S.governmentusedthe1978surveytocontrolthenumberofatollsdefinedas”exposed”toradiation,itmaintainedcontrolofallinfor-mationaboutthemedicalconsequencesofradiationexposureintheMarshallIslands.Foryears,medicalpractitionersconductedexamsoftheevacuatedRongelapandUtrikpopulationswhilespeakinginEnglish,withouttheconsentoftheparticipantsandwithoutinformingpeopleabouttheirillnesses.TheU.S.governmentestablishedacontrolgroupof”unexposed”Marshalleseinordertocomparetheirincidenceofradiation-relatedillnesseswiththatofthesmallpopu-lationsfromRongelapandUtrikwhodirectlyexperiencedtheeffectsoftheBravotest

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM39onMarch1,1954.Somemembersofthecontrolpopulationresidedinthecapital,Majuro;theymatchedtheRongelapeseandUtrikesepopulationsbysexandage.OthermembersofthecontrolpopulationjoinedtheRongelapcommunityin1958whentheU.S.governmentresettledtheoriginalinhabitantsontheirhomeatoll.Themembersofthecontrolgroup,aswellastheoriginalinhabitants,lived,ate,drank,worked,andplayedinanareastillcontaminatedwithdangerouslevelsofresidualradiation.Overtime,the”unexposed”controlpopulationexhibitedthesametypesofill-nesses,suchasthyroidnodules,cancers,andreproductiveabnormalities,asthelegallyexposedgroupofRongelapese.From1954until1998,whentheDOEcontractorchanged,DOEsummariesofitsmedicalfindingsmaintainedthatthehealtheffectsofradiationexposureintheMarshallIslandswereminimalbecausethe”unexposed”controlgroupexperiencedthesamemedicalproblemsasthe”exposed”population.Inotherwords,DOEclaimedthatthemedicalproblemsexperiencedbythe”exposed”populationwerenothingoutoftheordinarysincetheyweresimilartoproblemsiden-tifiedinapopulationdefinedas”unexposed”toradiation(Conardetal.1965).Laterinthebook,IdiscusstheproblemsthatpeoplefacewhentheyareexposedtoradiationbutaredeniedmedicalcareandassistancefromtheU.S.government.DECLASSIFIEDU.S.GOVERNMENTDOCUMENTSIntheearly1990s,theU.S.mediaandtheCongressbecameconcernedaboutreportsthattheU.S.governmenthadconductedhumanradiationexperimentsduringtheColdWar.Consequently,in1994,PresidentClintoncreatedaWhiteHouseAdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperiments(ACHRE)withthischarge:”touncoverthehistoryofhumanradiationexperimentsandintentionalenvironmentalreleasesofradiation;toiden-tifytheethicalandscientificstandardsforevaluationoftheseevents;andtomakerecom-mendationstoensurethatwhateverwrongdoingmayhaveoccurredinthepastcannotberepeated”(ACHRE1995:1).Asaresultofitssearchforinformation,ACHREurgedtheU.S.governmenttodeclassifythousandsofdocumentsrelatedtohumanradiationexperi-ments.PresidentClinton’sSecretaryofEnergy,HazelO’Leary,releasedthenewlydeclassifieddocumentsfromheragencytothepublicaspartofan”opennessinitiative.”TheopennessinitiativeliterallyhandedovertotheRMIgovernmentthousandsofdocuments,allseenbytheMarshalleseforthefirsttime.ItwasmyjobtosiftthroughtheboxesofdocumentsthatbegantoarriveatthedoorstepoftheRMI’sembassyinWashington,D.C.Thedeclassifieddocumentsdemonstrate,withoutquestion,thatthelevelofdamagesandinjuryfromradiationwasmuchmorewidespreadthanpreviouslyclaimed.TheRMIgovernmenthasconclusiveevidencefromthesedocumentsthatatollsclassifiedas”unexposed,”suchasAiluk,Likiep,Wotho,Mejit,andKwajalein,receiveddangerouslevelsofradiation.Furthermore,thedocumentsshowthattheU.S.governmentknewaboutthehighexposuresreceivedbytheseatollsduringthetestingprogram,butdidnotprovidetheevacuation,cleanup,andmedicalcarewarrantedbytheexposure.InthecaseofAilukAtoll,adeclassifieddocumentstatesthatU.S.governmentofficialsmadeapurposefuldecisionnottoevacuateinhabitants,althoughtheyknewthattheatollreceivedsubstantialfalloutfromBravo:”Baseduponthebestestimateofthefallout

40CHAPTER3timeitwascalculatedthatadose…wouldreach20roentgens.Balancingtheeffortrequiredtomovethe400inhabitantsagainstthefactthatsuchadosewouldnotbeamedicalproblemitwasdecidednottoevacuatetheatoll”(U.S.AirForce1954).GiventhattheevacuatedpeopleofUtrikreceivedadoseofapproximatelyseven-teenroentgens,itisclearthattheU.S.governmentknewthattwentyroentgenswouldcreatemedicalproblemsforthecommunity.GroundandairsurveyorsthatwenttoUtrikaftertheBravotest”[d]ecide[d]toevacuat[e]baseduponthefactthatestimateddoseattimeofearliestevacuationwouldbe13r[oentgens]”(Deinesetal.1991).ThefailuretoevacuateAilukisalsotroublingbecausetheMaximumPermissibleExposure(MPE)foraU.S.servicemanintheRMIatthetimewas3.9roentgens.Clearly,adoublestandardwasatworkthatledtoahigherpermissibleexposureforMarshallesecitizens.WhatissaddestabouttheAilukdocument,however,isthattheU.S.governmentfoundittoomuchofan”effort”orburdentoremovefourhundredpeoplefromahighlyradioactiveenvironment.ThepeopleofAilukcouldhavebeensparedtremendoushealth,social,andenvironmentalburdensiftheU.S.governmenthadevacuatedthemfromtheircon-taminatedenvironmentandprovidedthemwithmedicalcareduringthelastsixdecades.SomeofthemoststartlinginformationinthedeclassifieddocumentspertainstotheweatherconditionsbeforetheBravotest;theextentofexposurefromtheBravoshotandothertests,suchastopsecretmedicalstudiesconductedontheradiationsurvivors;andtheresettlementofcornmunitiesonhighlycontaminatedlands.WeatherAspartoftestpreparationsforthe1954Bravoshot,U.S.governmentresearchersconsultedmeteorologicaldataregardingwinddirectionandthepotentialradiologicalhazardsthatcouldresultfromtheexplosion.Fromdeclassifieddocuments,itisclearthatmeteorologistspredictedinadvancethatthewindswouldpushBravo’sradioac-tivefallouttowardinhabitedatollstotheeastandsoutheastofBikini.ColonelLulejian,aU.S.governmentmeteorologist,determinedthat”the[inhabited]islandsofRongerik,Rongelap,andBikarareclearlyinthefall-outareaevenwhen…asimpleextrapolationisused”(Lulejian1954).DocumentsobtainedfromtheU.S.governmentalsodemonstratethatmilitarycommanderspurposefullyignoredorrejectedpredictionsaboutfalloutoninhabitedatolls.Afterreceivingonesuchreport,D.W.Clarkson,thecornmanderofJointTaskForce7,themilitaryteamresponsibleforcarryingoutthetestingprogram,proposedto”treatthereportthesameasIwouldareportfromanyothermemberofmystaffwhenIdonotagreewithhim.Inshort,wewillkillitandstickitinthefile”(Clarkson1953).ForsmallertestsconductedbeforetheBravoshot,theU.S.governmentevacu-ateddownwindcommunitieswhenconcernedaboutpossibleexposuretotheisland-ers.BeforetheBravotest,however,theU.S.governmentdecidedtoexcludethepeopleofRongelapfromtheevacuationareaandconductednoprecautionaryevacu-ationsbeforethatevent,despitethefactthatBravowaspurposefullydesignedasthelargestanddirtiestofallthetests.JustsixhourspriortotheBravotest,U.S.governmentweatherforecastersdeter-minedthatthewindsfromthetestsiteonBikiniAtollwereblowinginthedirectionof

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM41theinhabitedatollsofRongelapandRongerik(House1954).Despitethisweatherreportandotherpredictionsbymeteorologists,CommanderClarksonproceededwiththedeto-nationoftheBravoweapon.ThegiantmushroomcloudfromBravoextendedupwardmorethan100,000feet,andfallouteventuallyreachedeverycontinentintheworld.AspredictedbyU.S.governmentmeteorologists,theradioactivecloudspreadoverinhab-itedislands,wherethedusty,grayfalloutrainedonMarshallesecommunities.ExposurefromBravoWhenBravo’sradioactivecloudbegantomovedownwind,JointTaskForce7orderedtheevacuationofU.S.governmentweatherforecasterswhohadbeenstationedonRongerikAtolltomonitorradiationlevels.JointTaskForce7alsoorderedtheweatherforecastersnottoeatordrinkanythingandtoputonlong-sleevedshirts.Withinhoursafterthefalloutbegan,theU.S.governmentsentairplanestoRongerikAtollandpickeduptheweatherforecasters.LessthantwentymilesfromRongerik,theMarshallesecommunityonRonge-lapwaswhollyunpreparedforthelargefireballthatroseintheskyorfortheradio-activefalloutthatcoatedtheirhomes,food,andbodies.AU.S.navalshipanchoredoffofRongelapduringtheBravoteststeamedawayfromtheapproachingfalloutcloudwithoutevacuatingtheresidentsofRongelap.TheRongelapesewereexposedtonear-lethalamountsofradiationfromBravo.AccordingtoadeclassifiedU.S.governmentdocument,”[t]heindividualsexposedonRongelapandAilinginaeremainedoutdoorsandhadnoaccesstoshelterofanykindontheisland….[T]heheavycoconutoilhairdressingusedbytheMarshallesetendedtoconcentrateradioactivityinthehair”(JointTaskForce71955:10-11).TheU.S.governmentwaitedmorethantwofulldaysbeforeevacuatingthepeo-plefromRongelapandUtrikaftertheirexposuretofallout.Americandoctorsexam-inedthemataU.S.militaryfacilityonKwajaleinAtoll.Giventheknowledgeaboutthewindspriortothetest,thefailuretoissuesafetyprocedurestotheRongelapese,aswasdoneforthemeteorologists,andthedecisionnottoevacuatethepeopleontothenearbynavalship,theRMIgovernmentconcludedthattheU.S.governmentpurpose-fullyexposedthepeopletoradiationforexperimentalpurposes(T.deBrum1994).Project4.1OnNovember10,1953,fourmonthsbeforetheBravotest,theheadquartersofJointTaskForce7inLosAlamosdistributedadocumentoutliningthescientificteststobeperformedinconjunctionwiththeBravotest.Thisdocumentlistsforty-eightscientificprograms,rangingfrommeasuringtheforceofthewindsproducedbytheblasttomoni-toringradiationinplanktonthroughoutthePacificOcean.AlsocontainedinthislistofscientificstudieswasProject4.1,entitled”StudyofResponseofHumanBeingsExposedtoSignificantBetaandGammaRadiationDuetoFall-OutfromHighYieldWeapons.”WhentheBravotestexposedMarshallesepopulationsdownwindfromBikiniAtollonMarch1,1954,Project4.1cametofruition.TheU.S.govemmentissuedapreliminaryreportonProject4.1onApril29,1954;thetitlewasmodifiedto”StudyofResponseofHumanBeingsAccidentallyExposedtoSignificantFall-OutRadiation”[emphasisadded].

42CHAPTER3TheRMIgovernmentbroughtthe1953documentthatincludedProject4.1totheattentionoftheU.S.government(T.deBrum1994).TheRMIgovernmentassertedthattheexposureoftheMarshallesetofalloutfromBravowaspremeditated.Project4.1tookplaceduringthesametimeperiodthattheUnitedStatesconductedhumanradiationexperimentswithitsowncitizens.TheU.S.governmentrespondedbyclaimingthatsomeoneinchargeofthetestingprogramalteredthe1953documentaftertheBravoinci-denttoinserttheProject4.1study.ManypeopleintheMarshallIslandsdonotaccepttheU.S.government’sexplanationandmaintainthatthecolonialpowerspurposefullyexposedMarshallesecitizenstoradiation.Project4.1becameanelaboratestudythatincludedtheacutelyexposedpopula-tionsfromRongelapandUtrik,acontrolpopulationfromMajuroandKwajaleinthatmatchedthedemographicsoftheacutelyexposedgroup,andthetwenty-eightU.S.weatherforecastersexposedtoradiationandimmediatelyevacuatedfromRongerikAtoll.Project4.1hadaconvenientrangeofexposurestostudyinitshumanpopula-tion-studiesthatwouldcontinuefordecadesafterthe1954event.TheU.S.govern-mentdidnotexplaintheprogramoraskanyoftheparticipantsforpermissiontoenrollthemasstudysubjectsinProject4.1.Initially,Project4.1doctorsdocumentedthelossofhair,bums,bloodcounts,andnausearesultingfromradiationexposure(Figures3.2and3.3).Patientsdidnotreceivepainkillersormedicationforbumsthatinsomecaseswentdowntothebone(Eknilang1999).AfterdocumentingtheimmediateeffectsofexposuretoFigure3.2AProject4.1testsubject.

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM43Figure3.3aProject4.1testsubjectNerjeJosephaftertheBravotest.Figure3.3bNerjeJosephtoday,standingbesideherphotoasagirl.

44CHAPTER3radioactivefallout,Project4.1doctorsestablishedaregularscheduleformonitoringthehealthofthepeopleenrolledinthestudy.AU.S.governmentweaponslaboratoryinNewYork,BrookhavenNationalLaboratory,assumedresponsibilityforProject4.1.Doctorsroutinelytookblood,bonemarrow,andurinesamplesfromthepatients.Researchersdidnotprovidetranslators,andtheMarshallesepatientsdidnotunderstandtheproceduresdoctorsperformed.FromtheMarshalleseperspective,theyknewtheyweresick,andtheyassumedtheywerebeingtakencareofbythedoctorswhowerecontractorswiththeU.S.government.Overtime,thepatientscom-plainedtoU.S.governmentofficialsthattheyfeltlike”guineapigs,”aphrasetheyborrowedfromtheEnglishlanguagetocommunicatetheexploitationtheyfelt.Insomecases,cornmunitiesprotestedthedoctors’visitsandrefusedtoparticipateintheexams.TheU.S.governmentresearchersusedbriberyorforcetoensurethatthedoctorshadaccesstothepatients-moreevidencethattheU.S.viewedthemedicalprogramasanimportantexperiment.Localpolicereturnedchildrenwhoranawayfromthedoctors,includingchildreninthecontrolgroupwhohadnomedicalneedtoseethedoctors;duringtheperiodofthetrustterritory,thepoliceforceintheMar-shallIslandswasundertheauthorityofU.S.governmentadministrators.StudiesInvolvingRadioisotopesPresidentClinton’sAdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperimentsacknowl-edgedthattheU.S.governmentundertookresearchprojectsthatwereofnobenefittotheMarshalleseandthatincreasedtheradiationexposurelevelofindividualsalreadyexposedtosubstantialdosesofradiation.TheU.S.governmentresearchersadministeredchromium-51,aradioactivesub-stance,topeoplefromtheRongelapcornmunitywhowerenotpresentfortheBravotestin1954,butwhoresettledonRongelapin1957.Chromium-51servedasatracertotagredbloodcellsandmeasureredbloodcellmass.TheU.S.gov-ernmentmaintainedthatitwouldnotpresentarisktothetestsubjectsbecausetheywereconsidered”unexposed”toradiation.Thisrationalefailedtotakeintoconsid-erationthesubstantialexposurethesetestsubjectsreceivedfromconsumingcon-taminatedfoodsandlivinginaradioactiveenvironment.Inanotherexperiment,U.S.governmentresearchersexposedsubjectstoradiationwhentheyadministeredachelatingagenttosomeindividualsexposedtofalloutfromBravo.Thechelatingagentwassupposedtobondwithradiationandhelpmoveradiationoutofthebodyafterinternalexposure.Inthiscase,however,researchersadministeredthechelatingagentsevenweeksafterexposurewhentherewasnotherapeuticbenefitforthetestsubjects.Inthiscase,theU.S.government-forresearchpurposes-knowinglyincreasedtheradiationburdenofapopulationalreadyacutelyexposed.TheResettlementofCommunitiesMarshallesepopulationsreceivedhighlevelsofbothexternalandinternalradiationasaresultoftheradioactivefalloutproducedbytheweaponstests.Thefalloutthatlandedonpeople’sskinandhairproducedexternalexposures.Peoplealsoreceivedinternalexposurestoradiationbreathedintotheirlungsorswallowedwhentheydrankoratecontaminatedwaterandfoodafterthetests.

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM45Declassifieddocumentsprovideevidenceofsubstantialexposuretoradiationfromtheenvironment.TheU.S.governmentexposedMarshallesepeopletoenvironmentalsourcesofradiationwhenitresettledpopulationsonhighlycontaminatedlandsand,insomecases,whenitfailedtoremovepeoplefromcontaminatedenvironmentsimmedi-atelyaftertheweaponstests.ThedeclassifieddocumentsalsomakeitclearthattheU.S.govemmentunderstoodthatenvironmentalsourcesofradiationposedahealththreat,particularlytothecommunitiesthatreturnedtohighlycontaminatedlands.ThepeopleofUtrik,Rongelap,Bikini,andEnewetakallreturnedtoanenvironmentcontainingradioactivityfrommanydetonations,notjusttheBravotest(AtomicEnergyCommis-sion1956).TheU.S.government’sresettlementofpeopleoncontaminatedislandsresultedinthecumulativeandprotractedexposureofthousandsofpeopletoradiation.BIKINIInthecaseofthepeoplefromBikini,theU.S.governmentresettledaportionofthecommunityonitshomeatollin1972.TheU.S.governmentmadethedecisiontoresettletheBikiniansdespitemultiplewarningsaboutthedangersofresettlement,includingamemofromtheAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC)statingthat”Bikininativescanneverreturntothatatoll”(AtomicEnergyCommission1952).DespitebeingfullyawareofthepersistentradiationonBikini,theU.S.governmentpro-ceededwithresettlement.ThereturnoftheBikinianscreatedanimportantscientificopportunity:”Bikinimaybetheonlyglobalsourceofdataonhumanswhereintakeviaingestionisthoughttocontributethemajorfractionofplutoniumbodyburden….Itispossiblythebestavailabledataforevaluatingthetransferofplutoniumacrossthegutwallafterbeingincorporatedintobiologicalsystems”(Conardetal.1958).Atthattime,monitoringoftheenvironmentonBikinibytheU.S.governmentrevealedlevelsofradiationinthewellwateraboveU.S.maximumlimitsand”anll-foldincreaseinthecesium-137bodyburdensofthemorethan100peopleresid-ingontheisland”(Niedenthal2001:12).AccordingtothelateRMIsenatorfromBikini,HenchiBalos,theBikiniansabsorbedmorecesiumthananyknownhumanpopulationintheworld(Balos1995).In1978,sixyearsafterthefirstresettlementofpeopleonBikini,theU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorannouncedithaddecidedonceagaintoevacuatethecommunityfromitshomeisland.Todate,theBikiniansstilldonotliveontheirownland.Mostofthecommu-nitylivesonthesmall,singleislandofKiIi-anislandwithroughlagoonsthatmakefishinganddockingofboatsextremelydifficult.RONGELAPTheU.S.governmentalsoresettledthepeopleofRongelapinanenviron-mentknowntocontaindangerouslevelsofradiation.Again,itsmotivewastoconductresearch.Asnotedbythephysicianinchargeofthemedicalresearch,”[t]hehabitationofthesepeopleontheislandwillaffordmostvaluableecologicalradiationdataonhumanbeings”(Conardetal.1958).Clearly,theresearchpotentialofpeopleexposedtoradiationoutweighedanyconcernsaboutthehealthoftheRongelapese,whomtheU.S.governmentviewedaslessthanhuman,butastepabovethemiceusedinlabora-tories.ItisnowondertheMarshalleseneededtoborrowthetermguineapigtodescribetheirparticipationinProject4.1.Inaninternalmeeting,theAECdiscussedauniqueresearchopportunityprovidedbytheresettlementoncontaminatedlandoftheRongelapese:”Nowdataofthistypehasneverbeenavailable.Whileitistrue

46CHAPTER3thatthesepeopledonotlive,Iwouldsay,thewayWesternersdo,civilizedpeople,itisneverthelessalsotruethatthesepeoplearemorelikeusthanthemice”(AtomicEnergyCommission1956).Raceandracismwereclearfactorsinthesedecisions.From1954,aftertheBravotest,until1957,theRongelapcommunitylivedonthesmallislandofEjitonMajuroAtoll.Duringthesethreeyears,theU.S.governmentconductedextensivestudiesofradiationlevelsintheplants,animals,birds,andsealifeonRongelap.Researchersfoundthatcesiumandstrontiumlevelswereparticu-larlyhigh-accordingtoU.S.governmentdocuments,toohighforhumanconsump-tion:”Edibleplantsotherthancoconuts,suchaspandanus,papaya,andsquash,havebeenfoundtocontainlevelsofSr90whichareabovethetolerancelevelasdefinedintheRadiologicalHealthhandbook”(AppliedFisheriesLaboratory1955:32).Researchersalsofoundhighlevelsofradiationinarrowroot,astaplefoodforthecommunity.Arrowrootgrowsbestinpitsordepressionsinthesoil.Researchersnotedthatthesedepressionsinthegroundaccumulatedradiationandbecame”hotspots”withheavyconcentrationsofradiation.Thus,arrowrootconsumedlaterbytheresettledpopulationgrewinthemostheavilycontaminatedsoil.Anotherfoodthathadhighconcentrationsofradiationwasthecoconutcrab,regardedasadelicacyintheMarshallIslands.MorethanayearaftertheRonge-lapeseresettledoneoftheirhomeislands,theU.S.governmentinformedthepeo-plethateatingcoconutcrabspresentedahealthriskduetohighlevelsofstrontium90.AsonememberoftheRongelapcommunitytoldme,”Firsttheysaidwecouldeatcrabs,andthentheysaidtostop.What’sthepointwhenwealreadyatethem?”(NeJjeJoseph1999).TheRongelapcommunitysufferedfromserioushealthpro-blemsasadirectresultofitsconsumptionofcontaminatedfoods?TheU.S.gov-ernmentwasawareofthepresenceandcausesoftheillnesses.Despiteitsknowledgetothecontrary,theU.S.governmentcontinuedtomain-tainthatRongelapwassafeforhumaninhabitation.Fearingforthehealthandsafetyoftheirchildren,theRongelapcommunitydisputedtheU.S.governmentclaimandsoughtassistancefromaninternationalnongovernmentalorganization,Greenpeace,toevacuatethemin1985fromtheirhomeland.Thedecisionwaspain-fulandcamewithsevereconsequences(seeChapter5).Inthe1990stheU.S.governmentfinallyrecognizedthatRongelapremainedtoocontaminatedforhumanhabitationandauthorizedatrustfundforthecommunitytobeginrestorationefforts.TheRongelaplocalgovernmentusedthefundtohireacon-tractortoattenuateradiationlevelsontheislandthroughacombinationofsoilremovalanduseofpotassiumfertilizers(potassiumreducestheuptakeofcesiumbytheplants).TheRongelapesewanttocreateanopportunityforpeopletoreturntotheirhomeislandinthefutureifthatiswhatthecommunitydecides.In2011,theU.S.governmentissuedanultimatumtotheRongelapese,threateningtotakeaway2ToreadanextensiveaccountofthedamagestothelandandnaturalresourcesoftheRongelapcommunity,seethe1999and2001reportsthatIcoauthoredwithanthropologistBarbaraRoseJohnstonandJohnstonandBarker(2008).

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM47foodandotherassistanceprogramsifthecommunitydidnotreturnhomebeforetheendofthefiscalyear(underscoringtheconnectionstoU.S.financialinterests).UTRIKWhilethepeopleofRongelapspentthreeyearsawayfromtheirhomeatollaftertheBravotest,theU.S.governmentreturnedthepeopleofUtriktotheirislandsjusttwomonthslater.Consequently,theU.S.governmentexposedthepeopleofUtriktosignificantamountsofradiation,includingparticleswithveryshorthalf-lives,inadditiontotheexposuretofallouttheyreceivedfromBravoandothertests.Again,theU.S.government’smotivationwastostudyhowtheUtrikeseabsorbedradiationfromtheirenvironment.Theabilitytoknowinglyplacehumanbeingsinacon-taminatedenvironmentrequiresacertainmindset.TheU.S.governmentresearchersviewedtheMarshallese,withtheirbrownskinand”traditional”lifestyle,asprimitives-somethinglessthanhumanbeings.TheracistmentalityofthecolonialerameantthattheU.S.governmenttooklibertieswiththebodiesofpeopleseenasinferior.TheUtrikese,liketheRongelapese,sooncametounderstandthattheU.S.gov-ernmentviewedthemasexperimentsubjectsandbeganprotestingthevisitsofU.S.governmentdoctorsandresearchers.AstheydidonRongelap,theU.S.govern-mentresearchersofferedbribesofmoneyandmaterialgoods,suchasbaseballhats,togetthepeopletocooperatewiththeirstudies.ENEWETAKIn1980,theU.S.governmentresettledtheEnewetakcommunityonthesouthernportionofitsatoll.Beforethecommunityreturnedhome,anadvisorycommitteeofU.S.governmentofficialsmakingrecommendationsaboutthereset-tlementofthecommunityacknowledgedthatradiationdosessignificantlyexceededproposedU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyguidelines.TheU.S.governmentalsodeterminedthatmore-stringentU.S.radiationstandardsforcleanupshouldnotapplytotheMarshallIslandsbecauseitisaforeignnation,despitethefactthatthecountrywasatrustterritoryoftheUnitedStateswhenbombtestingreleasedtheradiation.ThisdoublestandardpermittedhigherlevelsofradiationexposureforthepeopleofEnewetakthanfortheAmericanpublic:TheDefenseNuclearAgencybelievestheradiationstandardsapplicabletothegeneralpublicarenotappropriateforthesmallEnewetakpopulationandthatsuchusecouldestablishanundesirableprecedentforothersituationsofenvironmentalcontaminationfromnuclearexplo-sives….TheDNAalsorecommendedarisk-benefitanalysisthattheybelievewouldjustifytheselectionofhigherradiationdoselevelsforthecleanupcriteria.(Conardetal.1958)NeithertheEnewetakcommunitynortheMarshallIslandsgovernmenthadreceivedinformationaboutthefullscopeofradiologicalthreatsonEnewetakAtollbeforethecommunityresettledtherebecausenegotiationswereunderwaytoendthetrustterritoryrelationship.TheU.S.negotiatorsdeterminedthatitwasnotintheirbestinteresttoreleaseinformationaboutradiologicalcontaminationonEnewe-takbecauseoftheeffectthatsuchknowledgewouldhaveonthenegotiations.TheresettlementofEnewetakAtollisnotcomplete.NoteveryonefromtheEnewe-takcommunityreturnedtotheirhomeislands.ThepeopleofEnjebiIslandhavebeenunabletoreturnbecauseofresidualcontaminationandhavenochoicebuttoliveontheislandofEnewetak,theonlyresettledareaontheatoll.ItisnotenolH,htoTF-tnmOF-oolp

48CHAPTER3X-ray(37Kt),towerEnjebiMijikadrekKidrinenBokenelabElleAejLujorEleleronYoke(49Kt),towerWideentrance+11°20’NorthI167″20’EastUnibor•DrekatimonKidrenenRibewonBoke?!MutIkurenDridrilbwijEluklabBokinwotmeLoujKirunuBokombakoBokoluo23456,I,,,KilometersNauticalmiles23456,II,Statutemiles46810,,,,II,,0,0I02,I,Figure3.4MapofEnewetakwithislandnames.toaportionoftheland;peoplewanttoliveontheislandsthatwereoncetheirhome,wheretheyhavelandrights,notthelandofothercommunitymembers(Figure3.4).TheU.S.governmentplacedtheresettledEnewetakesepeoplenearatwo-mile-widenuclearstoragefacility.Todate,noU.S.governmentagencyhasresponsibilityfor.mon-itoringandensuringtheintegrityofthisradioactivewastestoragesite.AsimilarnuclearstoragesiteintheUnitedStateswouldrequirestrictenvironmentalcodesandqualityassurancetests;onceagain,theU.S.governmentseemstoapplyadifferentsafetystan-dardfortheMarshallesethanforitsowncitizens.ThepeopleonEnewetakwantassur-ancesthattheyarenotassuminggreaterhealthrisksasaresultoftheirresettlement.Inrecentyears,leadersfromEnewetakhaveexpressedspecificconcernsaboutanincreasedincidenceofbirthabnormalitiesinthecommunity(John2003).

THEU.S.NUCLEARWEAPONSTESTINGPROGRAM49Inthe2003bilateralmeetingswiththeU.S.DepartmentofEnergyandtheU.S.DepartmentofState,theresettledEnewetakcommunityandtheRMIgovernmentaskedtheU.S.governmenttotakeresponsibilityforproperlymanagingradioactivewaste.TheRMIgovernmentalsosentadiplomaticnotetotheU.S.DepartmentofStatein2004,requestingthattheexecutivebranchassignanagencywithresponsi-bilityforassuringtheintegrityofthenuclearstoragefacilityonEnewetak.The’U.S.governmentneverresponded.CONCLUSIONTheU.S.governmentfailstotakeresponsibilityforahostofmedicalandenviron-mentalproblemsassociatedwiththetestingprogram.Ontheonehand,thelan-guageoftheCompactindicatesthattheU.S.governmentwilltakeresponsibilityforallpast,present,andfuturedamagesandinjuriesresultingfromthetestingpro-gram,yetthelawsgoverningU.S.assistanceforproblemsrelatedtothetestingprogramremainextremelynarrowandexcludethousandsofpeopleexposedtoradiationfromthetestingprogram.Consequently,theU.S.governmentfailstoactingoodfaithtohonoritsresponsibilitiestotheRMI.

4/EthnographyandaMarshalleseNarrativeofHistoryAfterIreadthroughadelugeofdeclassifieddocumentsfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),twoleadersfromthegovernmentoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)askedmetoundertakeresearchwithsomeofthecommunitiesmostaffectedbyradiation,butnotincludedinthefour-atolldesignation.TheleaderswereWilfredKendall,whowasatthattimemybossandtheRMI’sambassadortotheUnitedStates,andRMISenatorTonydeBrum.Forhisentirecareer,SenatordeBrumhasactivelypursuedandloudlyprotestedtheinconsistenciesinU.S.governmentactivitiesandreportsrelatedtothetestingprogram.Theinformationcontainedinthedeclassifieddocumentsprovidedthetruthaboutthelevelofdamagesandexposuresfromthetesting,atruthnotunexpectedbySenatordeBrumandotherleaders.WhatwasshockingtothemwasthattheU.S.governmentdocu-mentsverifiedthattheU.S.governmentcovereduptheextentofradiationexposures.AmbassadorKendallandSenatordeBrumwantedtofindoutiftheexperiencesofradiationsurvivorsintheMarshallIslandsmatchedthenewevidenceemergingfromthedeclassifieddocuments.In1994,theyaskedmetomeetwithandinterviewradia-tionsurvivorsfromthreeatolls:Rongelap,Ailuk,andLikiep.MyinterviewswiththeRongelapeseweretodeterminewhetherpeoplehadafullappreciationoftherangeofmedicalandenvironmentalproblemsdetailedintheU.S.governmentdocuments.Wewantedtoknowifpeople’slifeexperiencesmatchedtheinformationinthedocu-ments.MyinterviewswiththepeopleofAilukandLikiepweretobetterunderstandtheexperiencesofpeopleincommunitieswheretheU.S.governmentdoesnotrecog-nizethattheymaybeatriskfromradiationexposure.Inthischapter,Iletthesurvivorsspeakforthemselves;theysharetheirexperiencesintheirownwords;theydescribetheeventstheyexperiencedonMarch1,1954,thedaytheU.S.governmentdetonatedtheBravotestupwindfromtheirhomeislands;theyrecalltheirevacuationfromRongelapandthehumiliationofthedecontaminationprocess;theyrecountthebirthdefectsexperiencedbytheiroffspringandtheirexperi-enceswithU.S.governmentdoctorsandscientists.Thedamaginginformationcon-tainedinthedeclassifiedU.S.governmentdocumentsservesasproofofwhattheMarshallesealreadyknewfromtheirlivedexperiences.TheMarshallesesurvivorsofthenuclearweaponstestingprogramrememberthefalloutandtheillnessesthatfol-lowed,andtheyrememberhowtheU.S.governmentignoredthem.50

ETHNOGRAPHYANDAMARSHALLESENARRATIVEOFHISTORY51Thesetestimoniesaremorepowerfulwhentheystandalonewithoutinterpreta-tion.Thewitnesseswhoseremarksappearonthenextseveralpagesknowexactlywhattheywanttoconveywithoutanyhelpfromme.IwillsavemycommentsfortheendofthechapterwhenIconsiderhowthesetestimoniesconstituteaMarshallesenarrativeofhistorythatisdrasticallydifferentfromtheU.S.government’sversionoftheseevents.Thetestimoniesthatfollowarerepresentative,butamounttonomorethanafractionofthestoryoftheMarshallese,ahistoryrifewithdeath,illness,andsufferingemanatingfromtheu.s.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.WITNESSTESTIMONIES:MARCH1,1954-THEDAYTHEU.S.GOVERNMENTDETONATEDTHEBRAVOSHOTRongelapIwaslivingwithmyparentsandsomeotherfamilymembersonanisletacrossthereeffromthemainislandwherewehadgonetomakecopra.OnthatMarchmorning,myfatherwokemewhileitwasstillpitchdarktocrossthereefwithsomeofmyfriendstothemainislandtobuysomecoffee,flour,andsugar.Therewerefourofus,threegirlsandaboy[namedHiroshi,seeFigure4.1].Well,wewereinthemiddleofthereefbetweenthetwoislandswhenthewholeofthewesternskylitup.Itseemedlikeitwasafternoon,notearlymorning.Thecolorwentfrombrightwhitetodeepredandthenamixtureofbothwithsomeyellow.WejumpedbehindbigrocksonFigure4.1HiroshiraisinghishandstodisplaybumstoanAmericandoctor.

52CHAPTER4thereef.Weweretooafraidtodecidewhethertorunbacktothesmallislandortorunacrossthereeftothemainisland….ItwasHiroshiwhofinallypushedustoruntothemainisland.Justaswereachedthelastsandbank,theairarounduswassplitopenbyanawfulnoise.Icannotdescribewhatitwaslike.Itfeltliketheairwasalive.Weranthelastbittotheisland.Every-thingwascrazy.Therewasamanstandingoutsidethefirsthutstaringattheburningsky.Acoupleofusthrewourselvesontohislegs,theothersranintohishutwheretheythrewthemselvesontohiswifewhowastryingtocomeoutsidetoseewhatwashappening.Thatafternoon,Ifoundmyhairwascoveredwithawhitepowder-likesubstance.IthadnosmellandnotastewhenItriedtastingit.NearlyallthepeopleonRongelapbecameviolentlyill.Mosthadpainfulheadachesandextremenauseaanddiarrhea.BythetimeofourevacuationtoKwajalein,allthepartsofmybodythathadbeenexposedthatmorningblisteredandmyhairbegantofalloutinclumps.Ijusthadtorunmy[mgersthroughitandtheywouldcomeoutfullofdust.(ArukoBobo,August27,1994)Ai/inginae1IwasinmylatetwentiesatthetimeofBravo.IwasonAilinginaewithmyhusband,whohassincedied.Alltheolderpeople,likemyhusband,havedied.WelivedonRongelap,butweusedtogotoAilinginaetogatherfood.WewereonAilingi-naewhenthebombdropped.Wesawalight.It[thelight]wastohelpfindsubmarinesmyhusbandsaid[laughs].Thenthepowder[fallout]fellonthelagoonside.Wewerelookingforbirdswhenthepowderfell.Theoldmantoldthechildrennottoplayonthelagoonside.Iwassupposedtotakecareofthekids,butweallweresosickitwaslikewewerepassedout.Whentheycametotakeusawayfromtheislandlater,ourclotheshadpowderonthem.Wesawthepowderandwethoughtitwassomethingtoreducethepoisonfromthebomb.Wewerehappybecausewesaidwewouldn’tgetasmuchpoison….Istayedwiththekids.Wesawtheboatscorningandwewonderedwhythehugeboatcame.Wehadnoideawhatwashappening….SomepeoplehidfromtheAmericansinsidethecementwatercatchmentsbecausetheythoughttheywerecomingbecausetherewasawar,notthatpeoplewerecorningtoevacuatethem.Wedidn’tunderstandyetaboutbombs.OnAilinginae,theydidn’tstopusfromeatinganddrinkingafterthepowderfell.Weblewthepowderoffofourfoodandateit.Wecouldn’ttakecareofeachother,eventhekids,becausewewereallsick.Weatesproutedcoconutbecausewewerereallynauseous?andwhenweate,wegotevenmorenauseous.(DorothyEmos,March18,1999)Ai/ukIntheyear1954,Iwas10yearsold.Myknowledgeofwhatwashappeningaroundmewaslimited.Whenthebombexplodedandtheearthrumbled,Ilookedupandsawtheskytumintostrangereddishcolors.Atthattimewechildrendidn’ttakeanythingITheatollnexttoRongelapfrequentlyusedbytheRongelapeseforshortperiodsofresidence,orforfoodgathering.~eMarshalleseofteneatsproutedcoconut,knownasiu,forupsetstomachs.

ETHNOGRAPHYANDAMARSHALLESENARRATIVEOFHISTORY53seriously.Theadultsweretheoneswhowereexcited.TheyledusintothinkingitwasArmageddon.Thenwebecamescared.Ididn’tevenknowwhatabombwasuntilIactuallyheardtheexplosion,felttheearthshaking,andsawhalfoftheskytumred.(JalelJohn,September5,1994)Theatmospherewasfoggy.Itwaslikesomedustfallingfromtheskyonthelagoonandontheland.(LontakJili,September3,1994)LikiepWewokeupingreatterror,notunderstandingwhatwashappening.Manythoughttheywerewitnessingtheendoftheworld.Ashortwhileaftertheskylitup,anindescribablesoundshooktheisland.Itwassogreatthatitseemedasiftheislandwouldsplitintoamillionpieces.Standingoutside,theintensityofthesoundalmostknockedmeover.Someconcludedthatmaybethe”BigWar”thatforeignerskepttellinguswouldhappenbetweentheUnitedStatesandRussiahadfinallybegun….Afterwhatseemedlikeages,thenoisesubsidedandthenweheardadifferentkindofnoise,awhooshingsoundthatseemedtotravelattree-toplevel.Peoplerolledaroundonthegroundcry-ingandclutchingtheirchildrentotheirchests.Eventhedogsandotheranimalswerehowlingandyelling.Thensuddenly,therewastotalsilence-nosoundexceptthesoundofpeoplecry_ing,dogsbarking,andwavesbreakingontheoceansideoftheisland.Wepickedourselvesupfromtheground,amazedwewerestillalive.(KalemenGideon,MarshallesedoctoronLikiepduringthetestingprogram,September2,1994)Irememberthewhitepowder-likesubstancethatcoveredthewholeisland.(JoeSaul,August22,1994)WITNESSTESTIMONIES:EVACUATIONANDTHEDECONTAMINAnONPROCESSRongelapWhentheU.S.governmentevacuatedpeopleonMarch3,1954,theshipfirstevacuatedthepeoplefromRongelapAtoll.AftereveryonefromRongelapwasonboard,theshipwenttoAilinginaetoevacuatetheresidents.TheAmericanpersonnelontheshiptoldallthepeoplefromAilinginaetotakealltheirclothesoff.Menandwomen-fathersanddaughters,mothersandsons,andrelativesthatitwasextremelytabootodisrobeinfrontof-wereforcedtostandnakedtogetherwhiletheship’spersonnelhosedthepeopledownwithwater.TheevacueesfromRongelaphadbeenthroughthesameprocessandhadalreadydressedbythetimethepeoplefromAilinginaeweretoldtodisrobe.Stilltodaysomepeoplefinditinappropriate[inMarshallesecustom]forwomentoshowtheirthighs,especiallyneartheirmalerelatives,butinthe1950sitwasextremelytabooforwomentoshowtheirthighs,letalonetheirentirenakedbodies,particularlyaroundmalerelatives.Bothmenandwomenweretryingtocoverthemselveswithasmalltowelgiventoeachpersonandwiththeirhands,buttheycouldnothidetheirnakednessfromoneanother.Wedidn’tunderstandatthetimewhywehadtodothis.AftertheRongelapesewereevacuatedtoKwajalein,U.S.governmentdoctorsrequiredtheRongelapesetobatheinthelagoonthreetimesadayinanefforttoreducetheirexposuretoradiation.Thesedailybathswentonforthreemonths.

54CHAPTER4EachdaytheRonge1apesewomenrodeinabusfromthecampwheretheRongelapesewerestayingtothelagoonwheretheybathed.ThewomenwereinstructedtowearjusttheirunderwearandaT-shirtonthebusridetoandfromthelagoon.TheNavyclothesdidn’tfitthewomenproperlyandtheycouldn’tconcealtheirbodiesproperly.Tomakemat-tersworse,wewereaccompaniedbytwomalerelativeswhoweresupposedtotranslate.Whenthebusarrivedatthelagoon,thewomenweretoldtostandatthewater’sedgeandtaketheirclothesoff.Thetwomentranslated.Theywererelatedtomostofthewomenthere.IntheMarshalleseculturetherearestrictguidelinesdirectingbehaviorbetweenmaleandfemalerelatives.Wewerecryinginshameathavingtobeindecentlyclothedinfrontofourmalerelatives,andwedidourbesttoconcealourselveswithourhands.(LijohnEknilang,March28,2001)WITNESSTESTIMONIES:BIRTHDEFECTSRongelapIwasnotonRongelapfortheBravotest,butIreturnedwitheveryonein1957….ItwasaroundthistimethatIhadmyfirstpregnancy.Mybabyhadaveryhighfeverwhenhewasdelivered,andtheattendinghealthassistantconveyedhisdoubtsastowhethermysonwouldsurvivethenight.HewassodehydratedfromthefeverthathisskinactuallypeeledasIclaspedhimtometonurse.Theonlythingweknewtodowastowraphiminwettowels.AndsoitwasthatIheldhimtomybodythroughoutthenight,changingthetowelsandwillinghimtofightforhislife.Helostthefightjustasdawnbroke.Mysecondson,bornin1960,wasdeliveredlivebutmissingthewholebackofhisskull-asifithadbeensawedoff.Sothebackpartofthebrainandthespinalcordwerefullyexposed.Afteraweek,thespinalcordbecamedetachedandhe,too,developedahighfeveranddiedthefollowingday.Asidefromthecranialdeformity,mysonwasalsomissingbothtesticlesandpenis.Hepassedwaterthroughastump-likeapparatusmeasuringlessthananinch.Thedoctorswhoexaminedhimtoldmethathewouldnotsurvive.Andsureenough,hewasdeadwithinaweek….Youknow,itwasheartbreakinghavingtonursemyson,allthewhiletakingcarehisbraindidn’tfallintomylap.Forinspiteofhisseverehandicaps,hewashealthyineveryrespect.ItwasgoodhediedbecauseIdonotthinkhewouldhavewantedtolivealifeassome-thinglessthanhuman….Ifitwerenotforthebombtesting,Iwouldnothavehadtowatchhelplesslyastwoofmychildrenweretakenfromme.(CatherineJibas,August23,1994)Thereisaboy,actuallyayoungmannow,whoseheadissolargethathisbodyisunabletosupportitandhisonlymeansofgettingaroundistocrawlbackwardsdrag-ginghisheadalong-likethemovementsofacoconutorhermitcrab….Whatistheretothinkabout?Weneverhadanyoftheseillnesses,thesegrotesquedeformities-thesegrape-likethingsthatdonotresemblehumanbeingsatall.AndyouaskmewhatIthink.Ithinkthat,ifitwerenotfortheUnitedStatesandtheirdesiretobestrongerthanRussia,we,thepeopleofRongelap,wouldnothavetoturnourheadsinshameforfearofbeingconsideredfreaksofnature.(ArukoBobo,August27,1994)Ai/ukTwo[ofmychildren1died.Oneofthemwasborndefective.Itdidn’tlooklikeahuman.Itlookedjustliketheinsideofagiantclam.(JalelJohn,September5,1994)

ETHNOGRAPHYANDAMARSHALLESENARRATIVEOFHISTORY55Four[ofmy]childrenwerebornprematurely….Oneofthemdiedafterhisfirstbirthday.Anotherwasstillborn….Ihaveyettoseeanydoctor.(RineSneid,September5,1994)LikiepAfterthetesting,she[mywife]gotpregnant.Whenthebabywasborn,ithadtwoheads….Twoheads.Twoheads.Onewasontopoftheother….Therewasoneheadthatwassmallerthantheotherhead….Itbreathedforjustashorttimewhenitwasborn.Maybeanhour,onlysomeminutes.Itwasalive,butitwasn’tdoingsowell.(Anonymous,August14,1994)Somebabiesthatwerebornresembledbunchesofgrapes.Anotherwassaidtohaveahorn-likeprotrusiononitsforeheadmakingitlookliketheimageofSatanweseeinbooks.(SeikoJoniber,SeptemberI,1994)Otherchildrenbornduringthistimedidnothaveanynoticeabledeficiencies,andyetlackedtheabilitytounderstandanything.Otherswereincapableofanymotoractivityalthoughtheyseemedtocomprehendtheirsurroundings.Someofthechildreninthesecondcategorysurvivedforanumberofyearsalthoughasnothingmorethanhumanvegetablesoradultswiththemindsoftoddlers.(AgnesdeBrum,August14,1994)Iwasterribly,terriblyupset.IcannotexplainexactlywhatmyfeelingswereexceptrememberingthehorrorandcompassionIfeltforthewomen.Iwonderedtomyselfifthosemonstersthewomengavebirthtofeltanypainorhadanyofthehumanqualitiesweallshare.Isuspectedblackmagicandwonderedwhatthosewomenmayhavedonetooffendsomeonetosuchadegreethatthespellcastonthemwassoterrible.(EsradeBrum,August19,1994)WITNESSTESTIMONIES:OTHERMEDICALANDENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMSRongelapHiroshi[ayoungboy],whohadbeenseverelyaffectedbythefallout[andlaterdied],haddeepburnscoveringlargeareasofhisbodyandsufferedhairloss.Hisbodywasburnedtosuchanextentthatthebonesinhisfeetwereexposedandvisibletothenakedeye.(WilliamAllen,August22,1994)(SeeFigure4.1)Ai/ukTherearealotofsuddenchangesthatweneverexperiencedbeforethenucleartestings.It’shappeningtotreesandevenanimalsandpeople,too.Takeacat.Acatcouldgivebirthtoasinglekittenwithwhatseemsliketwobodiescombined.Wemightsaya”twin”withonebody.Eightlegsandeightpaws.(KenjiTakia,September5,1994)Someofthefishthatweusedtoeatnowgiveusfishpoisoning.Wecannoteatthemanymore….Pigsalsohavedefectivebodies.Somehavetwistedlegs….Sometimesthefieldtrip[supply]shipswouldn’tcomeforalongtimesowehadtokillthemandeatthem.Whatcouldwedo?Wewerehungryandweneededsomethingtoeat.(JalelJohn,September5,1994)

56CHAPTER4Afewyearslater[afterthetesting],alotofstrangethingsoccurredonoursmallislandsthataffectedourfoodcrops.Oneofthemwasarrowroot.ItdiedawayfromthenupuntilnowasIspeak.It’scompletelygone.Weareverysadbecauseitwasoneofourmainfoodsources….Furthermore,Icanusetheexampleofthecoconuttree.Asingletreecouldbearcoconutswithdifferentcolors-someorangewhileothersaregreenandothercolors.Itwasverystrangetous.Asfortheanimals-takepigs,forexample-somepigswerebornwiththeirsexualorgansinthewrongplaces….Thisneverhappenedpriortothenuclearexplosions.(DikjenJilon,September2,1994)LikiepDoyouknowthatIhadamajoroperationonmyhead?Yes,atumor….Iunderwentsurgerytohaveitremoved.Ithinktheyalsoremovedfragmentsofmyskullalongwiththetumor….Abraintumorfromthebombs,theysay….IfoundoutIhadepilepsy….[M]ydoctorexplainedtomethatpeoplewhoundergoheadsurgerysuchasminestandaverygoodchanceofdevelopingepilepsy….IfirstbecameawareofthesymptomswhenIwouldwakeupwithaverypainfulmouthanddiscoverthatIhadchewedtheinsidestoshreds….(Anonymous,August14,1994)Wewereastonishedtofindthatarrowroothadbeendestroyed,alongwithsuchthingsasbreadfruit,coconuttrees,andpandanus.Weassumedthatwhatevercausedthiswaspoisonousbecauseitwasabletonotonlydestroyvegetationatgroundlevel,butalsoitwasabletocausedamagetothingsgrowinginthesoil.(AlionAlik,August14,1994)WITNESSTESTIMONIES:INTERACTIONSWITHU.S.GOVERNMENTMEDICALPROVIDERSANDSCIENTISTSRongelapThehealthassistantwhodeliveredthe[abnormal]childsentamessagetoKwajaleinandIamcertainthesedoctorscamesotheycouldseeforthemselvesalive”bombbaby.”Infact,theyflewintheverysamedaythemessagewassent….Theydidacompletephysical,tookbloodsamples,andtookthebabyoutsidesotheycouldtakelotsandlotsofphotographs.DOEignoredus.TheydidnotwanttoadmittheRongelapesewerecontaminated.Ortheydidnotwanttheworldtoknowaboutussotheycouldgoonwiththeirradiationstud-ieswithoutanyoutsideinterference.Sotheyignoredwhatwetoldthem-sayingthatRon-gelapwasnotcontaminatedandourhealthproblemswereunrelatedtoradiation….[W]edon’tbelievethemnow.(CatherineJibas,August23,1994)Whatcanwesay?Nothing-wedon’tknowanything.Wedon’tknowathingaboutmedicalcare….[W]edon’tknowwhatprocedurestheydidtous.Whatdidtheysee?Theyjusttoldustogoseeadoctor,andthentheytelluseverythingisokay.Butus,wedon’tknow,wedon’tknowaboutmedicine.Wedon’tknowhowtoexaminethehumanbodyliketheydo.(EllynBoaz,August26,1994)AilukIftheU.S.[government]insistedthatpoisondidnotaffectAiluk,thenhowwouldtheycon-siderUtrikaffectedwhenthedistancefromAiluktothecenteroftheexplosionis

ETHNOGRAPHYANDAMARSHALLESENARRATIVEOFHISTORY57approximatelythesameasUtrik?Nobodyansweredmyquestions.Theywereobviouslyhid-ingthetruefactthatthisislandwasactuallyaffectedbythenucleartesting.EventhoughweknewandfeltthatAilukwaspoisoned,wecouldn’tdoanythingbecausewewerebeingignoredallalong.Notashredofinformationwasreleasedtous.Myotherconcernisthis:afteralltheseyearsofsuffering,whyisthisissueofAiluk’scontaminationnowbeingdis-cussedwhenitshouldhavebeendonealong,longtimeago?…Whydidn’ttheynotifyusofwhattheyweregoingtodobeforehandsowecouldprotectourselves?…Theytreateduslikeguineapigsfortheirexperiments….Therewasashipthatvisitedustwice.Theytookbloodsamplesfromthepeople.Theytoldustheywillexamineourbloodsamplesinthelabsandinformusoftheresults.Tothisday,notashredofinformationaboutanyresultshasbeenreleasedtous.Theytooksomuchbloodfromeveryperson….TheUSSWheelingbroughtsomescientiststoshowusmapsandchartsoftherouteofthenuclearfalloutasitwascarrieddownwind.ThemovementsofthefalloutweresofunnytousbecausethelinesactuallyzigzaggedbetweenLikiep,Ailuk,andtheotheratolls.Iactuallysawthechartsandwewerewonderinghowtheradioactivepoisoncouldnavigateitselfbetweentheseislandswithouttouchingthem!Theythoughtwewereabunchofidiots!…Itoldtheminnastywords,becauseIwasmad,Itoldthemwhydidn’ttheydotheirexperi-mentsintheirowncountry.InAmericatherearedeserts,thereissomuchunusedpublicland.Instead,theychosesomesmallislandstopoisonandkillthepeople.Iwasfurious.Theydidn’tlistentous.Theysaiditwasnothingtoworryabout.Everywordwesaidwasignored.(TempoAlfred,September8,1994)LikiepWhenIasked[thescientists]ifthesuddendisappearanceofthearrowrootplantonLikiephadanythingtodowiththebombtests,theyassuredmethatitwasallapartoftheearth’scyclewhereonetimethereisplentyofoneplanttobefollowedbyaperiodwherethereisnone.Iwasnaiveatthetimeandhappilywentofftotellmyequallynaivefriendsandfamilyofthecycleofplantsthescientiststoldmeabout.(KramerdeBrum,August19,1994)[F]romdiscussionsIhadwithnumerouspeople…[t]heyallwantedtoknowwhytheywerenotbeingtoldanythingatallwhenitwastheirlife’sbloodthattheDOEdoctorsweretakingtoconducttheirtestsandexperiments.Therefore,theyquestionedwhetherthedoctorsweretrulyconcernedfortheirwell-beingorjustforthesuccessoftheirdamnedexperiments.(KalemenGideon,September2,1994)AMARSHALLESENARRATIVEOFHISTORYOnMarch1,1954,theU.S.governmentunleashedtheBravotestonBikiniAtoll.ItisclearfromtheaccountsofpeopleonRongelap,Ailinginae,Likiep,andAilukthattheBravoeventcaughtthemcompletelybysurprise.TheMarshallesepeoplelivingdownwindhadnoideathatatestwastakingplaceorthattheyshouldtakeprotectivemeasuresafterward(asdidtheU.S.weatherforecastersonRongerik).Priortothisday,thepeoplehadneverheardofradiation,andtheycertainlydidnotunderstanditsdetrimentaleffectsonhumanbeingsortheenvironment.TheU.S.governmentdehumanizestheseeventsbytalkingaboutthemasnumbers:thenumberoftests,thenumbersofatollsandpeopleaffected,theamountofradiation

58CHAPTER4exposureindifferentlocations,theprojectnumber(e.g.,4.1),andthehumantestsub-jectnumberassignedtoeachperson.TherivetingaspectoftheMarshallesetestimoniesishowtheyhumanizetheseeventsanddiscusswhatitfeltliketobeexposedtoradia-tionandtowatchyourfamilyandcommunitysuffer.Radiationismutagenic.Itmutatescells,thebasiccomponentofpeople,plants,andanimals.Themutatedcellscreateanomalies,sometimescancers,butsometimes,asevidentinthesetestimonies,grossabnormalitiesintheentireecosystem,includingtheoffspring.Whatemergespoignantlyfromthetestimoniesoftheradiationsurvivorsistheintensesufferinganddisruptionofeveryaspectoflifecausedbytheweaponstesting.TheU.S.governmentdocumentsrevealthatthetestingexposedatollswherepeoplelivetoradiation,butdonotgiveasenseofwhatitwasliketobeonthoseislands,toexperiencethenucleartestsfIrsthand,andtolivefordecadeswiththeconsequencesofradiationcontamination.TheoralhistoriesbringthevoicesoftheMarshalleseintothepicture;theycreateportraitsthatcaptureahistoryofthenuclearweaponstestingprogramfromaMarshalleseperspective-aperspectivethatvariesgreatlyfromtheU.S.governmentdocumentsthatseetheMarshalleseonlyasresearchvehicles.Insteadofnumbersandgeographiclocations,aMarshallesehistoryofthenuclearweaponstestingincludesdescriptionsofthefearandchaosthatdescendedonthevillagesthatexperiencedtheBravotest;itincludestheimmediateonslaughtofnauseaandflu-likesymptomsandofbumsdeepenoughtoexposetheboneofpeopleonRongelap;anditincludesthehumiliationofthedecontaminationprocessandtheflagrantdisregardfortheMarshalleseaspeopleorfortheircustomsduringemergencywashingstoreduceradiationlevelsontheskinandhairofthepeople.ItisahistoryofbeingliedtoandignoredbytheU.S.government.InthemorethantwohundredinterviewsIhaveconductedovertheyears,theMarshalleseversionofhistoryisfIlledwithdeathandillness.Everyfamilythatlivedontheseislandsknowswhatitisliketolosefamilymemberstoradiologicalillnesses.Nofamilieshavebeenspared.Intheirversionofhistory,theMarshallesegivenamestothecountlessgrandmothersandgrandfathers,mothersandfathers,auntsanduncles,cousins,children,andbabiesthatdiedprematurelyasaresultoftheweaponstesting.Hundredsandhundredsofthesestoriesexist.ThepeoplelivingdownwindfromthetestingareahaveafIrsthandunderstandingoftheproblemsradiationcauseswhenitentersthefoodchain.Neitherplantsnorpeo-plenoranimalscouldescapetheinsidiouseffectsofradiationexposure.Pets,livestock,plants,trees,andnewbornchildrenembodiedthedisruptiveforcesofradiation.Itisalsoclearfromtheoralhistoriesthatthesufferingpeopleexperiencedasaresultoftheirexposuretoradiationiscompoundedbyafeelingofcompleteexploi-tation.Theradiationsurvivorsknowthattheircountry,theirislands,andtheythemselveshavebeenpartofagiantU.S.governmentlaboratory.Thecontinueddenialandcover-upbytheU.S.governmentofthefullextentofdamageandinju-riesonlyexacerbatetheangerandresentmentexpressedbythesurvivors.TheUnitedStatesmustacknowledgeitswrongsandtakefullresponsibilityforthecon-sequencesofthetestingprogrambeforemeaningfulhealingcantakeplace.

ETHNOGRAPHYANDAMARSHALLESENARRATIVEOFHISTORY59ThesetestimoniesdonotdifferentiateaccordingtotheU.S.government’sbinarygroupingsofpeopleaseither”exposed”or”unexposed.”IftwowomenfromRongelapgivebirthtodeformedchildrenandonewomanwasonRongelapin1954fortheBravotestandonewasresettledonthecontaminatedatollin1957,thecommunityconsidersbothofthem”exposed”becausetheyexhibitthephysicalcharacteristicsofradiationexposure.Tothecontrary,theU.S.governmentdoesnotconsiderthewomanwhowasresettledandwhopainfullydescribedthedeathsofherchildren,includingtheonewithnobackonhisskulltoholdhisbrainsin,”exposed”toradiationandthereforeeligibleforU.S.medicalassistance.Nordoesitconsiderthechildrenbornoncontam-inatedlandstoparentsexposedtofalloutortheentirepopulationsofLikiepandAiluktobeinneedofmedicalcare.UnliketheU.S.versionofhistory,theoralhistoriesandaMarshallesenarrativeofhistorycaptureallthebirthdefects,healthproblems,andchangestotheenvironmentthatensued.CONCLUSIONIntheMarshallesenarrativeofhistory,itistheexperiencesofindividualsthatdetermineiftheyarebaam(bombed)andaffectedbytheradiation,nottheatollofresidenceonaparticularday,astheCompactprescribes.Thelifehistoriesandlifestoriesofthepeoplemostaffectedbytheweaponstestingdescribethesuffer-ingoftheMarshallesepeople,afactthatisabsentfromanyoftheU.S.govern-mentaccountsoftheeffectsofthetestingprogram.TheU.S.government’sdocumentsdonotdiscussthepaininvolvedinlosingachild,mother,father,sister,orbrother.Theydonotdiscussthepaininvolvedinbattlingcancerandotherseri-ousmedicalconditions.TheMarshallesenarrativesputfacesontheinjuriesanddamagescausedbythetestingprogram.ThetestingprogramachievednuclearsuperiorityfortheUnitedStates,butitachievedthisatacostofgreatsufferingtotheMarshallesepeople,asisevidentfromtheirtestimonies.TheoralhistoriesforceustocometotermswiththehumancostsofU.S.nuclearsuperiority.

5/AlienationfromtheLand:TheRongelapExperienceTHEIMPORTANCEOFGEOGRAPHYIn1946,theBikiniansunderstandablyagreedtovacatetheirlandsotheU.S.govern-mentcouldconductitsweaponstests.TheU.S.governmenttoldtheBikinianstheirmovewouldbetemporary.TheydidnothavetelevisionsornewspaperstoprovideimagesfromHiroshimaorNagasaki,andlikemostpeopleintheworld,theydidnothaveanappreciationforthedestructivecapacityofthenewestweapons.Inthischapter,Iassessthehumanenvironmentalimpactsofthetestingprogrambyexaminingtheconsequencesforonecommunity,Rongelap.ThetestingprogramdeniedtheRongelapeseuseoftheirlandsandresources.Persistentanddangerouslevelsofradiationintheenvironmenteventuallyforcedthemintoexile.IabstractedportionsoftheRongelapdiscussionfromtworeportsthatIcoauthoredwithenviron-mentalanthropologistBarbaraRoseJohnstoninOctober1999(JohnstonandBarker1999)andSeptember2001(JohnstonandBarker2001)forthePublicAdvocateoftheNuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT),WilliamGraham.lThesereportsbecamethebasisforourcoauthoredbook,ConsequentialDamagesofNuclearWar:TheRongelapReport(2008).Dr.JohnstonandImadeacomplementaryteam:Barbara’straininginenviron-mentalscienceandanthropologybroughtimportantunderstandingstotheethno-graphicdataIcollectedintheMarshallIslands.Ourjointanalysisallowedustoconsiderthebroaderconsequencesofenvironmentalcontaminationforacommunity.AsthePublicAdvocatefortheNCT,BillGrahamworkedwithclaimantstosup-porttheirrequestsforcompensationbeforetheNCT.HeaskedBarbaraandmetoundertakeresearchforhimtodeterminewhatitmeansfromaMarshalleseperspec-tive-andmorespecifically,fromaRongelapeseperspective-tohavelandcontami-natedbyradiation,tobedeniedtheuseoflandanditsresources,andtobeforcedtoliveinexileasaresultofradiologicalcontamination.OurreportsdocumentanddescribeMarshallesenotionsoflandvalue,damage,andloss.Weusedthisinforma-tiontosupporttheRongelappeople’sclaimforpropertydamagetotheNCT.Asdis-cussedinChapter3,theNCTevaluatesclaimsforbothpersonalinjury(medicalproblemslinkedtothetestingprogram)andlanddamageandloss.Rongelap’slandIThesetworeportsareonfileattheNeTinMajuro.60

ALIENATIONFROMTHELAND61claimincludestheatollsofRongelap,Ailinginae,andRongerik,sincethepeopleofRongelapcultivated,inhabited,andsurvivedonresourcesfromallthreeatolls.THEIMPORTANCEOFLANDTounderstandtheimplicationsofcontaminatingRongelapanddenyingthepeopleaccesstotheirresourcesandlands,wemustfirstunderstandthevalueoflandfromaMarshalleseperspective.Landisnotjustaplacetoliveandgrowfood;intheMar-shallIslands,itistheessenceoflife.Inacountryofonlyseventysquaremiles,landisthemostvaluedcommodity.MuchofMarshallesepeople’slife,culture,andsenseofidentitycomesfromtheland:Landgivesyouthemeaningoflifeandtheroleofeachindividualinsociety.(MikeKabua,March4,1999)Thepeopleherehavetenaciouslyheldontoland.Theresourcepeopletreasuremostisland.Landspeaksofyourbeing,essence,reasonforliving.Yourelatetotheworldintermsofland….Landprovidesforyourpresent,future,andfutureneeds….Youcannotputenoughvalueonland.Howdoyouputavalueonsomethingthatpeopleconsiderasalivingthingthatispartofyoursoul?(WilfredKendall,March3,1999)Withouttheland,allshatters.Landbindsus.IwasreallyhappyonRongerikbecauseit’smyplace.Igrewupthere.(MwenadrikKebenli,March16,1999)Inanotherinterview,aRongelapeseyouthequatedthelossoflandwithsuicide.Fromhisperspective,lossoflandisakintoaviolentdeath(MalalAnjain,March19,1999).Historically,attachmenttothelandwasrootedintheindigenousreligionthattheMarshallesepracticedbeforeChristianityreplacedit,asdiscussedearlierinsummarizingtheworkofJackTobin.ObservationsbyTobindemonstrateaconsciousefforttominimizehumanimpactonanecologicallyfragileandimportantenvironment.TheMarshallesepeople’srespectfortheenvironmentanditsresourcesismostevidentwhereheexplainshowtheMarshalleseaskedandwaitedforpermissionfromatreetoenteranarea.AsdemonstratedbytherelationshipbetweenthechiefandthepeopleinTobin’spassage,Marshallesecultureandsocietyaretightlystructuredbylandrights.Eachofthethreedifferenttiersofsocietycarriesdistinctlandandresourceuserights.Asdis-cussedinChapter1,thethreetiersorclassificationsofpeoplearethechiefs(iroij),themanagersoftheland(alap),andtheworkers(ri-jerbal).Landrightsalonedefineaperson’sdesignationintooneofthesethreesocialcategories:WehavedifferentcustomsthantheAmericans.Theywon’tsaytherearethreetiersoflandrights,butforusthereare.Weprotecttheland.Thisisourinheritancefromourgrandfathersandgrandmothers.(DorothyEmos,March18,1999)Therighttouselandtypicallyinvolvestherighttooccupyanarea,butdoesnotincludethefreeuseofanyoftheresourceswithoutpermissionfromthechief(iroij).Inexchangefortherighttooccupyandlivefromtheland,workers(ri-jerbal)providethelabortomaintainthelandandkeepitproductivebycaringfortreesandplants,clearingunderbrush,producingandpreservingfood,andmanaginglivestock.In

62CHAPTER5exchangeforuseoftheland,theyprovidegiftsoffoodormoneyfromsellingcopratothechief,whooftendistributesthefoodtoneedypeople.Thechiefcanrevoketheprivilegetouseanareaifworkersdonotadheretostewardshipprinciplesthatensurethelong-termvitalityofthelandanditsresources.Theiroijhavepeopleworkonandcleantheland.Peoplegettousetheresourcesontheland,andtheiroijbenefitfromhavingthelandmaintainedandproductive.(WilfredKendall,March5,1999)Inadditiontoestablishingthesocialhierarchy,thelandanditsresourcesprovidethemeanstosustaincustomarypractices.Accesstonaturalresourcesisacriticalcom-ponentofeveryimportantsocialeventsuchaschildren’sone-yearbirthdays(kemem),funerals,andvisitsbythechief.Fortheseoccasions,peoplemustprovidegiftsoffood,wovenmats,andnecklacesmadefromshellsandflowers.Visitsbythechiefrequiretheharvestingofspecialfoodsreservedonlyfortheiraij,suchascertainspeciesoffishandturtles.Atfunerals,communitymembersgatherwhiterocksandplacethemaroundgravesasasignofpurity.Thus,naturalresourcesareimportantinthesocialfunction-ingofthecommunity.Contaminationofthelandandtheinabilityofpeopletoworkonandgatherresourcesfromtheirlandcanaltertheentiresocialfabricofthecommunity.FromaMarshalleseperspective,theterrestriallandisasacredpartof,notsep-aratefrom,theseasandtheskies.TheMarshallesepeoplehavesurvivedforcentu-riesonwhatoutsidersseeasbarrenstretchesofsandbydrawingontheirintricateknowledgeoftheirsurroundings.Theirlandisnottheharshchallengethatoutsi-derssee.Forthosewhoinherittheknowledgeofmanygenerations,theislandsareaplacerichwithcrops,plants,andanimals:Theislandsinthenorthernislands,likeRongelap,theywerethegardenislands.Every-oneknewtheywerethebestplacetogrowarrowroot,pandanus…therewerewholeislandscoveredwithbirdsandturtles.(LijohnEknilang,March4,1999)Iwasbornin1917onRongerik.Wecametogetherandmadefood.Westoredfood,somanykindsoffood.Everytypewasthere.Therewaswater.Weatearrowroot,preservedbreadfruit,pandanus,coconut,fish,crab,andfoodsfromthereeflikeoctopus,clam,andsmallfish.There’sanisland,Jipedbao[literally,the”placeofbirds”],withlotsofbirds.Therewerealsoturtlesontheislands.WewouldsailovernightintheoutriggercanoetoRongelap.WewouldtakefoodtoRonge1ap.Wealwaysexchangedfood.(MwenadrikKebenli,March16,1999)Eachatollenvironmentisslightlydifferent.ThepeoplewholivedonRongelap,Rongerik,andAilinginaepossessspecificinformationaboutthelocationofcriticalresources.TheRongelapesecanidentifysourcesoffreshwater,clambeds,reefsthataregoodforcatchinglobsters,beacheswiththebestshellsformakinghandicrafts,areaswhereturtleslayeggs,andbirdhabitats.Theyalsoknowwheretolocatetheplantstheyneedtomakemedicine.Familiespassdownknowledgeaboutmedicine.TheMarshalleseconsiderthepossessionofknowledgeaboutthemedicinalqualitiesofplantstoberare,highlyvalued,andpowerful.Todescribethepreciselocationofcriticalresources,theRongelapesegivenamestodistinguishableareasofthelandandreefs.Everyreefthatservesasanimportantfoodcollectionareaorasanimportantnavigationalpointhasaname.

ALIENATIONFROMTHELAND63TheMarshallesealsogivenamestoterrestrialandmarineproperty.Thenamesofatoll,island,andlandparcels(welo)remindtheRongelapeseofthehistoryandthesocialandenvironmentalsignificanceoftheproperty.Placenamesfrequentlydescribethephysicalcharacteristicsofthelandandseaandthewayinwhichpeo-pleinheritedandinteractwiththeresources(seeTable1.3inChapter1).Inadditiontoknowingthelocationofpreciousresources,theRongelapeseknowhowtosafeguardthemtoensurethattheyremainavailabletofuturegenera-tions.Byhavingaccesstothreedifferentatolls,thecommunityhadaflexible,fluidmeansofgatheringresources.Multiplecultivationoptionsensuredthatpeopledidnotdepleteresourcesandhelpedthemadjusttoseasonalandclimaticchanges:Weknowtoonlyfishfortwodaysinonespotandthenmove.Withthecoconutcrab,wedidn’tusedtotakethefemalesandwedidn’ttaketoomanyfromoneplace.Wenevertooksmallcrabsorpregnantcrabs.Asfortheturtlesandbirds,wenevertookalltheeggs.(GeorgeAnjain,March3,1999)Webrokethewingsofsomebirdssotheywouldstayandmakemorebirds.Weatetheyoungerbirdssotheadultbirdscouldmakemorebirds.Weonlyatethemduringthebirthingseason.(MijuaJob,March10,1999)Sincecoralatollshavelimitedamountsoffoodandwater,thesharingofresourcesiscriticalforcommunitysurvivalandessentialforlife.TheRongelapeseworkedtogethertoharvestandpreparefood,andtheysharedwaterandfoodresourceswithfamilyandneighbors:Becauseofitscriticalimportance,waterwassharedperhapsmorethananyotherresource.Itwasunderstoodthat,ifyouhaveagoodwell,peoplecouldcomeandasktouseitorjusttakeit.(WilfredKendall,March2,1999)OnMonluellandparcel(welo),therewasabigfencewithchickensinit.Thebirdsbelongedtothefamily,butpeoplewouldaskforthem.Whenthereweremanybirds,sometimestheywouldhandoutabirdtoeachfamily.(MijuaJob,March10,1999)Peoplegottogethertoharvestarrowroot,breadfruit,andotherfoodstopreservethem.Wesalted,dried,orgratedpandanusforpreservation.(LijohnEknilang,March3,1999)Localmaterialsprovidedthepeoplewithfood,shelter,transportation,toys,medicine,andtools.Theydidnotpurchasemanyprovisionsotherthankerosene,tinroofing,lamps,cigarettes,matches,threadandneedles,sugar,rice,andflour.Theycouldobtainmanyoftheseitemsbytradingorsellingcopra.DAMAGE,INJURY,ANDLOSSTheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramcreatedhealthproblemsandenviron-mentalhazardsthatwilllastfordecadesandgenerationstocome.InthecaseofRongelap,thetestingprogramdestroyedthecommunity’smeanstosustainaself-sufficientwayoflife.Theintroductionofradiationintotheenvironmentnotonlydamagedthehealthandviabilityofthenaturalresourcesandthosewhodependedonthemforsurvival,butalsodeniedtheRongelapesethemeanstoliveself-sufficiently.Thesocial,cultural,economic,political,andpsychologicalconse-quencesofthisdamageandlossarefar-reachingandprofound.

64CHAPTER5Wehadnoproblemwithourfoodbeforethetesting.Afterwards,arrowrootandtheplantsgaveusblistersinourmouths.Ialsothinktheproblemswithourthroats[thyroid]arefromthepoison.Afterwewentback[toRongelapin1957],newfishgaveusfishpoisoning,suchasredsnapper.Rongelap’slagoonwasaffected.Igotfishpoisoningtwiceafterreturning….(JohnAnjain,March16,1999)Wesawcoconuttreesthathadtwoheads,somethree.Wesawtheyweren’tgoodforustoeat.Weunderstoodthereweredifferences[intheland]becausewegrewupthereandweknew….(DorothyEmos,March18,1999)Althoughradionuclidesandtheirbioaccumulationinfoodstuffswereaninvisiblethreat,theRongelapesesuspectedthattheirproblemsstemmedfromhighlevelsofradia-tionintheenvironment.Theygotblistersintheirmouths,aswellasfoodpoisoning,fromconsumingcertainfoodsthatdidnotcausehealthproblemsbeforethetestingprogram.Weatefoodsthatmadeourthroatsswellandcloseup,andevenmadeusshakelikewehadepilepsy.Irememberthisaftereatingcrab.Idon’tknowifitbecamepoisonouslikesomespeciesoffish,orwhat….Thepeoplegotmouthblistersfromeatingarrowroot,fish,clams,andcoconuts….(ChiyokoTamayose,March2,1999)Thethroats[thyroids]ofthebirdsbecameabnormallylargeandswollenintheyearsafterthebombs.Whenweopenedthemup,theyhadhard,whiterocksintheirthroatsthatwehadneverseenbefore.(LijohnEknilang,March3,1999)TheradiationthatworkeditswaythroughtheplantandanimalfoodchainprovidedU.S.governmentscientistswiththeresearchopportunitytosignificantlyexpandtheirunderstandingofbioaccumulationandenvironmentalsourcesofexposureinhumanbeings.Bioaccumulationofradiationwasparticularlyevidentincoconutcrabs,adel-icacyintheMarshallIslands;itisaprocesswhereradiationbecomesconcentratedasitmovesupthefoodchain.Radionuclidessuchasstrontiumandcesiumenteredtheenvironmentintheformoffalloutfromtheweaponstests.Theysettledonthesoiltobeabsorbedbycoconuttreessearchingfornutrients.Thecoconutsofthesetreescon-tainedradiationthatcoconutcrabsconsumed.Theradiationbecameincreasinglyconcentratedwitheverytransfer.Eventually,theRongelapeseatethecoconutcrabscontaininghighlyconcentratedradiation.Radiationcausedsomeessentialcropstodisappearcompletely.Rongelapwasanatollwithsomuchfood–coconut,pandanus,andbreadfruit.Nowthereisnone.Becauseofthepoison,itdisappeared.(JerkanJenwor,March17,1999)TheU.S.government’sfailuretodisclosethetrueradiologicalcontentofthefoodstuffsonRongelap–informationthatbecameavailableonlyafterthecommu-nityputitselfintoexile-exacerbatedthecommunity’sfearsaboutradiation.Psychologically,youstopbelievingineverythingaroundyou.Yourfeelingofsafetynolongerexistswhentheradiation-contaminatedmedicineandfoodaroundyouisnogood,restricted,ormakesyouworry.(LijohnEknilang,March3,1999)EXPERIENCESINEXILETheU.S.governmentforcedtheentirecommunityofRongelaptomovefourdif-ferenttimes,andthecommunityitselfdecidedtomoveoneadditionaltime.Ifyou

ALIENATIONFROMTHELAND65TABLE5.1RELOCAnONSOFTHERONGELAPCOMMUNITYMay1946TheU.S.governmentrelocatedthepeopleofRongelapandnearbyWothotoLaeAtollforseveralmonthsasapreventativemeasuretoprotectthecommunityfromdownwindfallout.Laeisanextremelysmallatollwithlimitedspaceandresources.OnLae,theRongelapeselivedincanvastents.FoodsuppliesfromtheU.S.governmentwereinadequate(IsaoEknilang,October31,2001).March3,1954TheU.S.governmentwaitedmorethantwodaysaftertheBravotestbeforeevacuatingthepeoplefromRongelaptoKwajaleindespiteknowledgethatradio-logicalcontaminationwassevere.June1954AfterU.S.governmentdoctorsmonitoredandreportedontheimmediateeffectsofhumanradiationexposure,theU.S.governmentmovedthepeopleofRongelaptoEjitIslandonMajuroAtoll.TheU.S.governmenttoldthecommunityitcouldnotreturntoRongelapbecausetheislandsweretoodangerousforhumanhabitation.OnEjit,thepeopleexperiencedapolioepidemicandsubsistedprimarilyoncannedgoods(NorioKebenli,October29,2001).July1957TheU.S.governmenttoldtheRongelapesethatitwassafeforthemtoreturntotheislandofRongelaponRongelapAtoll.Rongerik,Ailinginae,andtherestoftheislandsonRongelapAtollwereoff-limits.May1985Fearingforthehealthandsafetyofthecommunityandfuturegenerations,theRongelapcommunitydisagreedwithU.S.governmentassertionsthatRongelapwassafeforhumanhabitation.Withgreatsadness,thecommunitywentintoself-exile.Rongelap’siroij,theKabuafamily,agreedtoletthecommunityusetheuninhabitedislandofMejattoonKwajaleinAtoll.ThecommunityisnowdispersedtodifferentlocationswithintheMarshallIslandsandtheUnitedStates.thinkaboutthedifficultiesofmovingasinglepersonorafamilyfromonelocationtoanotherorfromonehousetoanother,imaginethechallengesinvolvedinmov-inganentirecommunityfiveseparatetimes(seeTable5.1).DespiteassurancesbytheU.S.governmentthatRongelapwassafe,theRonge-lapesebelievedthattheirhealthandsafetywerecompromisedafter1957bylivinginanenvironmentcontaminatedbyradiation.TheRongelapesedescribehowthefoodtaintedwithradiationgavepeopleblistersintheirmouthsandmadethemsick.Thepeoplealsobelievedthattheirenvironmentalexposureledtotheprema-turedeathsandseveredeformitiesoftheiroffspring(seeChapter7).JetonAnjain,whowasthesenatorfromRongelapatthetime(andwholaterdiedfrombonecancer),ledtheParliament(Nitijela)oftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands

66CHAPTER5(RMI)inpassingaunanimousresolutionaskingtheU.S.governmenttorelocatetheRongelapese.TheU.S.governmentignoredthisrequestandmaintainedthatRongelapwassafe,despitehavingextensiveinformationtothecontrary.TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)toldtheRongelapesethattherewas”nojustification”fortheirself-evacuation(Anjain1989:14).TheRongelapeseturnedforhelptoGreenpeace,anongov-ernmentalenvironmentalorganization.GreenpeacedispatchedtheshipRainbowWarriortoRongelapIslandinMay1985,toassisttheRongelapesewiththeirevacuation.TheRongelapesemovedtoMejattoIsland,asmallislandonthewesternsideofKwajaleinAtoll.Eventually,thecornmunitydispersedtothetwourbancentersofMajuroandEbeyeandtootherlocations.Thesocial,economic,andenvironmentalproblemsthecommunityhasexperiencedinitsexileareconsequentialdamagesdirectlylinkedtotheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.THELOSSOFSELF-SUFFICIENCYApproximatelyone-halfoftheMarshallesepopulationsubsistsonagriculturalpro-duction(GovernmentoftheRMI1999).Theweaponstestingprogramalienated100percentoftheRongelapesepopulationfromitslandandresources.Thislossaffecteddiet,health,andhouseholdeconomyandseverelyinhibitedtheabilityoftheRongelapesetoproduceorreproduceculturalknowledgeabouttheirlocalenviron-mentessentialtothesurvivalandlong-termwell-beingofthecommunity.Thedis-bursementofthecommunityintoseveralresidenceareasmeansthattheRongelapesearenowafracturedcommunityratherthanacommunitywhereeveryoneworkstogether.Eachofthedifferentareaswherecommunitymembersnowliveprovideschallengesthattheydidnotexperienceontheirownland.LifeonMejattoApproximately350peoplemovedfromRongelaptoMejattoin1985.Mejattoisasmallislandapproximatelyonemilelong.ItissituatedonthewesternendofKwajaleinAtoll,approximatelysixtymilesfromEbeyeIsland.Mejattohasnoairstrip,anditsresi-dentsrelyonsmallboatstotraveltoEbeye.Aftertheirmove,thepeopledidnotownmotorboatsorhavemoneytopayforgastomaketheten-hourtripoverroughwaters.MejattowasanuninhabitedislandbeforetheRongelapesearrived.Asaresult,nocultivationhadtakenplacethere,andlittletraditionalfoodwasavailable.Thepeopleplantedpandanus,breadfruit,andcoconut,butittookfiveyearsbeforetheseplant-ingswouldproducefood(Greenpeace1986).Furthermore,theislandhadnohouses,andmanypeoplehadtosleepoutsideintherainforweeksbeforetheycouldbuildadequateshelter(KenKedi,March1,1999).TheislandssurroundingMejattohadfood,buttheRongelapesewerereluctanttogatheritbecausetheyhadnorightsorpermissiontousetheseislands.Dangeroustidesandunfamiliar,rockyreefsaroundMejattomadeitdifficultforthementofishortopassonknowledgeaboutfishingtotheyoungergeneration.ThedifficultlifeonMejattocontributedtopeople’slongingfortheirhomeislands:Ididn’twanttoleaveRongelapin1985,buttheeldersdid,soIwent.BecauseRongelapwasnogood,Ileft.ButIdidn’tlikeMejatto.ItisprettydifficulttofishonMejatto.Wind

ALIENATIONFROMTHELAND67preventspeoplefromfishing.OnRongelap,thereweremanychoices-manywaystofishandmanyplacestofish….KidsonMejattodon’tknowhowtosailanoutriggercanoe.It’stoolowtolaunchthere.OnMejattoit’shardtosailandhardtoteach.OnMejattothereislotsofAmericanfood.There’smorefood-localfood–onRongelap.TherewasnothingatallonMejattointhebeginning.Nowit’sbetterbecauseweplantedfood.Mejattoisbadbecauseit’shardtogetbackandforth.It’sdangerousonallthesmallislands.Somepeoplehavedisappeared,somedrowned.It’shardtomoveabout.(BoneyBoaz,March17,1999)MejattoisreallydifferentfromRongelap.Mejattoisreallysmall.Resources,suchasfishandgrownfoods,arescarce.InMejattopeoplefishonlytwotothreetimesaweek,butonRongelappeoplefishedeveryday.PeopledependonU.S.D.A.[U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture]andimportedfoods.It’slikeacamp.Peoplearenothealthy.Theyhavebaddiets,diseases,andthehealthservicesareinadequate….ItistooroughtofishinMejatto,andtherearetoomanysharks.PeopledieinthecurrentaroundMejatto.(JohnsayRiklon,February28,1999)LifeonEbeyeandMajuroSinceallsocialrelationshipsintheMarshallIslandsevolvefromlandrights,thecom-munitylostitsstructureandhierarchywhenitmovedtoMejatto.TheRongelapesedonotownthelandonMejatto,andpeopledonothavethesameinterestinmaintain-ingtheland.ThesocialstructureonRongelap,basedentirelyonlandrightsinthecommunity’shomeislands,disappearedonMejatto.Peoplewiththetitleandprestigeofalandmanager(alap)onRongelaplosttheirauthorityonMejatto.ThislefttheRongelapesewithnostructureforleadershipintheircommunity.ManyRongelapeseleftMejatto,andthecommunitydispersedtoseverallocations,particularlythetwourbanareasintheMarshallIslands.Considertheroleofindividualsinasocietydefinedbytheenvironment.Therearethreetiersofrights.TheserightsarereciprocaL…Communitylifecomesfromtheland.Themovementofpeoplefromtheirlandchangesallofthis:peoplearenolongerconnectedtotheland,oranything.Whenpeoplearenotontheirlandwithitssocialrankstheycannotperformwhatisexpectedofthem.Thismakesthemfeelinsecure.Landisaprivilegeandittellsyouwhoyouareinthecommunity….Movingawayreallymessesupthings.Goingtonewland,newarea,youdon’tknowwhatlandbelongstowho.(WilfredKendall,March2,1999)Thecommunityisscatteredandsplinteredwithnobase.Therearemanydifferentcat-egoriesofRongelapesenow-thosewhohavelivedthere[homeislands],thosewhohavenot,teenagers,etc.(JohnsayRiklon,February28,1999)Throughouttheworld,aglobaltrendofurbanizationcreateschallengesforallcommunities.ThesechallengesareespeciallygreatfortheMarshallIslands.PeoplefromtheouterislandstypicallymovetothetwourbancentersofEbeyeandMajurotofurthertheireducationandtoseekwagejobs.Theshiftofpopulationtourbanareashappensslowly.Forexample,afamilyfromMiliAtollmaysendasontothepublichighschoolinMajuro,sincethereisnoschoolingbeyondeighthgradeavailableonMili.Thesonmaylivewithextendedfamilywhileattendingschool.Ifheisfortunateenoughtogetawage-earningjobafterfinishinghighschool,thefamilymaysendanotherofitsmemberstoMajurotolivewiththesonandsearchforajob.Thetrendcontinuesslowly.

68CHAPTER5Incontrast,forthepeopleofRongelap,themovementofitspopulationtourbanareascameabruptlywithnogradualtransitionandnopreparation.OnRongelap,thepeoplecouldearnalivingthroughsubsistence.Intheurbanareas,theskillsneededforworkingthelanddonottranslateintoawage-earningjob.MembersofthecommunitycomplainthatmanyRongelapesewhousedtoworkhardontheirownlandarenowmostlyidle.Theydonothavetherighttocultivateanylandaroundthehousestheynowrentbecausetheyarelivingonotherpeople’sland.Peopleinthecommunity,aswellasresearchers,acknowledgethatsuicide,malnutrition,alcoholism,smoking,andlackofphysicalexerciseareproblemsforthecommunity(Palafox2002b).Housingisamajorproblem.EbeyeIsland,theurbanareaclosesttoMejattowheremanyfromtheexiledcommunityrelocated,isoneofthemostdenselypopu-latedareasintheworld.Approximatelyfifteenthousandpeopleliveinatinyspacemeasuringjustone-tenthofasquaremile(Figure5.1).Scarcelyanytreesexistontheisland,andithasnoopenareaswherechildrencanplay,withtheexceptionofthedump(Figure5.2).WhileMajurohasalargerlandmassthanEbeye,thepoorestareasoftheisland,wheremostoftheRongelapeselive,areextremelycrowdedaswell.OnbothMajuroandEbeye,water,electricity,education,andhealthcarearedifficultforfamiliestoobtain.IncontrasttotheirlifeofsubsistenceonRongelap,urbandwellersmustpurchaseeverythingtheyneed.TheRongelapesefeelfrustratedbymanyoftheproblemstheyexperienceintheirurbanenvironments:OnEbeye…webuythings.Wedon’thavepandanusleavestomakesleepingmats.Ilieonthetile.Weneedmoneyforeverything.Whenitrunsout,thereisnofood.Ourthingstocookwithbreak.Istillhaven’teatenbreakfasttoday[1l:15a.m.].There’snomedicine.There’snovehicletogoandgetbirdstoeat.Theyarefaraway….My’—_._.~—‘.1”.I~-Figure5.1Modern-dayEbeye.

AUENATIONFROMTHElAND69Figure5.2Ebeye’sDumpTown.childrengrewuponEbeye.Theyjusthangaround.(MwenadrikKebenli,March16,1999)Whatislifelikenow?It’sfilledwithsickness.Itwasbetterontheisland[Rongelap].IcametoEbeyebecausemykidshavetogotoschool.Foodishardwhenyoudon’tliveonyourownland.Itisalsohardtofindenoughmoneytopayforschooltuition.(JerkanJenwor,March17,1999)Nowwestayatoneofthe…housesatDumpTown[thesectionofEbeyeborderingthedump].Sixofourkidsaremarried.Therearelotsofgrandchildren.Therearethirty-somepeopleinthreerooms.Youwouldlaughifyoucouldseeussleeping–everyonetogether.Ireallyneedahouse.Myhusbandisretired,buthestillworksbecausenooneelsehasjobs.(TimakoKolnij,March18,1999)Myfatherdied.Therearefivepeopleinmyfamilynow.Nooneinthefamilyworks….Iwanttogotocollege,butitwillbetoughonthepeopleatmyhousebecausenooneworks.(MalalAnjain,March19,1999)BURIALAmajorconcernoftheRongelapeselivinginexileisthattheycannotconductburialsontheirfamily-ownedlandandtendtothegravesoftheirancestors.Thepeoplecan-notaffordtorentlargeboatsrequiredtoshipbodiestoRongelap.Tendingtothegravesisameanstoshowrespect.NowdisplacedRongelapesehavenoconnectiontotheirancestorsandthereforecannotteachtheirchildrenabouttheirancestry.In1999,IaccompaniedmembersoftheRongelapcommunitybacktotheirhomeisland.ThepeoplemadethisquickexcursiontoRongelaptoreviewU.s.onvp.rnmpnt_fnnnprlpff(‘rt~tArpr111~t:Iotho.T”t:lr1~<“:It~nT”li””‘t..T”l.••ha.~•.•l•.•.•..•r1•..•.•..•…..1+…..•.•..•””‘…•.•..••t…•.•.•.

Ijiokwe10kaelonkoaoIjoiarlotakie.Melankoieimialko70CHAPTER5Figure5.3CemeteryonRongelap,April1999.plantsandfoodsmightbegrownifpeopledecidedtoresettletheisland.Afterourairplanetoucheddown,anelderlywomaninthe.groupproceededimmediatelytotheburialarea(Figure5.3).Shecalledout:”Yokwe1wm,”or”Hellotoallofyou,”and.walkedbetw~enthegravestones.Itwasclearthatherfirstobligationuponreturningwastovisitherancestors,somethingshecouldnotdoinexile.TheimportanceoflandanddyingonyourownlandiscapturedinthefirstnationalanthemoftheMarshallIslands:IlovemyislandsHerewhereIwasbornThebeautifulsurroundingsandjoiningtogetherwithfriendsIjaminilokjeneIdon’twanttoleavehereBweijojikuemoolBecausethisismytrueplaceInaolamorenindeoIt’smyinheritanceforeverEmman10kmaeinaajmijieIt’sbestformetodiehere2OnMajuro,andparticularlyonEbeye,spaceforburialsisscarceanddifficulttoobtain.TheRongelapesemustaskforpermissiontoburytheirfamilymembersonotherpeople’sland.Familiesthatownlandcontaininggraveyardsoftendenypermissionbecauseofsevereovercrowding(Figure5.4)::t.rranslatedbyLijohnEknilang;reprintedbypermission.

AUENATIONFROMTHElAND71Figure5.4CemeteryonEbeye,April1999.Weshouldn’thavetoasktobeburied.HereonEbeyeit’stoocrowdedtobury.Wehavetolookforplacestoburyourdead.IwanttogobacktoRongelaptodie.Nowthey’restartingtocremateonEbeyebecausethere’snoplacetoburynow.Theytoldusit’stoofulltobury-thecemeteryisfull.Burialareasareovercrowded,butcrema-tionisagainstourcustomandreligion.(LijohnEknilang,March3,1999)STIGMAIPSYCHOLOGICALPROBLEMSAMONGTHE”BOMBEDPEOPLE”Stigmatization,fear,andpoorhealthcauseprofoundproblemsforindividuals,fami-lies,andcommunitiesintheMarshallIslands.AftertheBravotestexposedtheRon-gelapesetoradiation,theU.S.governmentevacuatedthecommunitytoKwajaleinandkeptthepeopleinahighlysecureareawhereonlyU.S.governmentrepresenta-tivescouldcomeandgo.FamilymemberslivingonEbeyeIslandatthetimeheardthattheirrelativeshadbecomeillforunexplainedreasons,butcouldnotvisitthem.RelativesonEbeyedidnotknowthattheillnesseswereduetoradiationorthatradi-ationisdangeroustothehumanbody.TheU.S.governmentdidnotundertakepubliceducationeffortstoexplainthecrisistotheMarshallese.People’signoranceaboutradiationissuesledtostigmatization.TheRongelapesesaythatformanyyearsaftertheywereexposedtoradiationfromtheBravotest,manyoftheirfamilymembersdidnotwanttoseeortouchthem,fearingthatcontaminationwascontagious:WewereveryisolatedonKwajalein.OurrelativesonEbeyewereafraidoftheirownfamilymembers-theywereafraidtovisitusforfeartheywouldgetradiationfromU~.(J~il()FknililnoTl1np11′}001)

72CHAPTER5Thiswasthefirsttimeinthehistoryofourcommunitythatbrothersandsisters,unclesandaunts,andrelativesturnedtheirbackononeanother.Thiscreatedadeepdivideinourcommunity.(AlmiraMatayoshi,October29,2001)WhenwewouldwalkdownthestreetinMajuroorsomewhere,peoplewouldlookatusandpointandsay,”Ebaam[he’sbombed],stayawayfromhim!”(NonoKebenli,October29,2001)Thetwohardestthingsforustotalkaboutarethedivisionsinourfamiliescausedbythebombandwhathappenedtoourbodies.TheRongelapesewhoweren’texposedwouldn’tadmittheywereRongelapese[forfearofstigmatizationfromtherestofthecountry].Thisisawfulbecausewearefamily,andthisistheworstkindofdamagetohavesplitsinthefamily.(AlmiraMatayoshi,June13,2001)Afterexperiencingextremeillnessanddisplacementbecauseoftheweaponstestingprogram,thecommunitysufferedfurtherindignitiesfromotherMarshallesewhowereafraidofradiationanditseffects.GENDER,AGE,ANDSTATUSINEXILEWomenAsdiscussedinChapter1,landpassesdownthroughfamiliesmatrilineally.BecauselandisofcentralimportancetotheMarshallese,thistraditionprovideswomenwithpowerandrespect.Nowthatthecommunitycannotliveonitslandbecauseoftheradiation,childrendonotgrowupwithknowledgeaboutthelandtheywillinheritoranappreciationforitsimportance.Asaresult,theresettlementofthecommunityattenuatesthepowerofwomen.Intheirexile,womendonothavetherighttousetheplantmaterialstheyneedtomakehandicrafts.Theycannotteachtheirdaughterstheskillsforself-sufficiencytheylearnedfromtheirmothers:OnRongelap,younggirlslikemelearnedtomakepreservedpandanusandfoodfrompandanus.Wecookeditintheundergroundoven.Wealsomadesittingmats,sleepingmats,andbaskets.Ourgrandmotherstaughtus.Wepreparedshellsforhandicrafts.Wegotthepandanusleavesforthewomen.(TimakoKolnij,March18,1999)MenOnRongelap,themenhadarangeoffishingandfood-gatheringtechniquesthatensuredtheycouldprovidefortheirfamilies.Theyareproudoftheirfishing,sailing,andnavigationalskills.ManyRongelapesemenindicatedininterviewsthattheyfeelinadequateandcompromisedasmenbecausetheseskillsarenolongerrelevantandtheycannotprovidefortheirfamilies.Theylacktheeducationalandoccupationalskillsnecessarytoobtainwage-earningjobs.SeveralRongelapesementoldmetheybelievethatsuicideisincreasingamongyoungRongelapesemenbecauseoflowself-esteem:Wehavelostourknowledge,ourability,ourmoralstanding,andself-esteeminthecommu-nity.Whatweweretaughtisnolongerpractical.Tobeagoodfisherman,youhavetoknowwheretofishonanisland.Alothasbeenlost,notjustourland.(KenKedi,March1,1999)

AUENATIONFROMTHElAND73ElderlyTheoldermembersoftheRongelapcommunity,thosewhowerechildrenduringthetestingprogram,enduregreathardship.TheBravotestexposedthemtonear-lethalamountsofradioactivefallout:theysufferfromarangeofhealthproblems;theywatchfriendsandchildrendie;theyhaveexperiencedcommunityrelocationmanytimes;theyremaindisplacedfromtheirland;theyareanxiousaboutdeathawayfromtheirhomelandwithoutaproperburialground;theyfinditdifficulttomeettheirbasicneedsforfoodandshelter;andtheyworryaboutthefutureoftheirchildrenandcommunity.Furthermore,elderslackthetraditionalrespecttheyusedtoreceiveontheirownland-respectthatcomesfromknowledgeabouthowtosurvivefromtheland,knowledgethatwasofcriticalimportanceonRongelap,butisuselessintheeyesoftheyouthraisedinexile:Elderslosetheirauthoritywhenthecommunityisonsomeoneelse’slandbecausetheycan’tusethethreatofkickingpeopleofftheirlandtogetworkdoneforthemortogetrespect.Thereisnofearofpunishmentintheyoungergeneration.Authoritycomesfromland.(LijohnEknilang,March2,1999)Inexile,manyfamilymembersdonothavethemoneyorresourcestoproperlycarefortheelderly.Asaresult,manyoftheelderlyRongelapesearesickandoftenhungry.Inthepast,theyhadareciprocalrelationshipwiththeyoungergeneration,impartingknowledgeinexchangeforreceivingcarefortheirills.Theelderlyalsofeelconcernedthat,whentheydie,noonewillpassoninformationaboutRongelaptoensurefuturesurvivalandproperstewardshipoftheislandsandancestors.TheeldersmostlywanttoreturntoRongelapbecausetheyknownootherwayoflife.(JamesMatayoshi,March1,1999)Mosteldersdied.Theydiedwantingtogoback.Mygreatgrandfather,Talekerab,saidhewouldn’tleavetheislandwhenitwastimetoevacuate.Aftertheytookhimoff,hestartedfastinganddemandedtogoback.Everydayhewouldchant,sing,andtalkofthegoodolddays.Hewouldask:”Whyarewehere[inMejatto]?”Hesaidhewouldn’teatuntilhewentback.Hedied.(KenKedi,March1,1999)YouthTheRongelapesebornafterthetestingprogramfaceanothersetofproblems.AccordingtotheGreenpeaceteamthathelpedevacuatetheRongelapesetoMejatto,teenageboyshadaparticularlydifficulttimewiththetransition:Theyhavelittletodo….Theysleep,talkstory,playguitarandsoftball,andnowandthengofishingorhelpwithcommunityjobs….Theyareinbetweencultures,exposedtotheAmericanwayoflifethroughTVandvideosandtheconsumergoodiesavailableinMajuroandEbeye….Outerislandlifeisverydifferentanddoesnotpreparepeopleforthemateriallyoriented,importedlifestyle.(Greenpeace1986:3)Rongelapeseadultsworryaboutthefateoftheiryouthwhohavenoconnectiontotheland.Perhapsyoungpeoplewillnotbeabletoexercisetheirpropertyrightsinthefuturebecausetheydonotknowthehistoryoftheirlandorevenwhatlandbelongstotheirfamily.Youngpeoplethemselveshaveworriesaboutthelackof

74CHAPTER5opportunitiesavailabletotheminurbanareas.Theyalsoworryaboutdecisionsthattheadultsmaymaketoreturntotheirhomeislands,whichwouldreshapetheirfutures.TheyhavemanyquestionstheyneedtheireldersandtheU.S.governmenttoanswerbeforedecidingwhethertheywanttoresettletheirhomeislands.WhenIwasayoungboyonRongelap,IstartedtofishwhenIwasabouteightyearsold.Iknewhowtomakecopraanddoallkindsofwork.Eighttotwelveyearsofageareimportantyearsforlearning.Whenyouleavehome,thereisnoroleforthekids.Theyusedtoworkandcontribute,butnotanymore.(JerkanJenwor,March17,1999)Rongelapeseyouthcan’tclimbtrees,buttheyarefamiliarwithCoca-Cola.Youthusedtokeepbusyandfitdoingworkintheirenvironment,suchasmakingcopra.Theycan’tdothatintheurbanareas,however,andtheyareunfitasaresult.ThetypesofcurrentactivitiesRon-gelapesetakepartinaregathering,smoking,talking,makingyeast[alocallymadealcoholicbeverage].Suicideseemstobeincreasing,especiallyonMejatto.(KenKedi,MarchI,1999)KidsfromRongelapthatliveinMajuroarenotinvolvedintheRongelapcommunity.Therearen’tmanycommunityactivitiesforthemtogetinvolvedin.Idon’tthinktheyfeelRongelap-ese.Theydon’tknowtheirrelatives.Theirfriendsarekidsfromotheratollcommunities.IdoubtthesekidswillwanttogobacktoRongelap.(JohnsayRiklon,February28,1999)ChiefsandStatusThelandonRongelap,Rongerik,andAilinginae,allofwhichismanagedbythecommunityandmaintainedforthechief(iroij),isnolongerproductive,meaningthatthechiefsofRongelap,Rongerik,andAilinginaenolongerreceiveaportionoftheearningsfromcopraproductionorgiftsoffoodtheycandistributetoneedypeople.Thepowerofthechiefdiminisheswiththeinabilitytocontrolthemoneyandresourcesgeneratedfromthelandandtoassistothers.Withoutpeopleoccupyingtheland,thereisnoiroij.Thewordiroijmeans”manypeople”andcomesfromthewordserwoj.What’sthepointofbeinganiraijwithoutanyland?..,Whenthebombexploded,theculturewasgone,too.Itisimpossibleforpeopletoactintheirproperroles.Oursocialrolesaresomethingyouuseeveryday,twenty-fourhoursaday.Youhavetouseiteverydayoryouloseit.(MikeKabua,March2,1999)Fromtheperspectiveofthelandmanagers(alaps)whooverseethechiefslandandtheworkers(ri-jerbal)whoprovidethelabor,themembersofthedisplacedcommunityfeelsadthattheycannotshowtheirrespectfortheirchiefincustomaryways.TheRongelapesealsofeelgreatsorrowbecausetheygavefoodstaintedwithradiationtothechiefaftertheywereresettledontheirhomeislandsin1957(GeorgeAnjain,March3,1999).Customarily,thepeoplehadnochoicebuttoprovidethechiefwithfoodduringhisvisitstotheirisland.Theydidnotwantthechieftocon-sumecontaminatedfoods,butcustomrequiredthattheygivelocalfoodstothechief.Bythesarnetoken,thechiefcouldnotrefuseagiftoffoodofferedbyhispeopleandhadtopubliclyconsumecontaminatedfoods(MikeKabua,March2,1999).IroijvisitstoRongelapafter1957weredifficult.Thepeoplewererequiredtogivefoodtotheiriroijevenwhenthefoodwascontaminated,suchascoconutcrabs,becauseofthecul-turalimportance.Peopledidn’twanttogivecontaminatedfoodtotheiraij,buttheyhadto.Bythesametoken,theiroijdidn’twanttoacceptthecontaminatedfood,buthadto.The

-,’ALIENATIONFROMTHELAND75~~Figure5.5froijMike@Kabua.iroijwasscaredofeatingcoconutcrab,butitissoimportanttogivecoconutcrabtotheiroijthattheiroijcouldkickpeopleoffthelandfornotgivingittohim.Thepeoplewerealsoafraidtheiroijwouldrejectthefood.(MikeKabua,March2,1999)(SeeFigure5.5.)CONCLUSIONAfterradiationenteredthefoodchainthattheRongelapesedependedonforsur-vival,allofthecommunity’sinteractionswiththeirlandandtheirresourceschanged.Theweaponstestingtaintedthefoodsthatsustainedthecommunityforhundredsofyearsandcausedillnessanddeathinthepopulation.Thecommunityhadnochoicebuttoleave.MostcommunitymembersmovedtotheurbanareasofEbeyeandMajuro,onlytoliveinextremelycrowded,unsanitary,andimpover-ishedconditions.Intheirexile,theRongelapesedonothaveaccesstothelandandresourcestheyneedtoprovidefortheirfamilies.Alienatedfromtheirhomeislands,peoplenolongerhavetheabilitytoproduceorreproduceculturalknowl-edgeabouttheirlocalenvironment-knowledgethatisessentialtothesurvivalandlong-termwell-beingofthecommunity.Thelongerpeopleliveawayfromtheirhomeislands,themoredifficultitisforthemtoexercisetheirlandrightsandensurethatfuturegenerationsunderstandandaccesstheirlandrights.

6/LanguageandtheTestingProgramAsdiscussedinChapter1,whatmakestheMarshalleselanguageinterestingisitssur-prisinguniformitydespitetheisolationofanddistancebetweendifferentatollpopula-tionsinthemorethan1,000milesofoceanthatseparatethefarthestpopulations.Withinthetwomajordialectsareanumberofminordialects(Bender1978).Someoftheatollssituatedclosertootherislandgroups-suchasMiliinthesoutheast,closetoKiribati,andEnewetakandUjelanginthenorthwest,closetoKosraeandPohnpei-borrowedwordsfromtheirneighbors.Forexample,thepeoplefromMilioftenusetheKiribatiwordfor”giantclam,”kabajua,insteadoftheMarshalleseword,kapwor.AnalysisoftheMarshalleselanguagerequirestheresearchertoexaminenotonlythegrammar,rulesandsoundsusedbyspeakers,butalsothesignalsandcontextofthemeaningconveyedbyspeakers.Joking,particularlyusingdoubleentendreswithhiddensexualmeaning,isanationalpastimeintheMarshallIslands(Bender1978).TheMar-shalleselovetolaughandjoke,butaspeakermustalsoabidebystrictlinguistictaboos.Jokingaboutsexorsexualtopicsisfavoredinsomemixedgroups,butisstrictlyfor-biddeninothergroups.Aspeakermustbefamiliarwiththerelationshipsamongallpar-ticipantsinagroupbeforemakinganyjokesaboutsex.Mostlinguistictaboosoccurbetweencloselyrelatedmenandwomen,butataboocanoccurbetweenmenaswell(Bender1978).Itisextremelydifficultfornon-Marshallesetoknowtherelationshipsbetweenallpeopleinagroup,anditiswiseforoutsiderstotaketheircuesfromothers.OneofthebestwaystodeterminehowtheMarshalleseperceivetheeventsandexperiencesrelatedtotheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramisthroughtheanalysisoflanguage.TheMarshalleselanguagereflectsthelivedexperiencesofapopulationexposedtoradiation.Thelanguageembodiesthehistoryoftheexposedpopulationandthesocialandculturalchangesresultingfromtheintroductionofradiationintotheirworld.RADIATIONANDACOLONIALLANGUAGEOFCONTROLTheU.S.government,theEnglishlanguage,andnuclearweaponscametotheMarshallesepeopleatthesametime.WhentheUnitedStatesbeganitsnuclearweap-onstestingprogramintheMarshallIslands,theMarshallesepeoplehadnowordfor”radiation”-noranyneedtohavesuchawordintheirlanguage.Astheadministrat-ingauthorityofthetrustterritory,theU.S.governmentusedEnglishtoexplaintheideologiesofitsscientists,itsinstitutions,anditsnewestweapon.Throughouttheworld,thecontrolthatcolonizersexertovertheirterritoriesincludeslinguisticcontrol(Romaine1994).IntheMarshallIslands,thelanguageoftheUnited76

lANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM77Statesbecamethelanguageofthetrustterritory.TheU.S.governmentconveyeditsrulesofgovernance,policies,anddescriptionsofU.S.activitiestotheMarshalleseinEnglish.ThefIrstdocumentedoccasionwheretheU.S.governmentdiscussednuclearweaponsanddefenseideologywiththeMarshalleseoccurredonBikiniAtollin1946,asdiscussedinthefIrstchapter,whenCommanderWyattaskedtheBikiniansforpermissiontousetheirlandforthetestingprogram.ThefIlmRadioBikiniincludesfoot-ageofCommanderWyattwhenheturnedtotheMarshallesetranslator,dressedinU.S.militaryclothesandcap,andsaid:”NowJames,tellthem[theassembledBikinians]pleasethattheUnitedStatesgovemmentnowwantstotumthisgreatdestructivepowerintosomethingforthebenefItofmankindandthattheseexperimentshereatBikiniarethefIrststepinthatdirection”(Wyatt,quotedinO’Rourke1985).Asinstructed,theMarshallesetranslatorturnedtotheBikiniansandsaidinMarshallese:EjbakioUnitedStatesanAmedkarekonanbwearmejenkojerbalmeneoekajorenukotnanmeneoemmanimjiban.BecausetheMarshalleselanguagehadnotyetevolvedtoadequatelycommunicateconceptsrelatedtonuclearweapons,Jamessimplystated:HesaidtheUnitedStatesofAmericatheywantpeopletousesomethingstrongandtumitintosomethinggoodandhelpful.EverytimeIshowthatfootagetobilingualMarshalleseaudiences,theylaughuproar-iouslyatthescene(againunderscoringhowcentralhumorisinMarshalleselife).TheyfIndthemessageandtheattempttotranslateitcomical.Fromthisfootage,itisclearthattheU.S.governmentandtheEnglishlanguagefailedtocommunicatetotheMarshalleseeventhebasicpurposesandrationalefortheweaponstestingpro-gram.ThefocusofCommanderWyattwasonthestrategicinterestsoftheUnitedStates,notonthedamageandinjurycausedbytheweaponsteststhattheMarshalleselaterdiscoveredfirsthand.OfficialsoftheU.S.governmentusedscientifIc,political,andlegallanguagetodescribetheactivitiesandconsequencesofthenuclearweaponstestingprogram,carefullyconstructingthelanguagetheyusedtoconcealtheirrealpurposesandsup-portthenecessityoftestingnuclearweapons.EffortstoexplaintheconsequencesofradiationexposuretotheMarshallesegrosslyminimizedtheinjuriesanddamages.AsdiscussedinChapter3,duringthe1970swhenthegovernmentsoftheUnitedStatesandtheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)negotiatedthetermsofanagreementtoterminatethetrustterritoryrelationship,theformerundertookastudyofthefourteennorthernmostatollsintheMarshallIslandsandlaterusedittoprovideinformationonradiationcontaminationissuestotheMarshallese.TheU.S.Depart-mentofEnergy(DOE)traveledthroughouttheislandsdistributingcopiesoftheresultsofthissurvey,translatedintoMarshallese.Itwastheonlynationwideattempttoeducatepeopleabouttheconsequencesofthenuclearweaponstestingprogram.ThesurveyexplainstotheMarshallesehowradiationcanaffectthehumanbody:Peoplemightconsiderthatradioactiveatomsarekindsofpoison.However,radioactiveatomsaredifferentfrompoisonsbecauseradiationcomesfromthem.Thewayradiationactsandthewaypoisonactsaredifferentbecauseusuallywhenpoisonousthings(like

,/J/.//78CHAPTER6bleach,kerosene,batteryfluid)enteraperson’sbody,hisbodyisquicklyharmed-itcanbewithinafewminutesordays.ButifharmweretocomefromtheamountofradiationintheatollsofthenorthernpartoftheMarshallIslandstoday,itwouldtakealongtimeforittobegintoappear-itcouldbeaftermanyyears.Rememberthatthereisradiationthathasalwaysbeeninandpartoftheworldandthereisradiationthatcomesfromatomicbombs.Alloftheseradiationscancauseharm.(Bair,Healy,andWachholz1982:23)ItisclearfromthispassagethatthepurposeoftheU.S.government’ssurveywastoblurthelinesbetweennaturalsourcesofradiationthatcausenoharmandradiationCanAnimalsandPlantsReceiveHarmfromRadiation?Sometimesradiationcancauseharmtoanimalslikeitcantopeople.However,theamountofradiationmustbeverymuchlargertofood-bearingplantsandotherplantsthantoanimalsfortheretobeharmtoplantssuchasbreadfruit,coconuts,pandanus.taro.andarrowroot.Thismeansthatplantswouldonlybeharmediftheyreceivedanexceedinglylargeamountofradiation.BecausetheamountsofradiationaresmallintheMarshallstoday.scientistsdonotbelievethattherewillbeharmtoanimalsandplants.Figure6.1PagefromaDOEbookshowingreproductiveabnormalitiestheMarshallesecouldexpect.

lANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM79unleashedbytheweaponstesting.Wherethedocumentintroducestheconceptofharmfromradiationduringweaponstests,theauthorsincludethecautionary”remember”inordertoremindpeoplethattheycannotbesurewhichtypeofradiationcausesinjuries.Thissingleword,”remember,”alsoshowsthepaternalisticandpatronizingtoneofDOE,aninstitutionthattreatstheMarshalleselikesmallchildren-ehildrenthatmustbetaughtthetruthaboutradiation,atruthconstructedbytheU.S.government.DOEalsouseditssurveytotelltheMarshallesepopulationthatradiationexposure,miscarriages,andbirthdefectsoccurnaturallyandarenotnecessarilytheresultofradiationexposure(Bair,Healy,andWachholz1982:27)(seeFigure6.1).VirtuallyallinformationabouttheeffectsoftheweaponstestingprogrampresentedbyDOEconcludesthattheMarshallesehavenoreasontobeconcernedabouttheirexposure.Atagovernment-to-governmentmeetingin1998,Dr.WilliamRobison,aDOEcontractor,surnmarizedhistwenty-fiveyearsofenvironmentalworkintheMar-shallIslands.IrecordedmyimpressionsofDr.Robison’spresentationinmyfieldnotes:TheDOEproceededtoshowthatbackgroundlevelsofradiationintheRMIarelowerthanintheU.S.andEurope.HisconclusionwasthatradiationintheRMIislowerthanotherplacesintheworldandpeopleshouldn’tbeconcernedabouttheirenvironment….TheU.S.ambassador[totheRMI]waspresentatthemeeting,asignthatthesummaryofdataisofimportancetotheU.S….ItmademeangrythatDOEcontrolsalltheinformationandthepresentationofthedata.Theinformationwaspresentedsonicelyandscientificallythatitwasdifficulttorefute.Itwasalsoabitintimidatingforcommunitymemberstochallenge[U.S.]scientistsandpoliticalrepresentatives….Itwasmisleadingtotalkaboutbackgroundradiationwithoutanydiscussionofimposed,manmaderadiation.(Barker1998:46-50)Inmostcases,theproblemisnotthedataortheenvironmentalscientiststhemselves,buttheconclusionsandinterpretationsthattheU.S.governmentdrawsfromthedata.LANGUAGEASRESISTANCEAnexaminationofthelanguageusedbytheMarshalleseallowsustobegintounder-standthelivedexperiencesofpeopleexposedtoradiation.ThelanguageoftheMar-shallesepopulationsexposedtoradiationcontainselementsofU.S.governmentexplanationsaboutwhatradiationisandwhatitdoes.Ultimately,theMarshallesedemonstratetheirdisdainfortheU.S.government’sexplanationsaboutradiationexposurebyrejectingandtransformingthelanguageimposedonthem.Asanactofresistance,theMarshallesecreatedtheirownradiationlanguagetoconveytheirexperiencesresultingfromthetestingprogram.Throughthisradiationlanguage,theMarshalleseconveynotionsofblame,powerlessness,andinjurythatspeakersofEnglish,suchasU.S.governmentrepresentatives,arenotprivyto.AlthoughtheMarshalleseradiationlanguagecontainslinkstotheEnglishlanguage,theborrowedwordshaveentirelydifferentmeaningstotheMarshallese.Thus,wordborrowingdoesnotrepresentacreolizationorpidginizationoftheEnglishlanguagewhereEnglishlanguagecreepsinandreplacesalocallanguage;itrepresentsinsteadtheevolutionofacompletelyseparatelanguagewithdifferentmeanings.DuringinstanceswherespeakersborrowanEnglishwordtoexplaintheirsituation,theMarshal-leseradiationlanguageremainsthepredominantvehicleforconveyingthespeakers’

80CHAPTER6TABLE6.1ENGLISHLOANWORDSUSEDDURINGTHREEINTERVIEWSKitaJakoriErtilangEnglishEquivalentpaijinpaijinpaijinpoisontoktatoktatoktadoctor,nounandverbkiraapkiraapkiraapgrape(molarpregnancy)bookbookbookbaambaambombpaotapaotapowder(fallout)kanjirkanjircancertumurtumurtumoraujpitoaujpitolhospitalkilamkilamclaim(forcompensation)senseofpowerlessness,fordescribinghorrificmedicalailments,andforassigningcausetotheirsufferings.Thistendencyisparticularlytrueforwomenwhosediscourseregard-ingreproductiveabnormalitiesindicatesthattheycontinuetosuffertheadverseaffectsofradiationexposuresilentlyanddifferentlyfromtheirmalecounterparts.LoanWordsBeforeIexaminedthelinguisticdata,IhypothesizedthattheMarshallesewoulddrawheavilyfromtheEnglishlanguageandthatspeakerswoulddevelopapidginEnglishdiscourse.Byisolatingtheloanwordsusedinthreelengthyinterviews(Table6.1),Ilearnedthatmyexpectationwaswrong.ThescantnumberofEnglishwordsbor-rowedbyradiationsurvivorsindicatesthatthespeakersconveythemajorityoftheirexperiencesthroughaunique,highlysituational,andlocalizedradiationlanguagethattheyconstructalmostentirelywithMarshallesewords.Furthermore,thepaltrynumberofEnglishwordsdemonstratesthattheradiationsurvivorsclaimtheweaponstestingeventastheirown-aneventthattheU.S.governmentdoesnothavetherighttodefine.TheuseoftheMarshalleselanguagetodefinetheeventalsodemonstratesthattheradiationsurvivorsactivelyresistU.S.governmentrepresentationsoftheirexperiencesandtheuseofEnglish,scientificdiscoursetomakethoserepresentations.IfoundonlythreeEnglishloanwordscommontoallthreewomen:paijin(poison),tokta(doctor),andkiraap(grape).Despitethefactthatthesewomenrepresentboththe”exposed”andthe”unexposed”categoriescreatedbytheU.S.government,allthreedescribesimilarexperiences:thepaijinthatdramaticallyalteredthehealthofthepeo-ple,theanimals,andtheland;thetoktaswhodidnotexplainthewomen’sailmentstothemandwhosemotivesthewomenquestion;andthehorrifyingkiraappregnanciesthatMarshallesewomendidnotexperienceuntilaftertheweaponstesting.Languageshowsacommonalityofexperiencesbetweenthelegally”exposed”populationandthepopulationstheU.S.governmentmaintainsare”unexposed”toradiation.Asaresultofthislinguisticevidence,itisclearthatexperienceswithradiationarenotlimitedtothenarrowconstructionsdiscussedbyU.S.governmentrepresentatives.Apersonwhosuffersfromtheeffectsofradiationexposureisalsoconsidered”poisoned.”TheMarshallesetermusedtodescribetheeffectsoflocaltoxinsthatpro-duceillnessordeath,suchasfishpoisoning,iskadek,awordthattranslatesmostcloselytotheEnglishword”drunk.”Theeffectsoffishpoisoningcauselossofcontrolofthe

LANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM81bodymuchlikeexcessivedrunkenness,buttheseeffectsrequireadifferenttermthanpoison,therebydemonstratingthattheMarshalleseconsiderpoisonfromradiationtobeverydifferentfromfishtoxinsorothersourcesofpoison.”Grapes”isthenamethatMarshallesewomenusetodescribehydatidiform,ormolar,pregnancies.Duringmolarpregnancies,themitosisthatbeginsshortlyafterconceptioncontinuesonlyforashorttime.Atsomepoint,insteadofcontinuingtodivide,thecellsbecomeenlargedandgrowtothesizeofgolfballs.Thelargestrandsofgolfball-sizedgrowthsattachthemselvestotheuterus.Inmanycases,dangersareassociatedwiththesepregnancies,suchascancerfromtherootsofthegrowthsthatremainimbeddedintheuterus,extremelyhighfevers,andtheinabilityofwomentoabortthecellmasses.Accordingtomyinterviews,womenwiththisillnesshaveallthesymptomsofpregnancy,andtheenlargedsizeoftheuterusmakeswomenbelievetheyareintheadvancedstagesoftheirpregnancy.Marshallesewomenreportthattheyspontaneouslyaborttheirfailedpregnanciesafterapproximatelythreemonths,althoughtheyappeartobeninemonthspregnantwhentheyexpelthegrapes.TheseaccountsfromtheMarshallesewomenparalleldescriptionsofhydatidiformpregnan-ciesintheUnitedStates,wheretheincidencerateforthisconditionisextremelyrare-perhaps1in1,500pregnancies-andiscausedbychromosomalabnormalitiesinthefemaleova(PIumbo1999).Kita’shusband,Kino,usedthewordsbaamandpaotatodescribetheirsharedexperiencesaftertheBravotest,butIdidnotincludethesewordsinKita’scolumninTable6.1becauseitwasnotKitawhospokethem.IFurthermore,whenIreviewedthetapedinterviews,IrealizedthatIintroducedthesewordsintotheconversationbeforeKinousedthem.Therefore,IcannotconclusivelydeterminewhetherKinousedtheEnglishwordsbecauseIintroducedthemfirstorbecausehewantedtomakehisMarshalleseassimpleaspossibleformeasanativeEnglishspeaker.ItisalsointerestingtonotethatbothKitaandJakoriusethephrase”meneo”or”thething”torefertothebombasiftheycouldnotfindawordtodescribetheweaponthatirreversiblychangedtheirlives.PerhapsKitaandJakorifindtheweaponanditsimpactsindescribable.InadditiontothecommonEnglishwordsusedbythewomen,eachofthemhasdistinctborrowingpattems.ThesewordsarenotsimplyborrowedbytheMarshallesewomen,but,aswithallloanwords,thespeakersmodifythemtofitthephonologyandsyntaxoftheMarshalleselanguage.Thedifferencesinwordselectioncorrespondtothewomen’satollofresidenceanddegreeofcontactwithmedicaldoctorsandscien-tists.Thelanguagecontainscluesabouthowthewomen’sexperiencesandillnessesvaryduetobothdegreeofmedicalattentiontheyreceivedandtheiratollofresidenceduringthetestingprogram.Forexample,someoftheEnglishwordsthatKitaborrowsandadaptstotheMarshalleselanguageenablehertomakedistinctionsbetweendiffer-enttypesofU.S.governmentrepresentativeswhocametoherislandafterthetestingbegan.Kitadistinguishesamongtheri-tokta,literally”personwhoisamedicalIBecausetheinformationinthesethreeinterviewsisextremelypersonal-andforbiddenbyverbaltabooinmanyMarshallesecontexts-Ichangedthenamesofalltheinformantstoprotecttheiridentities.

82CHAPTER6doctor”;theri-etalepaijin,”personwhostudies/examinesthepoison(orradiationintheenvironment)”;andmostspecifically,thetoktaenpaijinro,the”radiationdoctors.”Inthesameinterview,Kita’shusbandalsomakesreferencetoMarshallesedoctors,taktoTOi-Majol,andtoAmericandoctors.ThedistinctionsmadebyKitaandherhusbandaresociallyandhistoricallyimportant.Thelinguisticevidencedemonstratesthatnon-English-speakingresidentsofaremoteouterislanddistinguishdoctorsconcernedwiththeirwell-beingfromdoctorsorresearchersinterestedinstudyingtheeffectsofradiationonhumanbeingsandtheenvironment.ThispatternofborrowingEnglishprovidescluesabouttheemergenceofadistinctMarshalleseradiationlanguage;theMarshalleselanguagemakesimportantdistinctionsbetweendoctorsandscientiststhattheEnglishlanguageandtheU.S.governmentdidnot.WhileKita’sandherhusband’scontactswithAmericandoctorsarelimitedtotheirobservationofresearcherswhovisitedtheirislands,ErtilangisintimatelyfamiliarwithU.S.governmentrepresentatives.EnglishloanwordsserveasastartingpointforunderstandingErtilang’sfamiliaritywithU.S.governmentresearchers.AsaresidentofRongelap,theinhabitedatollthatreceivedthehighestdosesofradiationaftertheBravoincident,ErtilangidentifiesherselfandherfellowRongelapeseasri-paijin,the”poisoned(orirradiated)people.”Ertilang’slonghistoryofmedicalailmentsandpartic-ipationinProject4.1madeherfamiliarwithU.S.governmentmedicalinstitutions,pro-cedures,andphysicians.ErtilangdistinguishesbetweentheAtomicEnergyCommission(ABC)andDOEdoctors.Thisdistinctiondemonstrateshowlanguagereflectshistoricalinfluences:ErtilangidentifieschangesinU.S.governmentinstitutions,notingthatABCwasthepredecessorofDOE.ErtilangalsoidentifiesspecificDOEcontractors,suchasdoctorsfromBrookhavenNationalLaboratory,whichshereferstoas”Brookhaven.”Inadditiontodemonstratingherknowledgeaboutthedifferentcontractorsandofficialswhohadaninterestinhermedicalconditions,EnglishloanwordshelpErtilangsupplementherradiationlanguage.Theuseofthewordthyroidisparticu-larlyindicativeofErtilang’sfrequentinteractionswithU.S.medicalpersonnel,sinceKita,whoisnotfamiliarwithEnglishmedicalterms,referstothyroidillnessasbujburu,or”swollenthroat.”Ertilang’sfamiliaritywithspecificmedicalproce-duresandailmentsresults,inpart,fromhernumeroustripstotheUnitedStates,whereresearchersanddoctorsperformedmedicalproceduresonher.ShetraveledtoCalifornia;Cleveland,Ohio;Maryland;NewYork;andWashington,D.C.AllofthefacilitiesnamedbyErtilangareeitherU.S.militaryhospitalsorlocationswhereU.S.governmentresearchersconductedhumanradiationexperiments.Ertilangdidnotunderstandthemedicalproceduressheexperienced,nordidU.S.governmentdoctorsrecordthatinformationinherpersonalmedicalcharts.Tothisday,Ertilang’smedicalrecordsremainblankfordecadesfollowingherexposure.DuringtheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram,JakorilivedonthemainislandofLikiepAtoll.Jakoriremembersthepaota(“powder”),orradioactivefallout,thatarrivedaftertheground-shakingdetonationandbloodyredskythathundredsofMarshallesewitnessedonthemorningofMarch1,1954.AftercompletinggrammarschoolonLikiep,Jakorimovedtothecapital,Majuro.Jakoriistheonlyoneofthethreewomentoattendhighschool,tolearnEnglish,andtoholdawage-earningjob.Theseexperi-encesallowJakoritoconverseinthelanguageofherformercolonialadministrator.

LANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM83Yearsafterthetests,Jakoribegantoexperiencereproductiveproblemsrelatedtoherradiationexposure.SinceshewasnoteligibleforU.S.-sponsoredmedicalcareforradiationsurvivors,JakoriwenttoMajuroHospital,wherelocalphysicianswereunfamiliarwithradiation-relatedillnesses.(TheU.S.governmentphysiciansworkingwiththeradiationsurvivorsoperatedindependentlyfromthelocalhealthcarefacilities.)Inherinterview,Jakoridescribeshavinganear-deathexperienceinMajuroHospital.TheEnglishwordsJakoriborrowshelpherexplainthetraumaandreflectthedoctors’explanationsaboutherillness.AlthoughJakoriusesmanymoreEnglishwordsthanhercounterparts,shestillwantedmetointerviewherinMarshallese.IfoundthisinterestingbecauseJakorihastheEnglishskillstodiscussherexperiencesinapurelyEnglishform.Jakori’sinsistenceontheuseofMarshallesefurtherindicatesthattheradiationsurvivorsclaimastheirowntheeventsintheMarshallIslands.TheMarshalleselanguageshowsthatthepeopleactivelyresisttheaccountingofeventsandconsequencesfromtheU.S.governmentandbelievethatspeak-inginEnglishcannotconveyadequatelythedamageandinjuriestheyexperienced.Radi-ationsurvivorsfoundtheirownwayofdescribingtheirexperiences,modifyinginformationreceivedfromtheU.S.governmenttomoreadequatelyconveythelivedexperiencesofthepeopleandultimatelytostatetheeventsinMarshalleseterms.InadditiontoJakori’srequesttobeinterviewedinMarshallese,IfoundfurtherevidenceofEnglishconcealmentovermyyearsofinteractionswiththeMarshallese.Evenpeoplewhoknowmeextremelywell,andarenotshyorinsecurewithme,oftenconcealtheirEnglishlanguageskills.ThisbehaviorcouldreflectmodestyorevenpleasureatseeinganoutsiderspeakMarshallese,butcertainlyitalsoshowsthattheMarshalleseresistacculturationthroughlanguagechoice.WhenIfirstarrivedinthecountryandcouldnotspeakMarshallese,manyEnglishspeakersallowedmetostumblethroughorsitoutconversationsuntilIlearnedthelocallanguage.Jakori,whomIconsiderafriend,knowsIamawareofherEnglishlanguageskills.JakoriandmanyotherMarshalleseprefer,andoftendemand,thatspeakersuseMarshallesetodiscusscertaintopics,includingradiationissues.ThisresistancetechniqueallowstheMarshallesetoconstructfreelytheirsocialrealitiesintheMarshalleselanguagewithoutfearthatAmericanswilltellthemthattheirself-definedexperiencesarenotvalidorthattheirhealthproblemsarenotrelatedtoradiationexposure.Insistingontheuseoflanguage-inthiscase,theMarshalleselanguage-providestheMarshallesewitha”vernacularforin-groupcommunication”(Mufwene1994:84).Controllingthelanguageofexpressionalsoallowswomentotalkquietlyamongthemselvesaboutthepainandsocialhumiliationinvolvedingivingbirthtoabnormalchildren.ItisofteninappropriatetodisplayangerpubliclyintheMarshallIslands,particularlyifthespeakerdirectlyexpressesangerratherthanconveyingitthroughathirdparty.Radiationsurvivorscontrolwhogetstoheartheirdirectout-burstsofangerbysharingtheirthoughtswiththosewhospeaktheirlanguage,thusallowingthespeakerstoexpresstheirthoughtsprivatelywithoutviolatingcustomarypractices.Frommyexperience,theonlyAmericanswhotakethetimeandenergytolearntheMarshalleselanguagearethosewhobecomeinvolvedwiththecommunityandhaveconcernforthewell-beingoftheMarshallese(suchasPeaceCorpsorJesuitvolunteersorAmericanswhomarryintothecommunity).Thus,anyAmericanswho

84CHAPTER6understandspeakersusingtheMarshalleselanguagetoascribeblameandtoconveyangertowardtheUnitedStateswilllikelysympathizewiththespeakers’emotions.AtendencytoavoiddirectconfrontationdoesnotmeanthattheMarshallesedonotexpresstheirangertotheU.S.government.Expressionsofdeepangerhaveemergedduringbilateralmeetingsbetweenthecommunitiesmostaffectedbytheweaponstest-ingandtheU.S.government,particularlyDOE.Atthesemeetings,speakershavefounditappropriateandnecessarytoexpresstheirfrustrationsandanger.Inrecentyears,MarshalleseleadershavetemperedtheirangertoworkoutsolutionsthatreflectthebestinterestsofboththeU.S..andtheRMIgovernments.Puttingangeraside,experi-encedleadersrealizetheymustworkwithU.S.governmentofficialstomakeprogress.DuringmyinterviewwithJakori,thevastmajorityofourtimewasspentdiscussingherkirooppregnancy.Jakori’sextensivefocusonthistopicdemonstratestheimportanceofherreproductiveepisodeastheprimarymeanstoconveyhersufferingduetoradiationexposure.JakoriusesmanyEnglishwordstoexplainherordeal.Manyofthesewordscamefromamedicalbookthatherattendingdoctorsshowedtoherwhileshewasinthehospital.Thedoctorsusedthebooktohelpexplainhercondition.TheuseofEnglishtermsinthepassagebelow,evenifmixedwithMarshallese,suchas”ilukunskinimboneswaf'(“Iwasonlyskinandbones”),demonstratesthelevelofJakori’scompetencewiththeEnglishlanguage.Clearly,shehadtheskillstodescribetheentireexperienceinEnglishifshechosetodoso.JakoriandIsatinaprivateroomwithacloseddoorduringtheinterview;noonecouldoverhearourconversation,soshewasfreetochoosethelan-guageshewantedtouse.Fromherlanguagechoice,itisclearthatdeliveringgrapebabiesisaMarshalleseeventthatJakoripurposefullychosetoexplaininMarshallese.Inthefollowingpassage,Jakoridescribesthesufferingsheexperiencedduringthedeliveryofhergrapebaby.IhighlightinboldtheEnglishloanwordsusedbyJakori:Jiluwotaoallanakrebaninemonthsjonanaokilep….Rejbaimeloklokjeteaoallannaibaijjab….Anbwinuelukkunbwilimrejboktokwatermaloimijojoilotubeojenjibonnanbon.Jonanaolukunbwil,lukunbwilwotimbwil,imaolepraanrejfilljuantubituruimneejakoanmalotubeoijetalnantubeojuan.1meliktataeokioilukuninmojonoijabmonakinkeibbanmenonoimkojelasalivaejabbojrakanwotlokjenlonu…[IJlukunloseweightimijeightypoundsimej{toktaeoJbanailukunskinimboneswot.IwasonlythreemonthspregnantbuttheysaidIwasninemonthsbecauseofmylargesize….TheysaidIforgothowmanymonthspregnantIwasbutIsaidIdidn’t[forget]….MybodywassohotthattheybroughtmecoldwaterandIsatinatubfrommorningtonight.Iwassoincrediblyhot,extremelyhot,sohotthateverydaytheyfilledatubnearme,andwhenthattubwasnolongercoldItransferredtoanothertub.AttheendofthistimeIwassoweakthatIcouldnoteatbecauseIcouldnotbreatheandyouknowthesaliva,itdidnotstoppouringfrommymouth…Ireallylostweight-Iwaseightypoundsandhe[thedoctor]saidIwasonlyskinandbones.Eliktataijkolotak,rejkwalokkiraapkoimrejjolokjikinninnineoao.1mtoktaeoearkolotakenaejbafirsttimeejdeliverkonnaninmejeoimejboktokjuanbookkileplepimejlalemenkoilowanlojieuimejba:”Lojiemebaamimmenkoilolojiemrejainwotbinkanilobowling.Menkorejainwotshapedlikethat.”1maikwojenkareokjikinninnineoaobweimaroncancerimemman10kneejjolokaolepen….

LANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM85Finally,Igavebirthandthedoctorsshowedmethegrapesandthentheygavemeahysterectomy.Andthedoctorwhoattendedmybirthsaiditwasthefirsttimehehaddeliveredthiskindofillnessandhebroughtmeahugebooktosee[picturesof]thethingsinsidemystomachandhesaid:”Yourstomachisbombed[irradiated]andthethingsinyourstomacharelikebowlingpins.Thosethingsareshapedlikethat.”And[he]hadtocleanmyreproductivesystemoutbecauseImightgetcancerandit’sbetterifheremoveseverything….Inthispassage,itisclearthatJakori’suseofEnglishwordstodescribeherexperi-encesincreaseswhensheisparaphrasingwhatherdoctorsaidinEnglishtoexplainherillness.MostoftheEnglishwordsbelongtoherdoctor.JakoriemploysfarfewerEnglishwordswhendescribingherexperiencesfromherownpointofview.WhenshedoesuseEnglishwords,sheuseswordsliketubbecausebathtubsdidnotexistintheMarshallIslandsuntiloutsidersbroughtthem.Likethewordradiation,theMarshallesedidnotneedawordfor”tub”beforecolonialtimes.Afterexaminingmyinterviews,IwantedtomakesurethatspeakersdidnottrytousemoreEnglishwordstoaccommodatemeasanEnglishspeaker.Iexaminedsomeoftheinterviewsconducted,translated,andtranscribedbyEdmaTartios,RaymondJohnson,andMarySilk,threeofmystudentsattheNuclearInstituteoftheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands.TheseinterviewscapturedialoguebetweentwoormorenativeMarshallesespeakers.Inthefollowingpassagefromaninterviewconductedbythreeofmystudents,thespeakersusealmostnoEnglishloanwordstodescribetheeventswitnessedonMarch1,1954.TheexceptionisthatoneoftheinterviewersusedtheEnglishwordcolortoaskthesubjectabouttheskyaftertheBravodetonation.Thesubjectrespondedwiththewordlightstodescribethechangestothesky.TheinterviewersaskSamosRelangtoexplainhisexperiencesimmediatelyaftertheBravoevent.SamoslivedonMejitAtoll,anatolloutsideoftheU.S.boundarydefiningradiationexposure.HisexperiencesweresounfamiliarandbizarretohimthathethoughtoutsiderswererecapturingtheislandsastheydidinWorIdWarII.EdmaTartios:Ekarwortaearwalokiloieneoelkinkartoreeokomkar10merameo?SamosRelang:Aet.Ekwe,ijronainikieninurnureo,ekarmoktawalokmerameokeejmarokwot.Ejjaninlukunraan.Etalimlaklukunjade10kraan,jibbon,ejjanintakat.Eworjiljinojimatan.Keejbokolok,etobtobmejatotoeoimiarreiarlokimlaleneilolowa.Keijroninurnurejjaninbokolokmeneo.Inurnurwot.ET:Ewiwewenaninurnur?SR:Einwotneinurnurjorur.Naijlomnakrejbakewotturineneo.Akilaklaleejjelokjabdewot.1melapaobwilon–enajta?Akijlomnakeworijenrarbuki.RaymondJohnson:KomjajekeBikini?SR:Komjaje.MarySilk:Akmerammokta?Ewiwewenjokjokinmerameo?SR:Merammokta,einwotmeraminlightkane.Einwotmeraminalneettonjorantak.MS:Kaincolorroteoan?

86CHAPTER6SR:Einwoteburoro.EdmaTartios:Whathappenedoutonthatisland[ofMejit]duringthetimethatyousawthelight[fromtheBravodetonation]?SamosRelang:Yes.Well,Iheardarumblingsound.Itbeganbeforethelightappearedwhenitwasstilldark.Itstillwasn’tdaytimeyet.Whenitgotclosertodaybreak,morn-ing,thesunhadn’tcomeupyet.Atthetimethatit[thebomb]exploded,everythingwashazylookingtomeandIlookedtothelagoontoseeifIcouldspotaboat.That’sbecauseIheardtherumblingbeforethethingexploded.Justrumbling.ET:Whatwastherumblinglike?SR:Itwasliketherumblingofthunder.Me,Ithoughttheycapturedpartofoneofthoseislandsoverthere.ButwhenIlookedoutIcouldn’tseeasinglething.AndIwasreallysurprised-whatcoulditbe?ButIreallythoughttheycapturedsomeplace.RaymondJohnson:NoneofyouknewitwasBikini[wheretheBravodetonationtookplace]?SR:Wedidn’tknow.MarySilk:ThelightcamefIrst?Describethecharacteristicsofthelight.SR:ThelightcamefIrst,itwaslikethebrightnessoflights.Itwaslikethebrightnessofthesunbeforeitisabouttorise.MS:Whatwasthecolorofit?SR:Itwasred?WhenSarnosinjectstheEnglishwordlightsintotheconversation,heusesthewordasanoun.Heoncerefersto”lights,”asinthelightsthatlightbulbsorelec-tricallightfixturesproduce.HealsousestheMarshallesewordfor”light”or”brightness”(meram)threetimesinhistwo-sentencedescription:Merammokta,einwotmeraminlightkane.Einwotmeraminatneettonjorantak.ThelightcamefIrst,itwaslikethebrightnessoflights.Itwaslikethebrightnessofthesunbeforeitisabouttorise.ThespeakerdemonstratesapreferencefortheMarshallesetermfor”light”or”brightness”todescribewhathesaw.TheEnglishwordfor”lights”comesintoplayonlywhenSarnosneedstocomparewhathesawtoobjects(lightfixtures)thatoutsidersbroughttotheMarshallIslands.Inanotherinterviewconducted,transcribed,andtranslatedbyBienthyNedandDorothySimeon,alsostudentsattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands,JohnMilne,thepresidentoftheMarshallIslandsRadiationVictimsAssociation(MIRVA)andamanwhoisextremelycomfortablewiththeEnglishlanguage,describestheill-nessesfacedbyMarshalleseworkersexposedtoradiation.InthefollowingpassagehetalksabouthisexperiencesasoneofthoseemployedbyDOEtocleanupthetestsiteareasafterthetestingprogramended.JohnMilneisoneofthemanyMarshalleseinterviewedforthisbookwhoisnolongeralive.2Interviewreprintedwithpermission.

LANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM87JohnMilne:Naijkarbeditogroupkoandri-kalitonineteenseventiesko10knanjenbajennineteenseventyeonannineteenseventy-four.Groupeoeartonkomanereset-tleprogrameoitoBikinieinwotdri-kal.BienthyNed:Kioelonkeboj-eworkemenenkwojenjake,oktakko,bojnaninmej?JM:Aet…BN:Kioarmijreinmottamke,akeworkebojaernaninmejinkwalokbojlalerebojnaninmejke?JM:Aet.Majorityinarmijrainitogroupkein,aolepengroupkeinrnalitokkenonokaki.Rarmij10kkincancer,jetkeinleukemia,jetkeinprostatecancer…imbwijinkeincancereomejejwatokiraininkerejjenradiation.Problemeoinelonwotianarmejreinrejmijkinkeejjelok,jikinenmeremaronrejetalimcheck-upeenbwinierimekatakkakenaninmejkanaero1mejjabmeninwot,akarmijreinrelokmijejjablukunalikarkinkeejjelokautopsyfacilityitohospitaleoadraininnanetalenaninmejkeinmaepathologistromeeworkabeelkoibbeirnanetalenaninmijkein.1mmeneoekabiromojmojinbwejejelakeaolepenMajolinepaijin.1melaptatagroupinarmijreinenejtargete10kerimejjelokweweinkoimremaroninetalnanialanjiban…BN:Kiokajitokeojuonikarkonanbanedrijerbalrekeinmonaeinwotmonakokijedmake,einwotlocalfood?JM:Aet.Barjuoninmen.Ikejekaretalnanjokanejjelokjuonrestrictionikijienmonako-restrictedjenmonakeinionimkeinien.Bojgroupeomenaikarrepresente.Akmenaijrepresentedri-kalrooEjjelokjuonmenDOE/AECkarbamokta.1mkieneoantrustterritorybakeemomonakeinionimkeinien.Tokelikjejkabjelakeemomonajetdeinmonaeinwotbojbarn,ororbob,idaakni.Akmenkokimkarmonabweettoanitokfield-tripimtoanitoksupplykoami/oaWnenjejmonamonainailinkeinkinkeejjelokjuonmenjemaronmona….Akdren,aibojkokimaretalimidaakke,aibojlal,akaibojjiment.Aibojjimentkoraretoonkemenkeinrarbediumwintestbombkomaantakmaeienkokemijkojerbali….Einwotjelaketal,jetkeienaWneoejjelokdrenbweekawotandret.Neejmaatkobanaibojkoakwatercatchmentkokubwijaibojtalkoimidaakdren.Ejjelokarcheckiakkimarwonmanlokwotimejjelokjuonarmijearbabojrak.JohnMilne:Me,Iwasinthegroupofthebuildersinthenineteenseventies,let’ssayfromnineteenseventytonineteenseventy-four.ThegroupwassentasbuildersfortheBikiniresettlementprogram.BienthyNed:Nowarethere-justarethereanythingsyoufeel,anythingdifferent,haveyoubeensick?JM:Yes…BN:Nowaboutyourfriends,dosomeofthemhaveillnessesthatshowthattheyaresick[fromradiation]?JM:Yes.Themajorityofpeopleinthisgroup,fromeachoftheeightgroups(ofdifferentclassificationsofworkers)talkaboutthis.Theyhavediedofffromcancer,somekindsofleukemia,somekindsofprostatecancer…andmanyothertypesofcancerthatappearthesedaysarefromradiation.Theproblemisthattherearemanypeoplethatdiebuttheydon’tknowthattheyhadillnesses.Whenitgetstothetimethatthey’reweak,theydiebecausethereisnothing,nowhere,notevenoneplacetheycangotogetacheck-upfortheirbodiesandtoleamabouttheirillnesses.Andthisisn’ttheonlything;whenthese

88CHAPTER6peopledieitisn’tclear[whatthecauseofdeathis]becausetherestillisnoautopsyfacilityatourhospitaltostudyillnessesofthistypethatpathologistsknowaboutfromstudyingthesesicknesses.AndthisisreallysaddeningbecauseweknowthatalloftheMarshallIslandsispoisoned.Andmostofthesegroupsofpeopleweretargetedbutcan’tdoany-thingandtherearenoavenuesopentothemforassistance….BN:NowformynextquestionIwantedtoaskabouttheworkersisiftheyateour[Marshallese]foods,whatwecalllocalfoods?JM:Yes.Thatisanotherthing.Theplaceswhereweweresent[towork]therewerenorestrictionsaboutthefoods-restrictionsabouteatingthisorthat.That’showitwaswiththegroupIwasapartof,thegroupthatbuiltstructures.TherewasneverathingthatDOE/AECtoldusinthebeginning.Yetthegovernmentduringthetrustterritorysaidthatitwasforbiddentoeatthisandthatkindsoffood.Afterwards,welearnedthatitwasforbiddentoeatsomekindsoffoodlike[coconut]crabs,pandanus,ordrinkingcoco-nuts.Thethingsweatefromtheislandwehadtobecauseitwouldtakesolongforthefieldtripshipstocomeandbringsuppliestotheislandsoutthere,andweatethelocalfoodsbecausetherewasnothingelsewecouldhaveeaten.Andthewater,thewaterwedrank,wellwater,waterstoredincement.Thewaterfromthecementwasdirtybecauseithadbeenthereearlierbelowthetestbombsuntilthetimethatweusedit….Nowwhenwelookback,sometimestherewasnowateronthoseislandsbecauseofthedroughts.Iftherewasnomorewaterinthewatercatchmentwedugforwellwateranddrankthatwater.Nobodycheckedussowecontinuedandnotonepersontoldustostop.3JohninjectsmanyEnglishwordsintohisspeechandclearlymodelstothestudentshisknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage.CloserexaminationshowsthathisuseofEnglishwordsismorecomplexthanmereproficiencyinEnglishandtheborrowingofitswords.Table6.2dividestheEnglishwordsJohnusesintodifferentcategories.ThefirstcategoryofwordsinTable6.2istheEnglishwordsthatMarshallesespeakerscommonlyuse.CorrespondingMarshallesewordsexist,butMarshallesefrequentlychoosetheEnglishalternatives.Thewordshospital,fieldtrip,andcementarenounsforobjectsthatdidnotexistintheMarshallIslandsbeforeout-siderscame.Fieldtripisthewordfortheshipsthattakesuppliesandpassengersfromthecapitaltotheouteratollsandislands.TABLE6.2ENGLISHWORDSUSEDBYJOHNMILNEEnglishwordsthatarecommonlyusedintheMarshallIslands:group,problem,hospital,fieldtrip,cementBorrowedEnglishwordsthatshowEnglishproficiency:watercatchment,majority,nineteenseventies,autopsyfacility,pathologist,sup-plies,targetedEnglishwordsthatconveyexperiencewithradiationexposure:cancer/prostatecancer,leukemia,resettlementprogram,poisoned,restriction!restricted,DOE/AEC,trustterritory,testbombs,checkup/checked3Interviewreprintedwithpermission.

LANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM89ThesecondcategoryofwordsinTable6.2istheEnglishwordsJohnusestodemonstratehiscompetencewiththeEnglishlanguage.Wordssuchasautopsyfacil-ityandpathologisthavenoMarshalleseequivalents;itmakessensethatheborrowsthesewords.Marshalleseequivalentsexistfortherestofthewordsinthiscategory,yetIfindhisuseofthewordtargetednotable.JohnusesthewordtoexpresshisbeliefthattheU.S.governmenttargetedtheMarshallesepeopletoreceiveexposuretoradiationandthenleftthemwithnoavenuesforassistance.AlthoughhedoesnotcomerightoutinhisinterviewandsaythattheU.S.governmentpurposefullyexposedtheMarshallesetoradiation,hisuseofthewordtargetedshowsthathebelievestheU.S.governmentplannedtoexposetheMarshallesetoradiation.ThefmalcategoryofwordsinTable6.2istheEnglishwordsJohnusesthatarepartoftheradiationlanguageintheMarshallIslands.Asaworkerexposedtoradiationdur-ingthecleanupofBikiniAtoll,Johnispartofagroupexposedtoenvironmentalsourcesofradiationfromtheweaponstestingprogram.Theillnessesthatheandtheotherworkersexperiencedrequiredthemtobecomeproficientwiththealreadyexistingradiationlanguagetoconveytheirexperiences.IincludedthewordrestrictioninthecategoryoftheradiationlanguageandnotinthecategoryofwordsshowingEnglishproficiencybecausefromtimetotimeAECandDOEwouldplacerestrictionsontheconsumptionofhighlycontaminatedfoods,suchascoconutcrabs.InthecaseoftheMarshalleseworkerswhohelpedtheU.S.governmentreducelevelsofcontaminationontheground-zerolocations,suchasBikiniwhereJohnworked,theU.S.governmentdidnotrestricttheirconsumptionofanyofthelocalfoodsdespiteknowledgeofseverecontaminationoftheecosystem.Thisisanexampleofoneexposedpopulationborrow-ingatermusedbypreviouslyexposedpopulations:theMarshalleseworkersborrowedthewordrestrictionfromtheMarshallesedownwinders.John’sspeechshowsthatthecreationofaMarshalleseradiationlanguageisnotjustanexampleofEnglishinvasionofthelanguage.Instead,itisapurposefuluseandmodificationofEnglishtermstoexplainaMarshalleseunderstandingofeventsrelatedtotheweaponstestingprogram.SongsofResistanceTheMarshallesepeoplelovetosing.Songisanintegralpartofallimportantcom-munitygatherings,suchasfunerals,birthdayparties,visitsbyachief,andpublicceremonies.TheMarshalleselanguage-andforthatmatter,theMarshallesehis-tory-ispredominantlyoral.HistoriansattheAleleMuseumintheMarshallIslandsregularlyrecordanddocumentthehistoryofthecountryaccordingtoMarshallesestories(bwebwenatos)andchants(roro).TheMarshalleseroroareusuallyfourtosixlinesinlengthandchantedinadeep,rhythmictonewithasharpriseinintona-tionattheend(Tobin2002:8).Songsarethemodemmanifestationoftheoldchants.Frequently,songscomefromcommunitiesandarenotcreditedtoanyoneindividual.Manyofthesemod-emcornmunitysongs,liketheoldchants,impartinformationtothelistener.Forexample,twosongsfromtheRongelapcornmunityreflectpeople’sexperienceswithradiationanddirectlychallengetheadequacyandpurposeoftheU.S.govern-ment’sresponsetotheradiationproblemsitcreatedfortheRongelapese.

90CHAPTER6LoRauulRubeimkalikarialinjenRobertnonLoRauutBunrokeankoiontolienwotLoMejenmaBun-nineaankoiontollaninimraandronlennaubonimbankekimjoro-koeannonLaUkukotOhLoTalimejjutakwotlekdronbweLaBijaejwatchraanimbonMr.UrineShowthewayfrom[Dr.]Robert[Conard’s]examinationroomtoMr.Urine[Collector].OverthehilltotherightisMr.Eyes[whogetssoclosetothepatientshecanalmostkissthem].OverthehilltotheleftisMr.CallNumbersandNamesandAssistants[toescortpatientstotheexaminationrooms].FromthechesttothebackisexaminedbyMr.SpinAround[patientswereonrotatingequipment].Oh,Mr.Touch[andExamineInternalandExternalParts]isateasewhileMr.X-raywatchesdayandnight.LoRauutisuniquelyMarshalleseandverydifficulttotranslate.NotethelengthoftheEnglishversionincomparisontotheMarshalleseversion,whichdemonstratestheefficiencyoftheradiationlanguage.Themeaningoftheselinesextendsbeyondtheliteraltranslation.Icouldnotunderstandthemeaningbymyself.TheformersenatorofRongelap,AbaccaAnjain-Maddison,havingknowledgeofandexperi-encewithradiation-relatedhealthmatters,explainedtometheintenseemotionscapturedinthissong.TonydeBrumoncesuggestedthatherswasamildinterpre-tationofthesongandthatitstruemeaningismoresexualandbawdy.LoRauutcapturestheobvioushumoroftheMarshallesepeople,whotakeanabsurdsituation,suchasthediscomfortofbeingshuttledfromdoctortodoctorwith-outknowingwhatthedoctorsaredoing,andturningitintoahumoroustale.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthehumorinthissongisnottheeventitselfandinnowayconveysthatthepeople’sexperienceswiththesedoctorswereeasyorlight-hearted.Justtheopposite:theRongelapesecreatedahumoroussongasawaytoreleasetheirpainandtorecognizethecommonexperiencesofpeopleinthecommu-nity.Urinecollection,forinstance,wasdifficultfortheRongelapesebecausecustom-arilyitisforbiddenformenandwomentourinateinthecompanyofeachother.5LoRauutreflectsthedehumanizingandculturallyinappropriatehandlingoftheRongelapesebytheU.S.governmentdoctors.Thedoctorscreateafeelingofdis-comfortbygettingtooclosetothepatients;theysubjectthepatientstomystifying4Noauthor;collectedandtranslatedbyAbaccaAnjain-Maddisonandreprintedherewithpermission.5WhenIaskedmyMarshallesemotherduringmytimeinthePeaceCorpswhythisistrue,shesaidthatmenandwomenexposetheirreproductiveorganswhentheyurinateandmenandwomenmustbekeptseparatesonoinappropriatesexualcontactensues.

———————————LANGUAGEANDTHETESTINGPROGRAM91procedures(thespinning);theyexamineeverysquareinchofthepatients,bothinsideandout;andtheyreducetheRongelapesepersonalidentitytoanumber.TheRongelapeseIinterviewedexpressedgreatsensitivityabouttheAEC’sandDOE’sdehumanizingtreatment.Participantsinthemedicalresearchprogramreceivedidentificationcardsreferringtothemasnumbers,notaspeople.Manypeoplealsosaidthatthedoctorsexaminedthemasiftheywerebodyparts,nothumanbeings;totheRongelapese,thedoctorswereinterestedinthemasthyroidsorascataracts,butnotaspeople.Again,theRongelapesedonotfindtheseexperi-enceshumorous,butcreatingasongthatmakespeoplelaughreleasestensionandprovidesaculturallyappropriateandsharedmeanstoacknowledgepubliclytheabusesrenderedagainstthembytheU.S.government.AnothersongbytheRongelapcommunity,177Song,providesanotherglimpseoftheemotionalburdensofradiationsurvivors.ThesongborrowsEnglishradiationwordsandchangesthemeaningofthewordstorejectandresisttheirprescribedmeanings.TheEnglishwords,intheirmodifiedform,conveyuniquelyMarshalleseexperiencesofpain,illness,anddespairasaresultoftheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.Aiin1776I:Charus:II:I:Charus:Naatinaajellalokjenentankeinkoijajekio?Komaronkejuonaori-jinetimaomarinko?(repeat)Neijpeditoaoradiationenbweimojinokontyroitimaojojolair,Konaneoinbweinwiwawotionjuonaojikinaeneman.1mjabnawotakroitonombaen177.(repeat)Aolepenlomnakeaoijliwojrejnankomkio.Konwewinkoij10itoanraanjabekeinad.(repeat)177SongWhenwillIbereleasedframmysufferingsthatIstillnawdo.notunder-stand?Wouldyouguidemeandgivemestrength?(repeat)IamirradiatedbecauseIamweakfromthyraiddiseaseanddespair,7Ianlywantto.liveinpeace.Thisisnotanlymywishbutallthasewho.belangto.thenumber177.(repeat)6Asangwithautanindividualauthar,asangfarandbythecammunity;providedbythewamenafRangelap..7Whiledaingfieldwar~fart?isbaak,Itaug~tattheCallegeaftheMarshallIslandsasawayto.gIvebackto.thecammunItywhIleIwasreceIvIngmuch,particularlyinthefarmafknawledgeandhaspltalIty.As~nexercisefar~yclass~tthecall~ge,Iaskedstudentsto.translatetheRangelapsangso.they.cauldthInkabautthedlfficu.ltJ.~sInvalvedInexpressingMarshalleseexperiencesresultingframthet~stJ.n~program.ThestudentssatdItwashardestto.translatetheline”Neijpedi/oaoradiationenbweImoJlnOw.n.tyroitimaojojo/air.”Variatiansaftheirtranslatiansto.thislineinclude”I’vebeenaffe~~:dbyra~latlOnexposure,””WhenIliveirradiatedthatI’mweakbecauseafmythyroidandI’mlast,’WhenImInradIatIOn,~ybadygaesweakbecauseafmythyroidandlaneliness,””Iamirradi-atedbecauseIsufferframthyroIdproblemsandIamdeprivedafmylife,”and”I’maffectedbyradia-tianthatweakensmythyroidandmakesmefeelalane.”

92CHAPTER6II:AllthesethoughtsofmineIgivetoyou.ThesearetheexperiencesIseeinthesedaysthatdon’tbelongtous.(repeat)ItisclearfromthefirstverseofthesongthattheRongelapesestilldonotunderstandwhatthecausesoftheirsufferingareorwhenitwillend.Frustrated,ostensiblyfromtheU.S.government’slackofadequateanswers,theRongelapeseappealtoGodforassistance.Thechorusshowsthatradiationcausesnotonlythy-roiddisease,astheU.S.governmentacknowledges,butalsodespair.Radiationisnolongersimplythepoisonproducedbynuclearweapons;itbecomesthevehicleforalossofhealthandqualityoflife.TherepeatingsectionofthechorusmakesfunoftheU.S.government’scategorizationofradiationvictims;”number177″referstothegroupofpeoplefromBikini,Enewetak,Rongelap,andUtrikeligibletoparticipateinamedicalprogramextendedtotheMarshallIslandsunderSection177oftheCompactofFreeAssociation.8Thesonghighlightsthedeepestdesireoftheradiationcommunities-toliveinpeace.Inthefinalverse,thesongunder-scoresthedetachmentfromtheirlivesthattheRongelapesefeel.Radiationcausedthepeopletorelinquishcontroloverthecourseoftheirlives.Nolongercanthepeopledeterminewhattheyeatorwheretheylive.Theyeitherhaveorwillcon-tractillnessesthatwillchangethecourseoftheirlives.CONCLUSIONTheMarshalleselearnedEnglishwordsaboutradiationfromU.S.governmentscien-tists,doctors,andpoliticians,buttheygivedifferentmeaningstotheEnglishwordsand,indoingso,demonstratetheirresistancetothenarrowscopeofdamagesandinjuryresultingfromthetestingprogramasdefinedbytheU.S.government.Theresultisauniqueradiationlanguagethatprovidesawayfortheradiationsurvivorstocommunicatetheirexperiencestoeachotherandtoreflecttheirhistoryandlivedexperiences.ThenextchaptercontinuestoinvestigatetheMarshalleseradiationlanguagebylookingspecificallyatthelanguageofwomen.8TheU.S.governmentfundingforthisprogramendedinSeptember2001.

7/UncoveringThemesinLinguisticDataLanguageprovidesrichdataforanthropologiststoconsiderwhenstudyingwhatpeoplethinkabouthumanbehavior.InthecaseoftheMarshallIslands,Iwillanalyzethelanguageusedduringinterviewswithradiationsurvivorstogetinsightintotheirthoughtsaboutthetestingprogramanditsconsequences.Iconductedmorethantwohundredinterviewsthatshowaconsistencyintermsofthemedicalproblemsafflictingcommunitiesandthepeople’sdiscontentwiththelevelofU.S.governmentsupportandassistancefordamagesandinjuries.Inthischapter,anin-depthanalysisofjustthreeoftheinterviewsdemonstrateshowvariablessuchassex,atollofresidence,anddegreeofU.S.medicalattentioncontributetothedifferentexperiencesofonesubsetoftheradiationpopulation,thewomen.Duetotheintimatecontentoftheinterviewsandthelinguistictaboosthatmakeitforbiddenformanyofthesewomen’smalerelativestoreadtheseaccounts,Iwanttoprotecttheidentityofthewomen.Therefore,thenamesusedintheinterviewsarepseudonyms,includingthenameofonewoman’shusband.TheuniqueexperiencesMarshallesewomenfaceasaresultoftheirexposuretoradiationareevidentinthefIrstinterviewwithKitaandherhusband,Kino.Closelybonded,thecouplesatveryneartooneanother,fInishedeachother’ssentences,contin-uallyexpressedconcernsabouttheother’smedicalconditions,andevenusedasingularverbformtorefertothetwoofthemasasingleunit.KitaandKino’sjointconstructionoftheirexperienceswithradiationenhancetheinterviewbecausetheyexchangemem-oriestogether.Kita’sdepictionofthebirthanomaliessheexperiencedisamongthemostdevastatingaccountsIencounteredduringmorethanadecadeofworkintheMarshallIslands.Bythesametoken,herlanguageindicatesthatshereceivedalmostnomedicalcarefororinformationaboutherillnesses.BecauseKita’sfamilyisfromLikiepAtoll,whichtheU.S.governmentdefmesas”unexposed”toradiationfromthetestingprogram,KitaisnoteligibleforanyU.S.medicalmonitoringorcareprogramsprovidedtothelegally”exposed”population.LikemanysubpopulationsintheRonge-lapcommunity,theLikiepeserepresentanotherunacknowledgedradiationpopulation.Thesecondinterviewiswithawomannamedlakori,whoalsolivedonLikiepAtollduringthetestingprogram,butcurrentlyresidesinthecapitol,Majuro.lakoriisthewomanhighlightedinthepreviouschapter,thewomanwhogavebirthtoa”grape”baby.Itisclearfromtheinterviewthatlakorihasabetterunderstandingofthemedicaleffectsofradiation.Ibelievelakori’simprovedunderstandingofradia-tioneffectsresultsfromhercommandoftheEnglishlanguageandherabilitytoaccessatleastlimitedhealthcareservicesprovidedbythegovernmentoftheRepub-licoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)-unlikeKita,whoremainsonLikiep,wherethere93

94CHAPTER7arenomedicalfacilities.AlthoughthehospitalinMajurolacksthehuman,financial,andtechnicalresourcestodealadequatelywithradiologicalillnesses,Jakori,unlikeKita,hadaccesstosomemedicalcareduringheracutereproductivecrisis.ThethirdinterviewdescribestheexperiencesofErtilang,aresidentofRongelapAtoll.ErtilangwasonRongelapduringtheBravotestandexperiencedtheheavyradio-activefalloutandrelocationtoKwajaleinfifty-fourhoursaftertheevent.ErtilangwasalsooneoftheRongelapeseenrolledinProject4.1,theresearchprojecttostudytheresponseofhumanbeingstoradiationfromnuclearweapons.UnlikeKita,ErtilangisextremelyfamiliarwithU.S.physiciansandresearchersbecauseofherparticipationinProject4.1.ErtilangandtheotherProject4.1subjectsgravelyneededmedicalattentionaftertheiracuteradiationexposure.DecadeslatertheylearnedthattheU.S.governmentenrolledthemwithouttheirconsentinanextensivemedicalandenvironmentalresearchprogram.Consequently,Ertilang’sdiscourseismuchdifferentthanthatofhercounter-partsfromLikiepAtollwhodidnotreceiveU.S.governmentmedicalcare.LinguisticdatafromthethreeinterviewsdemonstratethatMarshallesewomenhavenumerous,overlappingsocialrealities.LanguageprovidesthevehiclefortheMarshallesetoconstructandnegotiatetheirhistorical,medical,andculturalexperienceswithradia-tion.Thesesocialrealitiesareevidentinthreedifferentthemesthatthewomentouchon:blame,powerlessness,andreproductiveabnormalities.Althoughthewomenexpressthesethemesdifferently,linguisticevidenceonceagaindemonstratestheuseofaMarshalleseradiationlanguagetoconveythewomen’sexperiences.ThefactthatthethemesoftheradiationlanguageexistandremaininaccessibletoallbutMarshallese-speakingoutsidersiscriticaltounderstandingtheresistanceoftheMarshallesetoconstructionsbytheU.S.governmentoftheeffectsofradiationexposurepresented.ASSIGNINGRESPONSrnll.ITYLikemembersofmanyislandnationsinthePacific,speakersintheMarshallIslandsoftenavoidassigningblamebecauseinterpersonalcommunicationbetweenislandersismorepassiveinnature(BrenneisandMyers1991:20).Forexample,Irememberseveralocca-sionsovertheyearswhenIdirectlyaskedonepersonforthetime.Insteadofrespondinginthefirstpersonwhentheydidnotknowthetime,peopleoftenrepliedinthecollectivepluralwith”jenok,”or”wedon’tknow,”eveniftherewasnooneelsearound.Respond-ingwitha”we”ratherthanan”r’enabledthespeakerstodivertthedirectnessofmyquestionandsharetheburdenoftheresponsewithafictitiousotherormeinsteadoffield-ingmyquestionalone.Eventually,Ilearnedtoask,”Whattimedowehave?”InsmallPacificcommunitieswherepeoplemustliveandworktogetherontinyislands,preservingharmonyisessentialtosurvival.Peopleoftenconcealdirectaccusa-tionsandprefertoexpresstheirfeelingstoathird-partymediator.UseoftheMarshalleselanguagetodefmetheirexperiencesenablestheradiationpopulationstoascribeblamefortheirproblemsandtoventtheirangerwhilelargelyavoidingdirectconfrontationwithU.S.governmentrepresentatives.AvoidingdirectconfrontationisimportantbecauseitpreservestheintegrityofthebilateralrelationshipbetweentheRMIandU.S.governments.DespitethehistoryofabuseandneglectduringtheColdWar,theMarshallIslandsremainsextremelyloyaltotheUnitedStatesandviewstheUnitedStatesasitsclosestfriend.Theangerthatpeoplefeelabouttheweaponstestingprogram

TABLE7.1wewerebombedwewereevacuatedweweresickwewereresettledwewereevacuatedagainwewerestillsickUNCOVERINGTHEMESINUNGUlSTlCDATA95EXPRESSIONSOFBLAMECONVEYEDBYERTILANGtheybombedustheyexaminedustheycheckedustheytoldusitwasokaytheytoldusourillnessesarenotrelatedtoradiationtheytolduseverythingwasokaytheysaidweshouldtakemedicinetheysaidtheywerehelpingtheysaidweshouldgototheU.S.theysaidthefoodwasokaytoeattheysaidweshouldnoteatcertainfoodhasnotledtoanycommunityornationwideanti-Americanism,althoughthesentimentcertainlyemergeswithsomeindividuals.Asisevidentfromthetextoftheinterviews,thereisabsolutelynoambiguityinthemindsofthethreewomenaboutwhodidwhattowhom.Theradiationlan-guageenablestheMarshallesetospeakdirectlyabouttheirfeelingsinaculturallyappropriatemanner.Table7.1providesapartiallistofthepronounsandverbsusedbyoneinterviewee,Ertilang.Ertilangspeaksdirectlytoconveyherperceptionsaboutwhocausedtheradiation,whoisaffectedbytheradiation,whomakesthedecisions,andwholiveswiththeconsequencesofthesedecisions.ThereislittledoubtinErtilang’smindthattheRongelapese,or”we,”experienceradi-ationexposure,illness,dislocation,andfalsereassurancesfromtheU.S.governmentabouttheirsafetyandhealth.AccordingtoErtilang,theU.S.government,or”they,”istheclearagentoftheRongelapesepeople’ssuffering.Statementssuchas”theysaidtheywerehelp-ing”indicatethattheU.S.governmentrepresentativesportraythemselvesashelpfultotheRongelapese.IfErtilangreallybelievedthesincerityofU.S.governmenteffortsto”help,”shelikelywouldsay”theywerehelping.”Also,theintroductionofthewordshould,inconjunctionwithstatementsabouttakingmedicationandeatingoravoidingcertainfoods,demonstratesthatErtilangbelievesshewassimplyfollowingordersratherthanreceivingcare.ThisissubstantiatedbythefactthatErtilangdoesnotcompletelyunder-standwhattreatmentshereceivedorthereasonfortakingmedication.IfErtilangfeltlikeshewasaparticipantinhermedicalcare,sheprobablywouldsaysomethingmorealongthelinesof”thedoctorgavememedicinetohelpwithmymedicalproblems.”Ertilang’sstatementsofblamereflectthehistoryoftheRongelappeople.In1957,theU.S.governmentassuredtheRongelapesethatthemainislandoftheirhomeatollwassafeforreinhabitationafterathree-yearabsenceduetohighandpersistentradio-logicalcontaminationfromtheBravotest.AsdiscussedinChapter5,theRongelap-eseexperienceddeathandprofoundillnessafterreturningtoRongelapbecauseoftheradiationtheyingestedfromtheirenvironment.Theseexperiences,inalllikelihood,contributetoErtilang’sskepticismandcynicismaboutanyU.S.governmentpro-nouncementsregardingradiologicalsafetyorthehealthstatusoftheRongelapese.Itisclearthattheradiationpopulations’feelingsaboutaccountabilityfortheirsuf-feringsandaclearblamingoftheU.S.governmentforinjuriesanddamagessuffered

96CHAPTER7bytheMarshallesepeopleextendtothecommunityatlarge.WhenIwasteachingaclassattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands,NuclearTestinginthePacific,mystudentsputtogetheracommunitycelebrationforNuclearVictim’sRemembranceDay,anationalholidayobservedMarch1,ontheanniversaryoftheBravoshot.Aspartofthecommemoration,weaskedMarshallesestudentstowriteessaysaboutyouthper-spectivesonthetestingprogram.Whilethecontentoftheessaysisinteresting,theydonotprovideasmuchinformationaboutthelivedexperiencesofthestudentsasthesurvivorinterviews.Nonetheless,theessaysprovidepowerfulexamplesoftheblameMarshalleseyouthlikelylearnedtoascribetotheU.S.govemment.Thestudentswhowrotetheseessayswerenotaliveduringthetestingevents.Theydidnotwitnesstheevents,butmanyofthembelongtocommunitiesdisplacedbythetestingprogram;manyofthembelongtofamilieswherepeoplearesickorhavediedfromradiologicalillnesses.Theclearascriptionofblamefortheeffectsofdirectexposuretoradioactivefalloutthatthestudentsdescribedemonstratesthattheoldergenerationpassesinforma-tion,usingtheMarshal1eseradiationlanguage,totheyoungergeneration:Ri-pella…relukuninkometortor….Ri-pellarekanoojinbwebwe….elukunlapanri-Americankakkurekij.Uninerkarkamelmelbombnanailonkenikonkerejbaerikaelonkeinad,imkererikrenitokjenailonkonaerimitokmekakkureimko-poisenenekeinad.Rejabetalkamelmelibombnanailonkonerakretookimkamelmelinankoj.RaankeinelonarmijinMarshallrekanoojinjorrenaktairotimcancer.Uninjor-renkonkearmejinAmericararjolokbombnanailonkeinad,impoisenmeninmourimlojetimebareinwotmenineddok.Rarlukunjajemanet.EbarIonajirirorejorrenimelonlellopimlollapre-cancerimtairot.Ri-Marshalleserelukkunjorren.Americans…reallyharasspeoplealot….Americanstheyarereallycrazy…TheAmericansreallydidalotofdamagetous.Thereasontheytestedtheirbombsontheseislandsofoursisbecausetheysaidourislandsaresmallandbecausetheyaresmalltheycancomefromtheircountryandcometodohannandpoisontheseislandsofours.Theydon’tgoandtestbombsontheirownlandbuttheycomeandexplode[bombs]onus.ThesedaysmanyMarshallesepeo-plearereallysickwiththyroidandcancer.ThereasontheyaresickisbecauseAmericansdroppedbombsonourislands,andpoisonedtheanimalsintheoceanandalsotheplants.Theyreallybehavedbadly.Therearealsomanychildrenwhowereaffectedandmanyoldwomenandoldmenwhohavecancerandthyroid[disease].Marshallesearereallysuffering.(Amani1998)Someofthephrasesinthisyoungstudent’sessayparticularlyemphasizetheblameplacedontheU.S.governmentfortheproblemsresultingfromthetestingprogram.Thestudentusesexpressionssuchas:Marshallese:itokkeinmeadkakkureimko-poisenenemakepoisonislandsLiteraltranslation:Meaning:cometodoharmandhereofourscometodoharmandpoisontheseislandsofoursMarshallese:orretokimkamelmelinankoj

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA97Literaltranslation:Meaning:theycometheycomeandandmakeexplosionsexplode[bombs]tousonusTheradiationpopulations’thoughtsaboutillnessandradiationexposureandtheblametheyascribetotheU.S.governmentfortheirhealthproblemsalsoextendtoMarshalleseyouth.FromthelivedexperiencesoftheMarshallese,theradiationpopulationsbelievethattheweaponstestingseverelycompromisedthehealthoftheiroffspring.Asevidentinthepreviousandfollowingessays,studentsexpressanxietyaboutchildrenwhodieorareaffectedbyradiation:Bombeoearkommanbweaolepenmenineddikkoijorenjorren.KonwotpaijineoekarelonarmejrarnaninmejimjetianajiriiTOrarmej.Konanlappaijin,etalimmejKingJud£l.Thebombmadeitsothatallourplantswouldbedamaged.Fromjustthepoisonalonethereweremanypeoplewhoweresickandsomechildrenwhodied.Becausethereissomuchpoison,KingJudadied.(Lang1998)1InmyclassattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands,guestspeakersoftencametosharewithstudentstheirexperiencesandthoughts.OneofthemoreprovocativespeakerswasRubonJuda,thesonofthelegendary”KingJuda.”RubontalkedcandidlyaboutthesufferingthepeopleofBikinienduredduringtheirexile.BeforetheU.S.governmenttestedweaponsonBikini,itrelocatedtheBikinianstoRongerikAtoll,wherefoodandwatersupplieswereinsufficienttosustainthepeople.Thepeoplenearlystarvedtodeath.Eventually,theU.S.governmentmovedtheBikinianstoKiliIsland,asingleislandratherthananatoll,anareathatonceagaincouldnotsustainthepeopleduetoitslimitedresourcebase.DuringRubon’spresentationtotheclass,IrecordedexpressionsheusedtoassignblametotheU.S.governmentforthesufferingsoftheBikinians:Rarkalimorimba:”Kemnaaj10kom.”The[Americans]madeapromisetousandsaid:”Wewilltakecareofyou.”Lukunkwole.Rejjabretokimlalekoj.Kemkarioonjuonjorrenlaplap.Kemimlukunjorren.Reallyhungry.Theydidn’tlookafterusandcareforus.Weencounteredextremesuf-fering.Wereallysuffered.Amedkaeriab.Rejriab.Amedkaekarmonekim.Naaninriab.Rarjabmoolnankij.Janimentan.Americalies.Theylie.Americatrickedus.Thewordsarelies.Theyweren’ttruthfultous.Cryingandsuffering.Aolepmenrenanakemimkarioone…imjorrenkake.Everybadthingthatexistsweencountered…andsufferedfrom.Reriab…bwerenbokjikierenkojerbali.Theylied…sotheycouldtakeourlandanduseit.Kimmijaker.Ebenbajab.Wewereafraidofthem.It’shardtosayno.ITheMarshallesedonottraditionallyusethetermking,butinthiscase,thestudentborrowsthetermoftenusedbyu.s.governmentrepresentatives.The”KingJuda”referredtobythestudentwastheleaderoftheBikinianswhentheU.S.approachedthecommunitytorequestuseofitsislandsforthetests.

98CHAPTER7Kemimkarkaddokik.Ejjelokikkaremman.Elonrarmijjenkwole.Wegotfishpoisoning.Noneofthefishweresafe.Somepeoplediedfromhunger.ManyoftheBikiniansshareRubonJuda’sdirectascriptionofblametotheU.S.govern-mentforthesufferingsoftheBikinians.ThelatesenatorfromBikini,HenchiBalos,statedonanationalradiobroadcastthattheproblemsresultingfromradiationarenottheRMlgovernment’sfaultandthereforenottheRMlgovernment’sresponsibilitytoaddress.SenatorBalosfrrmlyanddirectlyplacedresponsibilityontheU.S.governmentwithstatementssuchas”TheGovernmentoftheMarshallIslandsdidn’tbombBikini”and”TheGovernmentoftheMarshallIslandsdidn’tlietotheBikiniansin1968[andsay]thatwecouldsafelyreturnhome.ItwastheU.S.government.”Thelatesenator’smentionof1968referstotheU.S.government’sprematureresettlingofthecornmunityonitshomeatoll.AsitdidwiththeRongelapese,theU.S.governmentassuredtheBiki-niansitwassafetoresettletheirhomeatoll,althoughitremainedhighlycontaminated.Afteringestingmorecesiumthananyknownhumanpopulation(Balos1995),theBiki-nians,liketheRongelapese,lefttheirhomeatoll.ThemistrustofU.S.governmentasser-tionsaboutradiologicalsafetyfuelsthestrongsenseofblamethatmanyindividualsintheradiationpopulationsdirectattheU.S.government.ThedocumentsdeclassifiedyearslaterindicatesthattheU.S.governmentknewaboutthedangerouslyhighlevelsofradia-tiononBikinibeforereturningthepopulationtoitshomeislands.POWERLESSNESSPowerandpowerlessnessaretopicsofintensescrutinyinthefieldofanthropology.Inthissection,IwillshowwaysinwhichthelanguageoftheradiationpopulationsreflectsaMarshallesesenseofsubordinationandtheirrelativelylowstatusvis-a-vistheirrighttocontrolpoliciesrelatedtoradiologicalinjuriesanddamages.Radiationpopulationsexpressdeepfeelingsofpowerlessnessbasedontheirinabilitytoalterthecircumstancesresultingfromtheirradiationexposureandexileortoreceivethetypeofmedicalcareandexplanationsabouttheirexposuretheydeserve.Manypeoplefeelpowerlesstoachievegoodhealthnowthatradia-tionhasinvadedtheirbodiesandtochallengethenarrowparametersoftheU.S.government’sprogrammaticassistance.Thethreewomenintervieweesexpressfrustrationabouttheirinabilitytounder-standthemedicalchangesintheirbodies.Forexample,KitaandKinoexplaintheirconfusionwhenU.S.governmentrepresentativestriedtoexplainwhythyroiddiseasebegantoemergeaftertheweaponstestingprogram.KitaandKinocouldnotunder-standtheexplanationsoftheU.S.governmentofficialsthatvisitedLikiepAtoll:Naijabmeleletawawenaerkaritokimetaleimbukinaninmijkokeejjelokjabrewotmenrebanan[kij]….Idon’tunderstandwhytheycameandtooktestsofdifferentsicknessesbecausetheydidn’tsayasinglethingtous…….rejkononotokakkomrojajetako…rejba….theyspoketousbutwedidn’tknowwhat…theysaid.

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA99KitaseemsreluctanttocometotermswiththepervasivenessofmedicalproblemsthroughoutthecornmunityeventhoughtheLikiepesetalkfreelyaboutillnessesintheirpopulation.Kitawillnotspeculatebeyondherfamily’simmediateradiationexposure:…ijelawotkeekarworjorrenkokarwaloknanajirieokabkomro…….theonlythingsIknowaboutarethosethingsthathappenedtoourchildandthetwoofus….Similarly,ErtilangacknowledgesshehadnounderstandingaboutthemedicalproceduresperformedbyU.S.governmentdoctorsonherandherfellowRongelap-ese.TheRongelapeseviewthemselvesasthesubjectsofU.S.medicalpractitionersratherthanthepatientsofdoctorsconcernedabouttheirwell-being.WhenIaskedErtilangwhatshethoughtaboutthemedicalcareshereceivesfromU.S.govern-mentcontractors,shereplied:Ekwe,ijaje.Rejtoktaikikij.Jenaajbatabweejjelokke-jejajewaweenbweejjelok-kijjejjajetokta,kijjejjajetaeorekomaninankij.Re10ta?Akkij,jenok.Boj-jejjajetokta.Jejjajelaleanbwininarmejejabainwoter.Kerejtoktaikikij,jejtokta,akjenok.Kioemman,kiorejbaemmanlok.Kereloktoktaikikijrejbaenaninejjelokpai-jinippad,bweetanmenkorekonnanba?Jejjajebwejelikjabjenmendein.Well,Idon’tknow.Theytreatedus.Whatcanwesay,nothing-wedon’tknowaboutany-thingbecausewecan’t-wedon’tknowathingaboutmedicalcare,wedon’tknowwhatkindof[medical]procedurestheydotous.Whatdotheysee?Butus,wedon’tknow.It’sjust-wedon’tknowaboutmedicine.Wedon’tknowhowtoexaminethehumanbodythewaytheydo.Becausetheytreatus,wevisitthedoctor,butwedon’tknow.Nowit’sgood,nowtheysay[we’re]better.Whentheytreatustheyalwayssaythereisnoradiationwithus,whatisittheyalwayssay?Wedon’tknowbecauseit’shardforustounderstandthesethings.ErtilangrecognizesthattheRongelapeseneededcareaftertheinitialnear-fatalexposuretoradiation,andtheycontinuetoneedcareforlong-termandlatentillnesseslinkedtotheirradiationexposure.Ertilangalsorealizesthatsheisatthemercyofherdoctors.Therepeateduseofthephrase”jejjaje,”or”wedon’tknow,”underscorestheextentofErti-lang’slackofunderstandingofthemedicalprocedurestheU.S.governmentperformedonher.Ertilanghasascarthatextendsfromherjawbonedowntoherclavicle.WhenIaskedheraboutthescar,shesaidshedidnotknowwhatproceduretheU.S.doctorsperformedonherneck.ItturnsoutthatErtilanghadherentirethyroidglandremovedwithoutherknowledgeorpermission.ErtilangrecallsthefeelingofpowerlessnessshefeltwhentheU.S.governmentdoctorsexaminedher,especiallyduringhernumeroustripstotheUnitedStates.WithoutatranslatororMarshallesecompanion,Ertilangrecalls:”Iwasafraid…[but]whatcanwedowhenwehavenochoice?”Ertilang’sstate-mentdemonstratesthatthelanguageofradiationpopulationsintheMarshallIslandsembodiesthehistoryofU.S.andRMIgovernmentinteractionsandtherelativepower-lessnessoftheMarshallesetoalterthedecisionsandactivitiesoftheU.S.government.Ertilangseemsresignedtothefactthatshehasnomeanstoinfluenceevenbasicdecisionsaboutherownhealthandwell-being.Ertilangisill.Sheneedshighlyspecificandveryexpensivemedicalcareforherradiation-relatedillnesses,andshedependsontheU.S.governmenttoprovideallofhertreatment.Shehasnochoice;theRMIgovernmentdoesnotpossessthecapabilityorthehumanandfinancialresourcesnecessarytotreatradiation-relatedillnesses,suchasErtilang’s

100CHAPTER7braintumor.TheRMIisnoclosernowthanitwaswhenthetrusteeshipendedtorespondingadequatelytohealthcareneedslinkedtothetestingprogram.OnceErtilangleavestheMarshallIslandsforthecarethatisnotlocallyavailable,sheentersaforeigncountry,withaforeignlanguageandalienmedicalprocedures.ErtilangdescribesherexperienceswiththeU.S.governmentdoctorsandmedicalfacilitiesintheUnitedStatesthatdiagnosedandtreatedherbraintumors:Ijabenjakekeelontumorippa.Akkeraretaleioimpijaikeiowotimeta!.KwolokeleoekarbokeddoinAEC,[toktaRobert]Conard,earbanannaeworjuonmenejeddekbara.Earlukunbananna.IaretalimbarpijaitoHawaii,imrarbaretaleioinemibarrool[nanEbeye]bweeba,”Roolimpedimlokenjetiioinaajbarkuriok….”Ekwe,emojlokentaeojuonimruoiioke,ekwerekuriobwenaentokimeta!.EtalwotimkajunanNew-men,Washington[D.C.]…BokeioloknanWashing-ton.1mdrore.Ijmakewot….Ekwe,ijetalimrejjerameioaolepraan.Aolepjibbon.Icouldn’tfeelmytumor.TheywouldjustcomeandexaminemeandtakeX-raysandgoaway.YouknowtheguywhowasinchargeoftheAEC,[Dr.Robert]Conard,hetoldmeIhadsomethinggrowinginmyhead.Hesaidthisdirectlytome.IwenttoHawai’iformoreX-raysandtheyalsoexaminedme.AndthenIreturned[toEbeye]becausehesaid:”Returnandstay,andafterafewyearsIwillcanyouagain….”Wen,afterwhat,oneortwoyears,oneyear,right,wentheycameandtoldmetogo.IwentandheadstraighttoNew-Washington[D.C.]….TookmetoWashington.Andstayput.Iwasbymyself….Iwentandtheygavemeshocktreatmenteveryday.Everymorning.Ertilangusessentencessuchas”Earlukunbananna”(“Hesaidthisdirectlytome”)tomakeitperfectlyclearthattheU.S.governmentdoctortoldherdirectlythatshehadsomethinggrowinginherhead.Theuseofthewordlukuninthissituationpro-videsasubtle,butclearmodificationoftheverbsothatthereisnodoubttothelis-tenerthatErtilangheardthesewordsandthatthedoctorspokethem.ErtilangwasclearlyfrightenedbyherexperiencesinthecareofU.S.doctorsandresearchers.Stillnow,shehasnounderstandingofhermedicalconditionandnomedicalfilethatexplainshertreatmentineithertheMarshalleseortheEnglishlanguage.Eitherhermedicalfileremainshighlyconfidentialandinaccessible,oritnolongerexists.AccordingtomultiplesourcesintheRMIgovernmentandpeopleIinterviewed,firesdestroyedallofthemedicalfilesoftheacutelyexposedRonge-lapeseandUtrikese.Fourseparatefires-firesinSt.Louis,Majuro,Saipan,andEbeye–destroyedalltherecordsdetailingtheillnessesandtreatmentofthepatients(T.deBrum1994).AccordingtoastaffworkerattheTrustTerritoryofthePacificIslands’governmentofficeinSaipan,oneofthefiresoccurredduringtheevening,insideasafethatwaslockedforthenight.Thecontentsofthesafeincludedphotographsofthedeformedoffspringfromtheexposedcommunities(Alik1994).Onseveraloccasions,theRMIgovernmentaskedtheU.S.govern-mentforexplanations.TheU.S.governmentneverinvestigatedthefires,whichisparticularlysurprisingiftheU.S.governmentconsideredthemaccidental.Dr.EsraRiklon,aMarshallesemedicalpractitionerwhomIinterviewed(inEnglish)onAugust18,1994,describedthefirethatdestroyedthefilesinMajuro:EsraRiklon:[T]herewasagroupof[American]physicianshiredbyourgovernmenttocomeandtakeoverthehospital’smanagement,mostlythebudget.Sowemovedfrom

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA101theoldhospitaltothenewhospitalandtheyburnedallthe[medical]chartsexceptmaybelessthanafew-ahundredchartslet’ssay.HollyBarker:Purposefully?ER:Well,weaskedthem.Youknow,oneofourboyswhousedtotakecareofthesechartswasmad.Hesaid:”Whydidyoubumthesecharts?Theyareimportantfiles.”Andtheysaid:”Becausewearegoingtotakeonanewsystemofcharts-filingcharts.”Andhesaid:”Youdidn’thavetobumthem,allyoudoischangethenumber,orchangethefolder,whatever.Butyouneedalltheinformationavailableonthechartorit’sgoingtobehandicappedeverytimeaphysiciangoestotakecareofthesepeople.”UseoftheEnglishlanguagebyU.S.governmentofficialscontributestothesubor-dinationoftheMarshallese.Althoughthetrusteeshipofficiallyended,thesystem-aticcontrolofinformationandmedicalknowledgebytheU.S.governmentenablesittospecificallydefinethescopeofdamagesandinjuriesinthepost-colonyperiod.TheU.S.government,nottheRMIgovernmentortheradiationpopulations,deter-mineswhichpeopledemonstrateillnessesrelatedtothetestingprogramandwhichpeopleareeligibleformedicalcare.Inadditiontodenyingmedicalcaretothou-sandsofpeople,thiscontrolofinformationleftpatients,suchasErtilang,vulnera-bletoexperimentation.AslongastheU.S.governmentretainstherighttodefinethemedicaleffectsofradiation,itwillcontinuetoignoremedicalconditionsthattheMarshallesepeoplecomplainabout,suchasreproductiveabnormalities,andtoexcludethenumeroussubsetsofthepopulationfrommedicalattention.WOMEN’SREPRODUCTIVEILLNESSESWithoutquestion,oneofthegreatestconcernsofthewomenexposedtoradiationistheirreproductivehealth.Althoughitisoneoftheirgreatestconcerns,itisalsoonetheydonotdiscussfreely.Researchbymedicalanthropologistsandthemedi-calprofessiondemonstratesthateveryculturecreatesitsownstigmatizationforill-nessesthatarenotsociallyacceptable.Becauseofstigmatization,peopleanticipaterejectionfromsocietyevenbeforeittakesplace.Eventhoseindividualswhosuc-cessfullymasktheirillnessestendtointernalizefeelingsofshameassociatedwiththeirmedicalconditions(Kleinman1988).WomenexposedtoradiationintheMarshallIslandssufferfromanarrayofreproductiveproblems.Theyfeelasenseofshameandstigmatizationasaresultoftheirillnesses.Ertilang,Jakori,andKitaallmiscarriedand/orgavebirthtogrosslydeformedchildrenwholivedforonlyashorttime.Duringtheirinterviews,KitaandJakorispecificallydiscussedthehumiliationwomenexperiencewhentheygivebirthtogrosslydeformedchildren.Womenquicklytakethesechildrenawayaftertheydietoburythemandhidetheirshamefromthecommunity,eventheirspouses.Jakori’sdescriptionofthebirthandburialprocessprovideslinguisticevi-denceaboutthespeedwithwhichtheseeventstakeplace.Thisisdemonstratedbytheclosenessoftheverbs,asseeninthissentence:1mieneowotelotakemijrejkalibwene.Andthemomentitwasbornitdiedtheyburiedit.

102CHAPTER7Jakorialsolinguisticallydemonstratestherapidityofeventsfollowingherbirthof”grapes”withthissentence:EliktataijkoLotak,rejkwaLokkiraapko,imrejjolokjikinninnineoao.Finally,Igavebirth,theyshowedmethegrapes,andtheyremovedmyreproductivesystem.Thereisnodescriptionofactivitiesbetweenthebirthofthegrapesandthehys-terectomy,butitisclearfromthelinguisticsignalsthatJakori’shysterectomyoccurredveryquicklyafterherbirthingabnormality.Inadditiontoherownbirthingexperiences,Jakoridescribesthedeformedbabiessheheardabout,butdidnotsee.BirthisusuallyaverypublicexperienceforMarshallesewomen.Femalerelativesandcareproviderscomeinandoutofthebirthingarea,andfrequently,thecommunitywillgathernearbytoseethebabyorhearnewsafterthebabyisborn.ThefactthatJakorididnotseethesedeformedchildrenwithherowneyesonceagainshowsthehumiliationlinkedtothesebirthsandthewomen’seffortstocoveruptheirexperiences.Inherinterview,Jakoridis-cussesbirthsshedidnotwitness,includingKita’sdelivery:Ekwe,ajiriroilokkarron,rejbaekojakbaran.1mieneowoteLotakemijrejkalibwene.RejabkwaLokenanarmej.Neainwot[KitaJeo,ijroneLotak-imbarjuankorarejbaain-wotbarantepilajirieonejin.NaiarjabLoibwerejLotakwotrejnoejiimkalibwener.Well,thechildrenwhoareborn,accordingtowhatIhear,theirheadsarefunny.Whenone[ofthesedeformedchildren]isbornitdies[and]theyburyit.Theydon’tshowittopeople….Like[Kita],Ihearditwasborn-andoneotherwomantheysay[gavebirthtoababy]likeadevil,thatchildofhers.Me,Ididn’tseethembecausetheygavebirth,theyhidethem,andtheyburythem.InahighlyChristiancountry,thereisaninterestinglinkbetweenthedeformedchildandthedevilthatshowsanassociationbetweenthesebirthsandbiblicalimagesofimmorality.Onafewoccasions,Marshallesewomentoldmethat,ifawomangivesbirthtoadeformedchild,itisevidencethatsheisunfaithfultoherhusbandandthereforesubjecttotheretributionsofherhusbandandthecommu-nity.ThewifeofthehealthassistantonLikiepAtollexpressedthesesentimentswhentryingtoaccountforthedeformedbabies:Iwasterribly,terriblyupset.IcannotexplainexactlywhatmyfeelingswereexceptrememberingthehorrorandcompassionIfeltforthewomen.Iwonderedtomyselfifthosemonsters[thewomen]gavebirthtofeltanypainorhadanyofthehumanquali-tiesweallshare.Isuspectedblackmagicandwonderedwhatthosewomenmayhavedonetooffendsomeonetosuchadegreethatthespellcastonthemwassoprofoundandterrible.(EsradeBrum,August19,1994;translatedbyNewtonLajuan)Womensufferingreproductiveabnormalitiesfeelstigmatizedbyvirtuallyevery-one,includingotherwomenintheircommunities(asseenfromthestatementabove).TheU.S.governmentobviouslyhasnointerestinrecognizingthesufferingsofwomen,sinceitspurposeistominimizethescopeofitsresponsibilities-mostnota-bly,itsfinancialresponsibilities.TheMarshallesemen,whoaccountforthevastmajorityofpoliticallyelectedseatsintheMarshallIslands,oftendonotknowaboutthedegreeofsufferingexperiencedbywomen.Theinformationcontainedinthe

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA103interviewabovealsorevealsthatwomencannotfindsolacefortheirburdensevenfromoneanotherifotherwomenthinkbirthingabnormalitiesaretheresultofbadbehavioronthepartofthebirthingmothers,notofradiationexposure.TheinterviewwithKitaprovidesmoreevidenceaboutthesufferingMarshallesewomenendureasaresultoftheirreproductiveproblems.Kitahaddifficultydescrib-ingandtalkingaboutherownexperiencesandusedrepetitiontoconveyintensityandemphasizecertainpoints.Kitahighlightsthefactthatmanywomenexperiencereproductiveproblems:Etlon,etlonarmejarjorren,imetlonkoraarkiraapnejeer….Many,manypeoplewereinjured,andmanywomenhad”grape”babies….WhenKitatalksaboutthenumerousmiscarriagesfollowingherexposuretoradia-tion,sheusesthephrase”Mijwot,mijwof'(“[They]justdie,justdie”).Therepeti-tioninwordsmirrorstherepetitivemiscarriagesKitasustained.TherepetitionoccursagainwhenIaskedKitaaboutthecausesofherailments:”paijineo,paijineo”(“theradiation,theradiation”).ThereisnodoubtthatKitamakesadirectlinkbetweenradiationexposureandreproductiveabnormalities.WhenKitatriestodescribethetwo-headedchildshegavebirthto,shestammers:”Ainwote,ainwote…,”or”it’slike,it’slike…,”andshegoesontosay,”ainwotarmej…ainwotarmej,”meaningthatthechild”resembledaperson…resembledaperson,”butwasnotquiteahumanbeinginhereyes.Sensinghiswife’sdifficultyindescribingtheeventandclearlywantingmetowitnessanddocumenttheirtestimony,Kinotakesoverforhiswifetodescribethechild.LikeKita,Kino’srepetitionofphrasesdenoteshispersonaldif-ficultydiscussingthebirthandtheneedtounderscoreimportantaspectsofthestory:leneoewotlokbaameoelikinenaninmejkonajiri…eloktakajirieo,eworruobaranajirieo…ruobar.Einwotruobar.Juonepedilunkabbaran.Ijo[ejibwebaranbweenkwalokia]ewalonlokimainwotjidikwot,eworjidikmenijo[ejibwebaran]imbareoepedijo[ebarjibwebaran]….Eworjuonbareoedikjenbareo,ainwotruo-ejabbarmeneoakainwotbaranarmej.Earjabmourajirieo.Lotakinemmij….Emenonojidikwotienkeejlotak.Emaronwot-ejabawa,jetwotminute.Afterthebombtestingshegotpregnantwithachild…whenthebabywasborn,ithadtwoheads…twoheads.Itwasliketwoheads.Onewasontopoftheother….Here[toucheshisheadtoshowwhere]itwasreallysmall[toucheshead]….Therewasasmallthingcomingoutofthehead,liketwo-itwasn’taheadbutitwaslikeaheadthatthing.Thatchilddidn’tlive.Bornanddied….Itbreathedforashorttimeafteritwasborn.Maybeonly-itwasn’tanhour,onlyafewminutes.WomenoneveryatollwhereIconductedinterviewsovertheyearsexperiencedextremebirthdeformities.Thewomensometimesaskmehowmyfriendsandrela-tivesdealwiththesebirths,andIhavetoexplainthatIdonotknowanyoneintheUnitedStateswhohashadsimilarexperiences.SomeoftheMarshallesewomenweresurprisedtolearnthatotherwomendonotdealwiththesereproductivetrag-ediesevenwhentheyclearlylinktheexperiencestoradiationexposure.Incontrasttolakori’sandKita’sexperiencesaspartofthe”unexposed”popula-tionsoutsidetheparameteroftheU.S.government’sradiologicalconsideration,theRongelapesewomenwerenotsurprisedbythebirthofdeformedchildrenanddidnot

104CHAPTER7feelthesametypeofshameastheLikiepesewomen.TheU.S.governmenttoldtheRongelapesewomentoexpectbirthabnormalitiesbecauseoftheirexposuretoradia-tion(DorothyEmos,March18,1999).TheLikiepesewomenfeltshameandhidtheirdeformedbabiesbecausetheydidnotknowandwerenottoldthattheirexposuretoradiationwouldresultinbirthdeformities.InthecaseoftheRongelapcommunity,theU.S.governmentacknowledgedthatthecommunitywasexposedtoradiationandplanneditsresearchtodocumentthehumaneffectsofradiationexposure.TheU.S.governmentpreparedthecommunityandtolditsmembersthatbirthingabnormalitieswouldoccur.Consequently,theRongelapcommunitypubliclyburiedandgrievedthelossofthedeformedchildren;thewomendidnothidethemandhurrythemoffforsecretburialsasdidtheLikiepesewomen.Duringherinterview,ErtilangfocusedonthemedicalproblemsexperiencedbytheRongelapcommunitythattheU.S.governmentdoesnotrecognizeasradiation-related.ErtilangisunwillingtoaccepttheU.S.government’sdismissalofmedicalproblemsthattheRongelapeseconnecttotheirradiationexposure.Shequestionedme,asanAmerican,todisplayhowshecontestsU.S.governmentpronouncementsaboutradiation-relatedillnesses.Ondifferentoccasionsintheinterview,ErtilangdescribesmedicalproblemsexperiencedbytheRongelapesethatareoutsidetheU.S.government’stightpurviewofradiationinjury.Shefollowsherdescriptionswithcurtandconfrontationalquestions.Forexample,Ertilangsaidinasomewhatsarcastictone:”Akiarbartumor,kwojelake?f”(“WellIhada[brain]tumor,didyouknowthat?!”).Anothertime,Ertilanglookedmedirectlyintheface,whichtheMarshalleseusuallyfinduncomfortableorevenrude,andasked:Ainwotkejetraneajirirorelotak,relotakkejetainwotarmejakjetjejlalerekamourkiraap,ekweta?!Someofthechildrenwhoarebornhere,whentheyareborntheyresemblehumansbutwhenwelookweseetheygivebirthto”grapes,”wellwhatisthat?!Ertilang’squestionswererhetorical,butthetoneandcontentofherspeechclearlyconveyedherangerandfrustration.HerchallenginganddirectmanneralsosignaledthatErtilangwastryingtogaugewhetherornotIbelievedherexperiencestobevalidandtruthfulorwhetherI,asanAmerican,wouldgiveherareason,otherthanradiation,forthecauseofhertroubles,asshehasbecomeaccustomedtofromAmericans.IrememberaskingaU.S.governmentdoctorattheBrookhavenNationalLaboratory(thecontractorwithresponsibilityformonitoringthehealthoftheRongelapeseandUtrikeseforthefourdecadesafterthetestingprogram)aboutreproductiveabnormali-tiesexperiencedbythewomen.Thisdoctor,awoman,toldmethatthebirthingabnor-malitiesarelikelytheresultofincestandinbreedingandthatthepopulationsweretoosmalltomakeanystatisticallyrelevantconclusionslinkingradiationtobirthingabnor-malities.IcannotbegintoimaginehowErtilangwouldfeelifthissamedoctortoldherthatherproblems-problemssheneverexperiencedbeforethetestingprogram-aretheresultofincestandinbreeding,notradiationexposure.NowonderErtilangfeelstheneedtoventherfeelings!IfmdErtilang’sbitternessappropriate,giventheamountofsufferingsheenduresasaresultofherbraintumors,athyroidectomy,birthanoma-lies,andradiationtreatmentsinforeignhospitalswheretheysubjectedherto”shocktreatments”withoutanyexplanationsorthebenefitofatranslator.

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA105MyinterviewwithErtilangdidnotendwithasenseofhostilityoranger.Instead,ErtilangopenlyreflectedonthefutilityandpowerlessnessshefeelsasaMarshallesewomanexposedtoradiation.Shedoesnotunderstandthephysicalchangestoherbodyorwhatthefutureholds.Withsadnessinhervoice,Ertilangsaid:Elukunoktakmourjenjeamaan.Aolepmenijajekio.Lifeisextremelydifferentthantheolddays.Idon’tknowanythinganymore.ThehighincidenceofreproductiveabnormalitiesdescribedintheethnographicdataIcollectedcorrespondswithandbuildsontheimportantresearchundertakenbymedicalanthropologistGlennAlcalay.Alcalaystudiedtheincidenceofmiscar-riagesandreproductiveabnormalitiesintheMarshallIslandsafterthetestingpro-gramandfoundadirectcorrelationbetweenthefrequencyofbirthingproblemsandthedistanceinresidencefromtheground-zerotestsites(Figure7.1).Incontrasttothesuppositionthatincestandinbreedingwerethecauseofbirthingproblems,Alcalay’sworkdemonstratesthatthecloseracommunitylivedtoBikiniandEnewe-takAtolls,themoreradiationitspopulationreceived,andthegreatertheincidenceofbirthingproblemsexperiencedbyitsfemalemembers(Alcalay1995).WomenthroughouttheMarshallIslandscomplainaboutreproductiveabnormali-tieslinkedtoradiationexposure.TheethnographicdataIcollectedbetween1994and600Mill500200Namorik•0.41001.1Rongelap•Utirik•0.9cCIlAilukE0•~0.8WotjeQjLae•Q.•en.r::t:00.7Q)enQj>””0«0.60.5300400DistancefromBikini(miles)Figure7.1LinkbetweenatollofresidenceandreproductiveabnormalitiesintheRMl.Source:Alcalay(1995).

106CHAPTER72001indicatethatphenomenasuchas”jellyfish”and”grape”babiesarewidespread.Womeninthefarnorthwesterncomerofthecountry-elosetowherethetestingoccurred-aswellasthoseinlocationsfarthestfromthetestsitesunderstandwhatjellyfishandgrapebabiesareandusethesewordstoexplainthesereproductivephe-nomena.Theexistenceofthewordkiraap(“grape”)inthelanguageindicatesthattheMarshalleseassignedanonhumanwordtodescribenewphenomenaintheposttest-ingera.IfMarshallesewomenhadexperiencedthesetypesofreproductiveillnessesbeforetheirradiationexposure,theillnesseswouldhaveproperMarshallesenamesinsteadofdescriptiveEnglishones.Forexample,jibunandkoarethetermsthatwereusedforstillbirthsandmiscarriagesbytheMarshallesebeforethetestingeraandthatcontinuetobeusedtoday.Thesebirthingproblemsremainconstant,evenifwomenbelievetheyaremorefrequentnowbecauseoftheirexposuretoradiation,butthenamesoftheconditionshavenotchangedandindicatethatthesearenotnewailments,suchasjellyfishorgrapebabies.Theexperienceswithgrapebabiesdiscussedbythewomenintheethnographicdatamirrorthedescriptionsinthemedicalliteratureofhydatidiform,ormolar,preg-nancies.Duringthesepregnancies,cellsstopdividingandswelltothesizeofgrapes.Theenlargedcellsattachthemselvestotheuterusofthewomenandareoftenmis-carriedseveralmonthslater,givingtheimpressionofabirthofgrapes.Itisinterest-ingtonotethatU.S.governmentscientistsobservedthesamephenomenoninplantsexposedtoradiation.Dr.LaurenceDonaldsonfromtheUniversityofWashingtonobservedthechangesinplantlifein1950andnotedthat”celldivisionceasedandthecellsenlargedandtookonanabnormallymatureappearance”(Donaldson1950:9).JudgingfromtheincidencelevelsofreproductiveproblemsdetailedbyAlcalay,theobservationsofU.S.governmentscientists,andthecreationofanewwordtodescribeanewphenomenon,thereisadirectlinkbetweenthegrapebirthsexperiencedbytheMarshallesewomenandtheirexposuretoradiation.Thetermjellyfishbabiesdescribesaphenomenonthatiswidespread.Weknowitiswidespreadbecauseitoccurswithenoughfrequencytowarrantanameandbecausewomenalloverthecountryknowwhatthistermmeans.Jellyfishbabiesarechildrenthatarebornwithnobonesintheirbodies.Witnessessaytheskinofthebabiesistrans-parent,soonlookerscanseetheheartsbeatingintheirchestsandthepulsingofthebloodmovingthroughtheirbrainsandotherorgans.Duringaninterview,aMarshallesemedi-calpractitionerdescribedtheappearanceofajellyfishbabyhewitnessed:(T)hebabywasveryfunnylooking.Thelegsandarmswerethere,buttheywerekindoflargerthannormal,andshorterthannormal.Youcanseethebody,buttherewasnoskull…andtherewasnoskullexceptamembraneofthebrain,butyoucanseethebrainwithyourowneyes.Youcanseethebrainismoving-andthebaby,theheartwasbeatingalso.Aftertwenty-fourhoursthebabypassedaway,andthebabywasquiteshorterthannormal.Kindofthickandbig.(EsraRiklon,August18,1994)TheMarshalleseuseothernonhumanwordsfromtheirenvironmentorlocalrealmofexperiences,inadditiontothetermsjellyfishandgrape,todescribetheless-than-human”monsters”theygivebirthto,suchasturtle,octopus,devil,”andappleheadbabies.AnotherintervieweeonWotjeAtolldescribedadeformedbabyaslejikan,or”marlinfish.”Thespineofthebaby,likethatofthemarlinfish,

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA107protrudedoutofthebodyinbigbumps(LikotarKomram,February12,1998).AwomanfromAi1ukAtoll,anatolladjacenttoUtrik,yetoutsidetheU.S.govern-ment’sscopeofconsideration,saidshegavebirthtoaclamlikechild:Two[ofmychildrendied].Oneofthemwasborndefective.Itdidn’tlooklikeahuman.Itlookedjustliketheinsideofagiantclam.(Anonymous1994)2AwomanfromLikiepgavebirthtoachildthatresembledacoconut:IwillnowconfessthatI,too,gavebirthtosomethinglessthanhuman.WhatIgavebirthtowasnormalineveryaspectexceptthatthetopoftheskullhadnotfusedandremainedopenlikethecracksofacoconutthathasnotcompletelysplit.(Anonymous,August14,1994)TheU.S.governmentclearlydidnotdiscussradiationexposureandbirthinganom-alieswithwomenoutsideofthefouratollsdesignatedas”exposed”becausetherearenoEnglishloanwordsorequivalentstocommunicatetheirbirthingexperi-ences.Consequently,theMarshallesewomensearchedfornonhumanwordsintheirenvironmenttodescribethenonhumanchildrentheygavebirthto,suchascoconut,insidesofagiantclam,andmarlinfish.AUNIQUEMARSHALLESERADIATIONLANGUAGEAfterthedevastatingconsequencesofradiationexposureandtheresultingexilebecauseofpersistentcontamination,theMarshalleseneededtodevelopwaystocommunicatetheirexperiencestooneanother.Thisneedtocommunicatenewexperiencesbeganwiththepopulationsmostaffectedbyradiationandexile,buteventuallymigratedintothepopulationatlargesothatchildrenandnonaffectedpopulationsintheMarshallIslandscouldtalkabouttheeventsthattookplaceintheircountry.ManyMarshallesehavelostfaithintheU.S.government’sabilitytoinformthemabouttheirhealthandsafety.ThereisaninherentconflictofinterestinhavingtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),whichisdirectlyresponsibleforthehumanandenvironmentalexposureoftheMarshallese,determinewhoisandisnotharmedbythisexposure.ThisconflictbecomesevenmorecomplicatedwhenweconsiderthatDOEplaysanimportantroleindevelopingnuclearenergyintheUnitedStates,anenergysourcethatrequirespubliccomfortwithU.S.governmentmanagementofradiation.ThehierarchicalnatureofthetrusteeshipsystemallowedtheU.S.govern-menttocontrolaccesstoinformation,toconducthumanradiationexperiments,andtoserveitsownsecurityandscientificinterests.FortheMarshallese,thiscolonialdominationcontinuestotranslateintophysicalandemotionalsufferingmorethantwodecadesafterthetrusteeshipended.EnglishisthelanguageofpoliticalandscientificdominationintheMarshallIslands,yetitcannotconveythesocialandculturalrealitiesoftheMarshallesepeo-pleandtheirexperienceswithradiation.Asaresult,theMarshalleseborrowwordsfromEnglish,combinethemwithexistingMarshallesewords,andcreatenewwordsthatallowthemtoexpresstheirfullrangeofexperienceswithradiation2AswiththetestimoniesofKita,Ertilang,andJakori,thespeakersarenotidentifiedbecausethereproductiveinformationistoopersonal.

108CHAPTER7andtheeffectsofnuclearweaponstesting.ThesethreedistinctfeaturescharacterizetheMarshalleseradiationlanguageandareevidentinthefollowingpassage,spo-kenbyanatollsenator,AlvinJacklick,3duringaformaldebateintheNitijela(theRMI?arlia~ent)regard~ngtheeffectsofradiationonthesecondgeneration.BybreakmgthISpassagemtopartsandconsideringtheliteraltranslationofthewords,allofthecharacteristicsoftheradiationlanguagebecomeclear:KonkomelmelanAmedka…enaajIonarmeji/oMajolBecausemakingexplosionsbyAmerica…therewillbemanyMarshallesepeoplerenaajclaiminaninmej.Jetkeinintheywillclaim[forcompensationtotheTribunal]illnesses.Somekindsofnaninmejrepedippenri-Majolrebarpedippenjekekejet,illnessestheyoccurwithMarshallesetheyalsooccurwithsomeothers,armejroi/oArizonaimUtah,jetarmejrorarwinddownerpeoplefromArizonaandUtah,somepeopletheyweredownwindersi/okomelmelanAmedkaijen….PaijineorarboktokinmakingexplosionsbyAmericathere….Thepoisontheybroughti/oBikiniinMajolejpedwotnanrainin.toBikiniintheMarshallIslandsitstillremainsuntiltoday.First,theradiationlanguageborrowsfromthelanguageintroducedbytheU.S.governmenttodiscusstheactivitiesandconsequencesofthetestingprogram,English.Thesenatorusesthewordclaim,forinstance,toindicatethattheMarshallesewillfileclaimswiththeNuclearClaimsTribunaltoreceivecompensationfortheirradiation-relatedinjuries.Priortothetestingprogram,theMarshallesehadnouseforthewordclaim,astherewerenosituationswherepeoplereceivedmonetarypaymentsfordamages.Second,thesenatoraltersEnglishwordstoadaptthemtoauniquelyMarshalleselanguagecontext.Thesenator’smodificationoftheworddownwindertowinddownerreflectstheMarshallesepreferenceforanounfollowedbyadescriptiveterm,aswellasasignificantchangeinthestructureoftheEnglishword.Third,thesenatordemonstratesthecreationofnewMarshallesewordsthatenablespeakerstoexpresstheirfullrangeofexperienceswithradiationandtheeffectsofnuclearweap-onstesting.Priortothetestingprogram,thewordkomelmeldidnotexistinthelan-guage.Komelmel,whichmeans”tomakeexplosions,”isanewMarshalleseword.Asevidentinlinguisticdatafrominterviewsandpopularsongs,theMarshallesecreatedtheirownradiationlanguagetoconveythehavocthatenteredtheirlivesintheaftermathoftheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.Inadditiontocommuni-catingthesocialandculturalrealitiesoftheMarshallese,theradiationlanguageisaformofresistancetothescientific-political-militaristicparadigmoftheU.S.govern-mentthatinsiststhatradiationadverselyaffectedonlyveryfewMarshallese.3AlvinJacklickwasasenatorwhenthisdebateoccurred.Sincethattime,hehasservedasthemin-isterofhealthandenvironmentfortheRMIgovernmentandisnowthespeakeroftheNitijela.ManythankstoanthropologistJulieWalsh,whorecordedthedebateforme.IbenefitedgreatlyfrommanyconversationswithJulie,whowasdoingfieldworkintheRMIatthesametime.

UNCOVERINGTHEMESINLINGUISTICDATA109Throughtheiruniqueradiationlanguageanditsthemesofblame,powerlessness,andmedicalandreproductiveabnormalities,theMarshalleseconstructthelinguisticmeanstoconveythesocialrealitiesthatU.S.governmentdefinitionsofradiationexposuredeliberatelyignore.TheresistancelanguageisthemajoravenueavailableforpeopletoconveytheirexperiencesthattheU.S.governmentwillnotrecognize.Marshalleseconstructionsoftheirsocialandculturalrealitiesdonotdistinguishbetween”exposed”and”unexposed”groups.ItisobviousthatMarshallesepeoplefrombothoftheseimposedU.S.categoriessufferfromthesametypesofillnesses.TheinterviewswithJakori,Kita,andErtilangdemonstratetheparallelsbetweenthemedicalproblemsexperiencedbywomeninbothcategories.AlthoughErtilangistheonlylegally”exposed”womanofthethree,eachoftheintervieweesandthewomenintheircommunitiesexperienceseverereproductiveabnormalities.Lin-guisticevidencealsoindicatesthatthewomeninthelegally”unexposed”atollsfeelashamedabouttheirillnessesandthereforeconcealthedeathsoftheirdeformedchildrenfromeachotherandfromtheircommunities.LinguisticevidenceindicatesthatthereproductiveproblemsexperiencedbytheRongelapesewomendidnotoccurbeforethetestingprogramandtheirexposuretoradiation.InsteadofusingMarshallesewordstocommunicatetheillnesses,theintervieweesusenonhumanwordsfromtheirlocalenvironmenttodescribetheirbirthanomalies,suchasoctopus,grapes,andhermitcrabtodescribethedeformedchildren.Ifthesereproductiveproblemshadexistedbeforethetestingprogram,theywouldhaveproperMarshallesenameslikeotherillnessesexperiencedbytheMarshallesebeforethetestingprogram(Barker1997),suchasnormallyoccurring(albeitwithasmallerincidencelevel)jibun,or”stillbirths.”Despitethelinksamongthemedicalproblemsofthethreewomenhighlightedinthischapter,theinterviewsunderscorethedisparitiesinavailablemedicalcare.BecauseErtilangisfromthe”exposed”communityofRongelap,shecontinuestoparticipateinU.S.government-fundedmedicalprograms.QuestionsremaininErtilang’smind,how-ever,abouttheefficacyoftheseU.S.programsthatcausehertofeelpowerlessandatthemercyofhermedicalpractitioners.Jakori,ontheotherhand,experiencedanail-mentthatiscommonenoughintheMarshallIslandstowarrantthecreationofaname,despiteitsrelativelylowrateofOccurrenceintheUnitedStates.DespitethefactthatKitasufferedthroughmultiplemiscarriagesandthebirthofatwo-headedchildandthatJakorinearlydiedwhiledelivering”grapes,”bothJakoriandKita,aswellasotherwomenandpopulationsoutsidethe226originally”exposed”peopleofRongelapandUtrik,remainineligibleforradiation-relatedhealthcare.ExtensionofU.S.governmenthealthcareremainslinkedtotheU.S.government’snarrow,legalconstructionoftheboundariesdefiningwhichatollscomprisethe”exposed”area.TheMarshalleselanguagereflectstheuniquehistoricalandsocialidentitiesofthepeople.BecauseofthedynamicrelationshipbetweentheU.S.andtheRMIgovernmentsandthecontinuedemergenceoflatentradiation-relatedillnesses,thereislittledoubtthattheradiationlanguageoftheMarshallesewillcontinuetoevolveandreflectthechangingsocialandculturalrealities.TheU.S.government’sresponsibilityforthehealthoftheradiationsurvivorsneedstoevolvetoincludethepreviouslyignoredradiationpopulations.

110CHAPTER7CONCLUSIONLanguagereflectsthehistoryandlivedexperiencesoftheMarshallese.Theradia-tionlanguagedevelopedbyradiationsurvivorsprovidescluesaboutthechangestoMarshalleselifeandculturethatresultedfromtheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.Furthermore,languageuseextendstheexperiencesofpersonslinkeddirectlytotheweaponstestingprogramtothepopulationatlarge,includingthegenerationbornafterthetestingprogram.ThewomenIintervieweddidnotbelievetheyhadanyabilitytoeithergetaccesstoinformationabouttheirhealthorinfluencedecisionsabouttheirownmedicalcare.ControlofinformationandpatienttreatmentisonewaythattheU.S.governmentretainsfullauthoritytoaccountfortheconsequencesoftheweap-onstestingprogramduringthetrusteeshipandintothepost-colonyperiod.WomenintheMarshallIslandsexperiencemultipleburdensasaresultoftheirexposuretoradiation.Radiationcompromisesthehealthofwomenandtheiroffspring.Com-munitystigmatizationcreatesasenseofreproductiveshame,resultinginafrequentpracticeofhidingratherthansharingbirthinganomalies.VeryfewwomenholdelectedpoliticalpostsintheMarshallIslands,andtheoverwhelminglymaleU.S.andRMIgovernmentofficialsrarelyincludeMarshallesewomen’sexperienceswithradiationaspartofbilateraldiscussionsaddressingthetestingera.Linguisticevidencealsodemonstratesthatwomenfromallatollsoutsideofthedesignated”exposed”areasufferfromalackofmedicalcareforandcommunityunderstandingoftheirradiation-relatedillnesses.Theydidnotanticipatetheirbirth-ingproblemsandwerelefttonavigatetheirexperienceswithoutdoctorstocareforthemorsupportfromtheircommunities.Althoughalltheradiation-affectedgroupssufferfromtheirundocumentedexperienceswithradiationexposure,thesubpopu-lationsofmedicalinteresttotheU.S.government,RongelapandUtrik,sufferdif-ferentlyfromtheatollpopulationssuchasLikiepthatreceivedlessinitialexposuretoradiation,butalsonomedicalorU.S.governmentassistance.LinguisticdatademonstratethatradiationpopulationsusetheMarshalleselan-guage,notEnglish,toconveyblame,powerlessness,andwomen’sexperienceswithreproductiveabnormalities.RadiationanditseffectsareaclearpartoftheconsciousnessandlivedexperiencesoftheMarshallesepeople.Theexposedcom-munitiesinsistondiscussingradiationanditseffectsinaMarshallesecontextevenwhentheyborrowwordsfromtheEnglishlanguage.BoththeexistenceofthethemesandtherefusaltogiveupaMarshallese-speakingcontextindicatethattheradiationpopulationscreatedalanguageofresistancetothwartU.S.governmentattemptstoimposeaposttestingrealityontheMarshallesepeople.

8/ChangedCircumstances:PetitioningtheU.S.GovernmentDuringtheoriginalnegotiationstoterminatetheMarshallIslands’trustterritoryrelationshipwiththeUnitedStates,theReaganadministrationreachedanagree-mentwiththeRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)onafullandfinalsettlementofclaimsarisingfromtheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.TheCompactofFreeAssociationandthenuclearclaimssettlement(177Agreement)statethatthepurposeofthesettlementisto”createandmaintain,inperpetuity,ameanstoaddresspast,present,andfutureconsequencesofthenucleartestingprogram.”ThesettlementagreementsubmittedtoCongressbyPresidentReaganincludedaChangedCircumstancesprovisionauthorizingthenationalgovernmentoftheRMItopetitionCongressifitbelievesdevelopmentssinceapprovalofthesettle-mentrendertheassistanceandcompensationprovidedbytheU.S.government”manifestlyinadequate.”Attheterminationofthetrusteeship,inordertoreceiveasettlementpackagefromtheU.S.governmentfordamagesandinjuries,theRMIhadtoterminatependingclaimsinU.S.andRMIcourts,includingamajorclaimfordamageandlossoflandbythepeopleofBikiniAtoll.ThesettlementalsoestablishedtheNuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT)intheMarshallIslandsasanalternativeadjudicativeforumtoprovidefinalityregardingclaims.CongressapprovedtheRMInuclearclaimssettlementin1985.TheRMImadeitssettlementbasedoninformationaboutthetestinganditsconsequencesprovidedbytheU.S.governmentpriortoandduringnegotiations.Atthetime,theRMIhadnoindependentscientistsormedicalpractitionerstoprovidealternativeconclu-sions;thus,theRMIgovernmenthadnochoicebuttoaccepttheU.S.govern-ment’sfindingsabouttheextentofdamagesandinjuriesthatbecamethebasisforthe177AgreementoftheCompact(Chapter3).IntheyearsfollowingtheterminationofthetrustterritoryrelationshipwhentheCompactofFreeAssociationcameintoeffect,itbecamecleartothecitizensandgovern-mentoftheRMIthattheassistanceprovidedbytheU.S.governmentwas”manifestlyinadequate.”TheagreementineffectprovidedthatentiresegmentsoftheRMIpopula-tionwouldnotreceiveassistancefortheirsuffering,loss,andillnessasaresultofthenuclearweaponstestingprogram.Thesesegmentsofthepopulationincludemanydis-cussedinthepreviouschapters:theMarshalleseworkerswhohelpedcleanupandpre-parehighlyradioactiveislandsforresettlement;populationswhowereprematurelyresettledonhighlycontaminatedislandsbytheU.S.government;thepeopleofAiluk,Likiep,andotheratollswhowerecloseenoughtoBikiniandEnewetaktoreceive111

112CHAPTER8substantialanddangerouslevelsoffalloutfromtheweaponstests;andthepeoplefromRongelapwhowereusedbytheU.S.governmentforhumanradiationexperiments.TheU.S.governmentmaintainstheadequacyoftheCompact,includingmedicalcarethroughthe177RealthCareProgram(RCP),aprogramavailabletoanyonefromthefouratollsaffectedbythetestingprogramandanyoneawardedaclaimforaradiationillnessbytheNCT.TheU.S.governmentfundingforthe177RCPendedonOctober31,2001.TheNCTprovided$2millionannuallytokeepthe177RCPoperatingduring2002and2003,butthistookmoneyawayfromclaimantsandwasnottheresponsibilityoftheNCT.WhentheNCTcouldnolongerfundtheprogram,theU.S.DepartmentofInterior(DOl),theagencythatoversawimplementationoftheCompact,helpedtheRMIgovernmentcontinuethe177RCPbyprovidingtechnicalassistancefundingofapprox-imately$1millionperyearthroughandincludingfiscalyear2011.DOlfundingtocon-tinuethisessentialprogramisveryimportant,butitisnotguaranteedmoneythattheRMIcancountonfromyeartoyear.TheRMIgovernmentseeksassurancesthattheU.S.governmentwillprovidestable,adequate,andsustainablefundingovertime.Thehealthcareneedsofthepeoplefromthefour”exposed”atollssurpassthefifteen-yearfundingperiodoftheinitialCompact.WhentheUnitedStatesfundedthe177RCP,itsfundingwasinadequate.Thelargenumberofpeoplefromthefouratollsaffectedbythetestingprogram-eitherdirectlythroughexposuretoradiationorindi-rectlythroughtheirinabilitytoaccessoff-limitslandandresources-meantthatthe177RCPoperatedonabudgetoflessthan$8perpatientpermonth.Radiologicalill-nessesareexpensiveandcomplicated.Furthermore,the177RCPexcludedmonitoringandcareforgroupssuchasthecleanupworkersandthepeoplefromAilukandLikiep.OnlyafterapersondevelopsanacuteradiationillnessrecognizedbytheNCTdoesheorshebecomeeligibleforcare.Nopreventativetreatmentisavailable,soillnessesbecomeexpensivetotreatwhenpatientsseekcarefortertiaryconditions.Inthecaseofwomen,theNCTdoesnotrecognizethevastmajorityofreproductiveillnessesasradiation-related.Therefore,womensuchasKitaandJakoricannotpetitiontheNCTforaclaimorparticipateinthe177RCP.Theonlyothermedicalprogramprovidedbythe177AgreementistheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)programthatcurrentlyservesfewerthan110peopleexposedtoradiationfromtheBravotest.WhentheClintonadministrationbegantodeclassifyinformationaboutU.S.govern-mentactivitiesintheMarshallIslandsduringthetestingprogram,theU.S.governmentprovidedtheRMIgovernmentwithnewinformationabouttheconsequencesofthetest-ingprogram.ThisinformationwasnotknowntotheRMIgovernmentatthetimeoftheCompactnegotiations.ThedeclassificationprocessthereforefulfilledtherequirementsnecessaryfortheRMItopetitiontheU.S.Congressforadditionalassistanceforthedamagesandinjuriesresultingfromthetestingprogram.Asthenameimplies,theChan-gedCircumstancesprovisionoftheCompactspecifiesthattheRMIhastherighttopeti-tiontheU.S.Congressforadditionalassistanceifitcanprove(1)thatithasnewandadditionalinformationabouttheconsequencesofthetestingprogram,(2)thatthisinfor-mationwasnotknownduringthenegotiationstoterminatethetrustterritorystatus,and(3)thatthisinformationrendersthe$150millionone-timesettlementprovidedbytheU.S.governmentmanifestlyinadequate.

CHANGEDCIRCUMSTANCES113Towardtheendofthefifteen-yeartermofthefirstCompactagreement,theRMIgovernmentdeterminedthatitcouldeasilymeetthethreecriteriaforfilingapetitionforadditionalassistancewiththeU.S.Congress.TheformerpresidentoftheMarshallIslands,ImataKabua,hiredalawfirminWashington,D.C.,todraftapetitionfortheRMIgovernment.Thefirmwroteadraftpetition,butitwasnotsubmittedtotheU.S.CongressbecauseofachangeinleadershipintheRMIgov-ernment.WhenthethirdpresidentoftheRMI,KessaiNote,cametopower,hisadministrationcalledtogetherrepresentativesfromthemajorgroupsintheRMIwithaninterestintheChangedCircumstancespetition.PresidentNote’sministerofforeignaffairs,GeraldM.Zackios,establishedtheAdvisoryCommitteeonChangedCircumstancestoconsiderthesubmissionofapetitiontoCongress.ADVISORYCOMMITTEEONCHANGEDCIRCUMSTANCESUndertheleadershipofAmbassadorBannydeBrum,theRMIembassyinWashington,D.C.,tooktheleadinbringingtogethermembersoftheAdvisoryCommitteeonChangedCircumstances(ACCC).MembersoftheACCCincludedtheministersofforeignaffairsandofhealthandtheenvironment;representativesfromtheUtrik,Bikini,Rongelap,andEnewetaklocalgovernments;arepresentativefromAilukAtolltorepresenttheinterestsofatollsoutsidethescopeofU.S.governmentassistance;representativesfromtheNCT;andindependentscientificandmedicaladvisorshiredbytheRMIgovernment.TheNoteadministrationaskedtheACCCtodraftapetitionforsubmissiontotheU.S.Congress.InSeptember2000,theRMIgovernmentformallysubmittedaChangedCircumstancespetitiondraftedbytheACCCtotheU.S.Congress,withacopytoPresidentClinton.PresidentClinton’stermendedbeforehisadministrationcouldrespondtothepetition.AfterthechangeinU.S.administrations,theRMIgovernmentresubmitteditspetitiontoCongressandtoPresidentBushinNovember2001.CONTENTOFTHEPETITIONTheRMI’sChangedCircumstancespetitiontotheU.S.Congresshasfoursections:1.Legalissues.ThelegalcomponentofthepetitionestablishesthestatutoryrequirementsforsubmittingaclaimtotheU.S.governmentanddemonstrateshowtheRMImeetseachoftheserequirements.Thelegalbriefusesindepen-dentscientificresearchtoestablishthattheatollsoftheRMIreceivedfarmoreradiationfrommultipleteststhantheU.S.governmentlegallyrecognizes.Inaddition,scientificandmedicalresearchdemonstratesthatmuchlowerdosesofradiationcausemoreharmthanpreviouslyunderstood,whichchallengespre-viousstandardsforcleanupandhealthcareeligibility.2.Personalinjuryawards.AtthetimetheRMIsubmitteditspetitiontotheU.S.government,theNCThadawardedover$72.6millionforpersonalinjuriestomorethansixteenhundredindividuals,allofwhomhadmedicalconditionsdirectlylinkedtothenucleartestingprogram.By2006,thatnumberreached$91millionawardedto1,999individuals.Becauseoftheseverityoftheclaimsandthesheernumberofindividualsharmed,theNCTawardedover$26.9millionmorethanthe$45millionavailableforpaymentduringtheCompact

114CHAPTER8TABLE8.1COMPARATNEHOSPITALEXPENDITURESUSAKA*HospitalEbeyeHospital(old)EbeyeHospital(new)MajuroHospitalNumberofAcuteCareBeds132535103PopulationServed2,50015,00015,00040,000AnnualOperationsBudget$5,300,000$280,000$280,000$2,700,000CostperBedperDay$1,117$31$22$72’U.S.AnnyHospital00Kwajaleio.Source:Palafox(2002a).period.TheChangedCircumstancespetitionasksCongresstoauthorizeandappropriatefundssothattheNCTcanmakefullpaymentstothosestilllivingandtotheestatesofthosealreadydeceased.3.Landclaims.BythetimetheRMIresubmittedthepetitiontotheU.S.Con-gressin2001,twocommunities,EnewetakandBikini,hadsuccessfullyadju-dicatedpropertyclaimswiththeNCT.TheNCThadmadeawardstothesecommunitiestocompensatethemfordamages.Aswiththepersonalinjuryawards,theNCTisunabletodispersetheawardsduetoashortfallintheNuclearClaimsTrustFund,andthepetitionrequestsapproximately$800mil-liontopaythelanddamageawardstothetwocommunities.Sincetheinitialsubmission,theNCThasmadeadditionallanddamageawardstothecommu-nitiesofRongelapfor$1billionandUtrikfor$307million,puttingthetotalforthelanddamagestothefouratollsabove$2billion.4.Medicalcare.TheCompactenvisionedthattheU.S.governmentwouldpro-videadequatehealthcarefortheimpactedpopulationsandtheawardeesofpersonalinjuryclaimsfromtheNCT.Unfortunately,thecurrenthealthcareprogramismanifestlyinadequate.TheprogramexpectedtodelivercarethroughtheRMIhealthinfrastructure,asystemnotpreparedorequippedtodeliverthenecessarylevelofcare(Table8.1).Withonly$2millionappropri-atedannually(whichequalsanaverageperpatientexpenditureof$8permonth),the177HCPforthecommunitiesofEnewetak,Utrik,Rongelap,andBikinididnotprovidetheservicespeopleneededduringtheyearsitreceivedfunding.Forcomparisonpurposes,theaveragemonthlyexpenditureforasin-glepatientinahealthcareprogramintheUnitedStatesis$230(Table8.2).TABLE8.2COMPARATIVEMEDICALCOSTS1997perCapitaAnnualHealthExpenditure$320$614$510$369$163$128RepublicofPalauCommonwealthoftheNorthernMarianasGuamAmericanSamoa177HealthCareProgram,RMINationalhealthcaresystem,RMISource:InstituteofMedicine,quotedinPalafox(2002a).

CHANGEDCIRCUMSTANCES115ThepetitionrequeststhattheU.S.governmentestablishasustainablemedicalcaresystemforthecountryinordertoprovideadequatecareforthepeoplemostseverelyaffectedbytheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.Basedontheinformationprovidedinthefourcategorieslistedabove,theRMIgovernmentmakessixspecificrequeststotheU.S.CongressintheChangedCir-cumstancespetition:1.$26.9milliontopayforpersonalinjuryawardsmadebytheNCT.2.$386milliontopayforthepropertydamageawardmadebytheNCTtothepeopleofEnewetak.Thiscompensationincludedawardsforlossoftheuseoftheirland,forrestoration(nuclearcleanup,soilrehabilitation,andrevegetation),andforhardship(forsufferingtheEnewetakpeopleenduredwhilebeingexiledtoUjelangAtollforathirty-three-yearperiod).Subtractingcompensationpro-videdtothepeopleofEnewetakinthepast,theNCTdeterminedthatthenetamountof$386millionisrequiredtoprovidetheEnewetakpeoplewithjustcompensation.3.$278milliontopayforthepropertydamageawardsmadebytheNCTtothepeopleofBikini($563millionbeforesubtractingcompensationpreviouslyreceivedbythecommunity).TheNCTmadeitsawardforthelossofuseofprop’erty,coststorestoretheland,andconsequentialdamagesforhardshipsufferedbytheBikiniansresultingfromtheirremoval.4.$50milliontocovertheinitialcapitalcoststobuildandsupplyamedicalinfrastructurethatcouldprovideadequateprimaryandsecondarycaretotheaffectedpopulations.5.$45millionannuallyforthenextfiftyyearstoprovideahealthcareprogramfortheaffectedcommunitiesandawardeesofpersonalinjuryclaims.6.ExtensionoftheDOEmedicalmonitoringprogramforexposedpopulationstoanygroupsthatcandemonstratehighlevelsofradiationexposure.ThetotalamounttheRMIgovernmentrequestsinitsChangedCircumstancespetitionis$2,990,900,000,orroughly$3billion.Whilethisfiguremayseemstag-geringandunrealistic,thisistheequivalentoftwoyearsoffundingbytheU.S.CongressforthecleanupoftheHanfordplutoniummanufacturingfacilityinWashingtonState.Yes,damagesandinjuriesresultingfromnuclearweaponstest-ingareexpensive,butdothepeopleoftheMarshallIslandsdeserveanythinglessthanthepeopleadjacenttoHanford-oranyotherU.S.citizens?REVIEWOFTHEPETITIONAlthoughtheCompactrequirestheRMIgovernmenttosubmitthepetitiontoCon-gress,Congresslookedtotheexecutivebranchforinput.InaletterfromtheformerchairoftheSenateEnergyCommittee,FrankMurkowski,totheWhiteHouse,theU.S.CongressdirectedtheBushadministrationtoreviewthepetitionandreporttoCongressaboutwhethertheU.S.governmenthasfurtherobligationstotheRMIunderthenuclearclaimssettlement.RepresentativesfromseveralU.S.governmentagencies,includingtheDepartmentsofEnergy,State,Interior,Justice,andHealthandHumanServicesbeganareviewoftheRMI’sChangedCircumstancespetition.

116CHAPTER8WhilewaitingforaU.S.response,theRMIgovernmenthiredanindependentcontractortoreviewtheNCT’sprocessforawardingclaimsforpersonalinjuryandpropertydamage.TheRMIgovernmentcontractedwithaprominentRepublicanattorney,onewithcredibilityandrespectintheBushadministration,formergover-norandU.S.AttorneyGeneralRichardThornburgh.ThornburghalsoservedasthegovernorofPennsylvaniaduringtheThreeMileIslandnuclearincidentin1979inwhichacoreinoneofthereactorsexperiencedameltdownandtheofficialse~ac-uatedthepopulationlivingnearthefacility.ThornburghfinishedhisreviewinJanuary2003anddeterminedthattheNCTfollowedproceduressimilartothoseofalegalinstitutionintheUnitedStatesandthatitsawardsarecredible.Thorn-burghalsonotedthatU.S.governmentfundingfortheNCTis”manifestlyinade-quate,”aconditionrequiredtodemonstratethatcircumstanceshavechangedsincetheoriginalsettlementagreement.AfterreviewingtheRMI’spetition,theBushadministrationdetermined:”Thereisno’changedcircumstance’onwhichanadditionalfundingrequestcanlegitimatelybemadeunderArticleIXoftheSection177SettlementAgreement”(U.S.Depart-mentofState2005).TheObamaadministrationhasnotreviewedoroverturnedthisdecision.TheMarshalleserequestsforadequatehealthcareandthecleanupofnuclearcontaminationremainunrecognizedandunfunded(Barker2011).CONCLUSIONFromdeclassifiedinformationandindependentscientificandmedicalresearch,theRMIgovernmentknowsthatradiationfromtheU.S.government’sweaponstestscausedsubstantiallygreaterinjurytopeopleandtolandthanwaspreviouslyknownormadepublic.TheNCT,createdbyCongresstosettleclaimsasanalternativetojudicialmeans,doesnothaveadequatefundingtomakeawards.Additionally,thehealthcaresystemenvisionedaspartofthecompensationfortheaffectedcommuni-tiesisinadequatetohandlethegrowinghealthcareneedsofthecommunitiesimpactedbythenucleartestingprogram.ItisclearthatneitherCongressnortheadministrationispreparedtodealwithorwantstorespondtotheRMI’sChangedCircumstancespetition,butthepetitionandtheneedsoftheRMIwillnotgoaway.PeopleintheRMIcontinuetodiewithoutreceivingcompensationfortheirradiation-relatedillnesses.Somefamiliescannotaffordtopayforthefuneralservicesoftheclaimantswhodiedwithoutfunding.Entirecommunitiesremaininexile,wheretheirhardshipscontinuebecausenofund-ingisavailabletocleanupandrestoretheirhomeislands.TheRMIstillconsidersitselfaclosefriendoftheUnitedStatesandisanationthatsacrificeditslandanditspeopleforU.S.defenseinterests.TheU.S.governmentowesittotheMarshallesepeopletohelpthosewhowereinjuredintheprocess.EveniftheU.S.governmentwillnotacknowledgethatchangedcircumstancesexist,theRMIgovernmentwillpresstheU.S.governmenttomeetitsobligations.In2011,theRMIgovernmentisdiscussingthe177RCPwiththeU.S.government,withaspecificrequestforincreasedandstablefundingandtheinclusionoftenatollpopula-tionsratherthanfour.

9/0therCaseStudiesSadly,theMarshallesestoryisnottheonlytaleofacuteradiationexposure,exploita-tion,exile,andcover-up.Forcomparisonpurposes,thischapterprovidesbriefdescriptionsofinternationalanddomesticcrisesinvolvingradiation,includingthoseinHiroshima/Nagasaki,FrenchPolynesia,Chernobyl,Nevada,andHanfordandtheU.S.government-sponsoredhumanradiationexperiments.Inallofthesecases,radiationexposuredramaticallyalteredthelivesoftheaffectedpopulations-populationsthathadlittleornoabilitytoprotectthemselvesfromexposure.AswiththeMarshallese,Iincludethetestimoniesofpeoplewithfirsthandexperiences.HIROSHIMAINAGASAKIAfterJapanattackedPearlHarboronDecember7,1941,PresidentRooseveltaccel-eratedeffortstocreatetheworld’sfirstatomicbomb.TheManhattanProject,directedbytheWarDepartmentinWashington,D.C.,wasthenamegiventothehighlysecretinitiativetobuildtheatomicbomb.OnJuly16,1945,theUnitedStatesconductedtheworld’sfirstnuclearweaponstest,theTrinitytest.JustninedayslatertheU.S.gov-ernmentissuedanordertodropanatomicbombonJapan.OnAugust6,1945,theUnitedStatesobliteratedthecityofHiroshimawithanatomicbomb(Figure9.1).AsecondatomicbombdestroyedNagasakithreedayslater.Japanesesurvivors,knownlocallyashibakusha,whichliterallymeans”explosion-affectedpeople”inJapanese,rememberhowthetargetareaseruptedinhugeflIesandexplosions.Theforceoftheexplosionshurledthousandsofpeopletlrroughtheair-theirclothesburnedoffandtheirskinpeeledaway.Blackrainfullofradioactivesootanddustfelltothegroundandcontaminatedlargeareasaroundthecities.Peoplewhodidnotdieimmediatelyfromtheblastsufferedfromextremebums,brokenbonesandlacerationsfromtheblast,anddamagetoskinandinternalorganscausedbyradiationexposure.Inadditiontotheimmediateandacuteeffectsoftheblasts,radiationexpo-surecausedawidearrayofproblemsfortheexposedpopulation,includingleukemia,cancer,reproductiveproblems,bloodanddigestivetractdisorders,andgeneticeffects.Therearenoconclusivestatisticsforthenumbersofliveslost,butestimatesgenerallyconcludethat140,000peoplediedinHiroshimaduringtheflIstyearand200,000diedbytheendoffiveyears.EstimatesforNagasakiaresimilar,butslightlylower.Initially,theU.S.governmentdidnothingtohelptheJapanesesurvivorsoftheatomicblasts.Similarly,Japanpreventedanypublicdiscourseaboutthebombsandtheireffects.TheJapanesegovernmentdidnotestablishmedicalorotherprogramsuntil1952.TheU.S.governmentwagedalarge-scalecampaigntojustifythebombing,adebatethatcon-tinuestothisday;manyhistoriansbelievethebombingwasunnecessarybecauseaninva-sionofJapan,aswellasaJapanesesurrenderfromthewar,wasimminentatthetime.117

118CHAPTER9Figure9.1Hiroshima’sdevastation.TocollectdataabouttheeffectsofradiationontheJapanesepopulation,theU.S.governmentsponsoredtheAtomicBombCasualtyCommission(ABCC).TheABCCoperatedundertheauspicesoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesandwasfundedbytheAtomicEnergyCommission(AEC).Inlateryears,theJapaneseNationalInstituteofHealthbecameaffiliatedwiththeABCC,butthisdidnotdimin-ishtheimpressionthattheorganizationwasforAmericanresearchinterests(Lifton1991:345).LiketheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)medicalprogramintheMarshallIslandsinitsearlyyears,theABCC’sprimarypurposewastoconductresearch,althoughtheorganizationpresenteditselfasamedicalcarefacilityforthehibakusha.In1995,ItraveledtoHiroshimaaspartofaclasssponsoredbytheNuclearStud-iesInstituteatAmericanUniversity.AHiroshimahibakusha,AkihiroTakahashi,sharedhisexperienceswithourclass:OnAugust6,1945,Iwasasecond-yearmiddleschoolstudentoffourteenyearsold.Iwasoneofsomeonehundredandfiftystudentswhowereexposedtotheatomicexplosionintheschoolyard,1.4kilometersfromthehypocenter.Theentireplacearoundmeturnedpitchdarkwithatremendousroar.Afterawhilesmokevanishedandtheschoolyardlightenedup.Iwasblownabouttenmeterstowardthebackfromtheimpact;allofmyclassmateswerealsoblownawayandlayscatteredallaround.Theschoolbuildingswereleveledtotheground.Notonlyneighboringhousesbutalsodistantbuildingsdisappeared,leavingonlyveryfewbuildingsstanding.Athoughtinstantlyranthroughmymind:”Hiroshimahasgone!”

OTHERCASESTUDIES119Recoveringmyself,Ilookedatmybody.Myuniformwasallburnedandtattered.Thebackofmyhead,myback,arms,andlegswerebadlyburned.Especiallytheskincoveringthebackofmyhandswashanginglooselikeragsandthefleshwasexposedtotheair.Severalpartsofmybodywerepiercedwithglassfragments.Iwasseizedwithindescrib-ableterror.Ihurriedmywaytothestreetinthedirectionoftheriver.AfterawhileIheardavoicecallingmynamefrombehind.Turningaround,Isawaclassmate,TatsuyaYama-moto,wholivedinmyhometownandusuallywenttoschoolwithme.Tatsuyawascryingforhelp.Hekeptcrying;”Mother!Mother!Help!Helpme!”Isaidtohim,”Stopcrying!Cryingwon’thelpyouabit.Let’sgetoutofhereassoonaspossible.”Whilewemadeourwaytotheriver,IscoldedorencouragedTatsuyatocheerhimup.IsawA-bombsufferersdizzilydraggingtheirlegsandwalkinginline.Armsweredanglingforward,andclothesfrayed.Somewerevirtuallynaked.Theydidnotlookhuman;theprocessionwasghostly.Inlinewasamanwhowascoveredwithpiecesofglassfromthewaistup.Theskinofanotherman’supperbodyhadpeeledoffandredfleshunderitwasexposed.Withaneyeballdanglingoutofitssocket,awomanwascoveredwithblood.Besideamotherwhoseownskinwascompletelygone,asimilarlypeeledbabywascryingloudly.Anumberofcorpseswerealsolyingontheground.Therewasadeadwomanwhoseinnardshadburstouttotheground.Itwashorrifying;itwashellonearth.Weranashardaswecouldtotheriver.Yetwecouldnotgetthereeasilywithallstreetsandpathstotheriverbankblockedbydebrisofcollapsedhousesblownupbytheblast.Wedesperatelycrawledoverthedebrisandfinallymanagedtogettotheriverbank.Wesawthereasmallwoodenbridgethatmysteriouslysurvivedtheblast.Wetriedtocrossthebridgebutafirebrokeoutfromcol-lapsedhouses.Thefirequicklyturnedthesceneintoaseaoffire.Longflamesshotupintotheairmakingthunderousnoises,justlikeeruptingvolcanoes.Wewerefortunatetobeoutofthefire.ButthenIhadlostsightofmyfriend,TatsuyaYamamoto.Gettingtotheothersideandbeingrelieved,however,Ifeltmywholebodyburninghot.Istillrememberdippingmyselfintheriverseveraltimestoeasetheheat.Thecoolriverwaterfeltliketreasureonmyhotbody.”Thatwasclose!”Isaidtomyself.ItwasnotuntilthenthatIbrokeintotearsandjustcouldn’tstopcrying.Aftercomingoutoftheriver,Iwenttoatemporaryrescuecenterbuiltinabambooforestonthehill.Ireceivedemer-gencyaidandrestedforawhile.Thenrainstartedfalling.Itwas”blackrain”;somethingIhadneverseeninmywholelife.Iwatchedtheblackrainfallwonderingwhethersuchathingasblackrainexistedinthisworld.Isetforhomeafterwaitingfortheraintoletup.AsIwaspickingmyway,Iheardmynamecalledagain.Itwasaclassmate,TokujiroHatta,whoalsolivedinmyhometownandwenttoschoolwithmeeveryday.Hewascrouchingandgroaningforhelp;”Helpme!Helpme!Pleasetakemehomewithyou!”SomehowtheskinofTokujiro’ssoleshadbeensoburnedawaythatthefleshwasexposed.Therewasnowayhecouldwalkwiththeburns.AlthoughImyselfwasseriouslyburned,Icouldn’tleavehimthereandgohomealone.Iwasdeterminedtotakehimhomebyallmeans.”HowcanIpossiblytakeTokujirohomewhocannotwalk?”Iconsideredthepossibilitiesforawhile.Fortunatelytheburnsandwoundsofhisbodyexceptofhissoleswerenotsoserious,soIhadhimcrawlonhishandsandkneesforsometime,andthenIhelpedhimwalkonhisheels,supportinghim.Inthiswaywebeganourtrekhome.Wesatandrestedbytheroadwhenweweretootiredtogoanyfarther.WhenIhap-penedtolookback,Isawmygreatuncleandgreatauntwalkingtowardus.IcalledouttothemasloudlyasIcould.Itwasonlycoincidencethatwemet;theywereontheir

120CHAPTER9wayhomefromaBuddhistserviceinthecountryside;theyrescuedusandtookustoourrespectivehomes.Aftermyreturn,Ifellunconsciousandremainedsoforthreeweeks.Later,Iwasabletoreceivetreatmentformybumstwiceadayinthemorningandtheeveningbyanearandnosespecialistwhovisitedmyhome.Ordinarilythistypeofspecialistwouldnottreatbums,butinthestateofvirtuallycompletelackofphysiciansandnursesinthecity,IbelieveIwasfortunatetobetreatedbysomeonewhowasamedicalpractitioner.Wanderingbetweenlifeanddeathduringtheperiodoftreatment,Iwasbedriddenforayearandahalfbutnarrowlyescapeddeathafterall.IlaterfoundoutthatTatsuyaYamamotodiedamonthandahalfafterreachinghomeandTokujiroHattaaweekafterthefatalday.Theybothsuccumbedtoacuteradiationsickness.Ihavesurvivedtothisday.Still,myrightelbowandfourfingersexceptmythumbstaybent,andIhavekeloidbumsonmyarms,legs,andback.Myearsweredeformedbecausecartilagesinthemfesteredwithbleedingandpus.Ablacknailcontinuestogrowonmyrightindexfroger…Iwasalsoafflictedwithchronichepatitis,believedtobeanaftereffectofatomicradiation,andhavebeenhospitalizedtentimessince1971whenIwascertifiedasanA-bombvictim.RecentlymyhepatitishasworsenedandIgetanIVeveryday.Isufferfrommanyailmentsotherthanhepatitisandfeelapprehensiveaboutmylifeeveryday.Attimesmyfrailhealthhasalmostmademeloseallhope.Ioftenaskedmyself,”WhyshouldIkeeponlivingwithallthesesufferings?”However,IhavelivedtothisverydaythinkingpositivelythatasIwasallowedtosurvivethedisaster,ImustliveaslongasIcan.Ofabout[morethan]sixtyclassmatesofmine,aboutfiftywereruthlesslykilled.TodateIhaveconfirmedthirteenincludingmyselfalive.I’moneoftheveryfewstudentswhosur-vivedthebombing.Weshouldneverletourfriends’deathsbewasted.Itisourmissionandresponsibilityassurvivorstohanddowntofuturegenerationsthevoicelessvoicesofthevictimized.Ihavelivedimprintingthisconvictioninmyheartandencouragingmyselftocomply.Myfriendswerekilledbytheatomicbombinextremepainbeforetheiradulthood.Theyweretooyoungtodieandtheirlifewastooshorttobeterminated.(Takahashi1995)AswiththeMarshallese,Japanesehibakushafacealifetimeofillhealthandsocialstigmatizationasaresultoftheirexposuretoradiation.Inmanycases,theyfeeluncer-tainaboutmarriagebecausetheydonotwanttoriskgivingbirthtochildrenwithmajorhealthproblemsordeformities.Fortheseverelyburnedhibakusha,theirscarsoftenelicitunwantedstaresandnervousbehaviorfromthepublic(Lifton1991).InMarch2011,anoffshoreearthquakeonceagaintriggeredfearaboutradiationexpo-sureintheJapanesepeople.Thetsunamifromtheearthquakecreatedtidalwavesthatrav-agedthecountry,killinghundredsofpeople,andseverelydamagedtheFukushimaDaiichinuclearenergyplant,causinganuclearreactortoexplodeandreleaseradiation.Japanesegovernmentofficialsevacuatedneighboringpopulationstoreduceexposure.Ascleanupandmitigationoftheemergencycontinue,theJapanesepeopleremembertheexperiencesofWorIdWarII,whichincreasestheiranxietyaboutthethreatofexposure.FRENCHPOLYNESIATherearemanysimilaritiesbetweenthetestsconductedbytheU.S.governmentintheMarshallIslandsandthoseconductedbytheFrenchgovernmentinitsPacificterri-tory,FrenchPolynesia.LiketheMarshallese,thepeopleofFrenchPolynesiawere

OTHERCASESTUDIES121:;j~.0E,8~£-g'”£.gFigure9.2Paintingonthe1fcover.ofabookcalledTes-otimonies:Witnessesof~FrenchNuclearTestinginQJtheSouthPacific.powerlesstostopthemilitaryactivitiesofthecolonizingnation.(SeeFigure9.2.)Inthesummerof2010,mycolleaguefromtheUniversityofWashington,MiriamKahn,andIledastudy-abroadtriptoFrenchPolynesiatogivestudentsafirsthandunder-standingaboutcolonialism,includingnuclearcolonialism.TheFrenchgovernmentturnedtoFrenchPolynesiaforitsnuclearweaponstestinginthe1960s,afterFrance’sformercolonyandnuclearweaponstestinglocation,Algeria,gaineditsindependence.Between1966and1995,Franceconducted44atmo-spherictestsandmorethan140undergroundtestsonMoruroaandFangataufaAtolls.ImmediatelyafterFrancedecidedtouseFrenchPolynesiaforitsnuclearweaponstest-ing,itinfuseditssmallterritorywithmoneyasameansto”encouragelocalacquiescence”(Henningham1992:127).Inthe1960s,militaryspendingaccountedfor32percentoftheIgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofFrenchPolynesiaandinthe1970s,28percentofits’GDP.ThemoneythatFrancepouredintotheareaabruptlyshiftedtheentireeconomyfromonebasedonagricultureandtraditionallivingpracticestoawageeconomy.TheMaohipeople(theindigenouspopulationthataccountsforroughly82percentofthenation’s200,000people)vehementlyprotestedFrance’suseoftheirnationfornuclearweaponstesting.TheinternationalenvironmentalorganizationGreenpeace

122CHAPTER9assistedtheMaohipeoplewiththeirprotest.Greenpeacesentitsflagship,theRain-bow.Warrior,toFrenchPolynesiain1985,justafterrelocatingthepeopleofRonge-lapIIItheMarshallIslandsfromtheircontaminatedhomeislands.FrenchsecretserviceagentsbombedandsanktheRainbowWarrior,killingonecrewmember,whentheshiparrivedinFrenchPolynesiatoprotestanuclearweaponstestbyFrance.Duringriotingin1995attheairportinFaa’a,Tahiti,protestorssetthemainbuildingoftheairportonfireandclashedviolentlywithpoliceforces.TheinternationalcommunityalsoprotestedFrance’sdecisiontotestnuclearweaponsinthe1990s.TheFrenchgovernmentarrestedU.S.CongressmanEniFaleomavaega,therepresentativefromAmericanSamoa,onboardtheRainbowWarriorI/.Internationalscientists,includingFrenchmarinebiologistJacquesCousteau,expressedconcernabouttheeffectsoftheundergroundtestsonthefragilecoraleco-systeminFrenchPolynesia.Momroa,thesiteof130ofthe140undergroundtests,isoftensaidtoresembleSwisscheesebecauseitisfullofholesandindangerofdisin-tegrating.Scientistsremainconcernedabouttheleakingofradioactivematerialsfromthetestingholesintheporouscoraltothesurroundingwatersandtheeffectsonmarinelife.Momroaisreportedlysinkingatanartificiallyfastratebecauseofthemilitaryactivities.LiketheMarshallese,localpeoplecomplainaboutahighinci-denceofciguatera,orfishpoisoning,intheareasexposedtoradiation.Dr.AndyBiedermann,aSwissdoctorworkingforGreenpeace,conductedinterviewsin1987withformertest-siteworkersandinhabitantsofnearbyislands.Theinter-viewsdescribetheeffectsofthetestsontheirlivesandtheirenvironment.Manyofthepeopleinterviewedbelievethatthetestsseriouslyaffectedtheirhealthaswellasthatoftheirchildrenandtheirfriends.LiketheMarshallese,theMaohipeopletalkaboutmys-teriousillnesses,unexplaineddeaths,stillbirths,andalargeincreaseinthenumberofdisabledchildrenbornafterthetestsbegan.OneofDr.Biedermann’sinterviewswaswithRum,aMaohimanwhoworkedonMomroaAtollformorethantwelveyears:Myfirstjobwaswastemanagement.Aftereachexplosion…wehadtogoaroundtheatollandcleanthedeadfishandotherrubbishoffthebeaches.Itwasusuallytwotothreedaysaftertheexplosion.Dependingonwhichwaythewindwasblowing,thefishwouldbesweptashoreindifferentplaces-severaltonsofdeadfishatatime.Once,notverylongafteratest,threedeadwhalesweresweptashore,ontheoceanside.[Onetimer]adioactivematerial[was]…spreadovertheatollbyacyclone.Therewasageneralalarmtoleteveryoneknowthatacyclonewascomingandtowarnustostayinside.Peoplecameoutoftheirhouseswhenitwasoverandwesawthatboatshadbeenliftedontotherocksandthatallsortsofbarrelswerefloatingaround.Thewaveshadwashedthemoutoftherepositorywheretheyhadbeenburied.Itwashardworktoretrievethemandstorethemawayagain,thistimeintheblockhouse.Wewerenottoldthattheycontainedradioactivematerials.It’sstillforbiddentofishatMoruroa,butyoucan’tstopPolynesiansfromeatingfish.Ofcourse,weallknewthatitwasdangeroustoeatfishbutthefoodwegotfromthemilitarywasbad.Thefishwasoldandwealwaysgotpotatoes.SomostofusatelocalfishwhenwewereonMoruroaandFangataufa.Andmostofusgotsick.IrememberagroupoftenpeopleonFangataufawhoatefish.TheyallgotseriouslyillandhadtobeevacuatedtoTahitifortreatment.

OTHERCASESTUDIES123Peoplediedfromeatingcontaminatedfish.Oneofmyfriendsateacrabandbecameill.Hisskinstartedtoitchandhescratchedhimselfsomuchthathestartedtobleedbuthecouldn’tstopscratching.Thenhegotproblemswithhiseyesightandsoonafterwardshedied.Iknowoffourpeoplewhohavediedfromeatingpoisonedfish,andmanyotherswhohavehadsymptomsoffishpoisoning.WhenpeopledieonMomroatheyareputinmetalcoffinsandtheseamsareweldedsothatnobodycanopenthemanymore.I’vehadfivechildren.Theyoungestwasbornwithakidneymissingandnoanus.Hehadtohaveanartificialintestinalopeningmadeinthewallofhisstomach.Hopefully,inafewmonthstime,thisartificialopeningcanbeclosedandanormalonereconstructed.Iknow,ofcourse,thattherearealotofbadthingshappeningonMomroabutIneedthemoney.ThereisalotofunemploymentinTahitiandIhavealargefamilytolookafter.Beforeeachtesteverybodywaswarnednottotellourfriendsandfamilyaboutit.IftheFrenchfindoutthatI’vebeentalking,I’llbedismissed.ButIdon’tcare.Ithinkitisimportanttotellpeoplewhatishappening.(Greenpeace1990:13-18)TheongoingcolonialadministrationmeansthattheMaohipeoplecannotexertfullcontrolovertheactivitiesthattakeplaceontheirislands.InJune2011,theFrenchgovernmentissuedadecisionbanningtheteachingofindigenouslanguagesinallitsterritories-Frenchmustbetheonlylanguageofinstructionintheschools.TheMaohipeopleactivelyresistthisedict.AswiththeMarshallese,theyarecon-nectedtotheirland,culture,heritage,andidentitybytheirindigenouslanguage.CHERNOBYLInthesameyearthattheU.S.governmentrelinquisheditsadministrationoftheMarshallIslands,1986,aterribleaccidenttookplaceinChernobyl.OnApril26,1986,techni-ciansattheChernobylnuclearpowerstationinUkrainedeactivatedseveralmajorsafetysystemsduringacontrolledtestofthefourthreactor.Theroutinetesttriggeredamas-siveexplosionthatblewthetopoffthereactor.Unfortunately,thedeactivatedsystemscouldprovidenoprotectionandafireinthecoreburnedforseveraldays,destroyingthereactorcoreandblowingcloudsofradioactivityintothesurroundingarea.TheChernobylaccidentkilledmorethanthirtypeopleimmediately,andapproxi-matelytwenty-fivehundredpeopleeventuallydiedfromradiationexposure.Oncethereactor’scorebegantobum,itemittedhighlevelsofradiationintoatwenty-milesur-roundingarea.TheradioactivecloudcoveredanareathesizeofItaly.TheUkrainegovernment,whichwasunderthecontrolofthecentralSovietUnionatthetime,respondedtotheaccidentbynottellingthepublicortheinternationalcommunityforseveraldays.Asaresult,thepeopleinthehighlycontaminatedareaswentabouttheirnormalactivitiesanddidnottakeprotectivemeasurestoreducetheirexposuretoradi-ation.LocalresidentswerenotawareoftheproblemuntilSoviettanksarrivedandorderedimmediateevacuationofthearea.Peoplehadonlyafewmomentstoputtogetheronebagofpossessionsbeforedeparting.TheSovietspadlockedtheirhouses,andtheirvillagesandcitiesbecamepartofanofficialexclusionzone.TheSovietgov-ernmentevacuatedapproximately135,000peopletomakeshifttentcitiesandcontin-uedtoresettleapproximately200,000peopleintheyearsaftertheaccident.Stilltoday,thousandsofpeoplecannotreturntotheirhomes.

124CHAPTER9Todate,theChemobylincidentistheworld’slargestnuclearaccident.Seventypercentoftheradiationblewtothenorthover30percentofBelarus,anareainhab-itedbymorethantwomillionpeople.Inthepost-SovietUnionera,thenationsofUkraineandBelaruslackthefinancial,scientific,andotherresourcestocleanupareasthatwillremaincontaminatedforseveralgenerationstocomeandtoprovideadequatemedicalcaretotheexposedpopulations.Asaresultofthelingeringradiationintheenvironment,peoplestilldrinkandwashincontaminatedwater.WhentheSovietUnionceasedtoexist,controlsonthedistributionoffoodsdisintegrated.Thereisnoproductcontrolforfoodsinlocalmarkets,andpeoplewholiveinareasnotaffectedbytheChemobylaccidentworryaboutfoodsafety.Thepopulationinthecontaminatedareareportsahighincidenceofradiation-relatedillnesses,particularlyinchildren,suchasleukemiaandcancerofthethy-roid.Researchersalsonoteadecreaseintheintelligencelevelsofexposedchildren.Otherconditionsincludethyroiddisorders,braintumors,andmalignanttumorsofthemammaryglands,lungs,bladder,andkidneys.Peoplealsoreportthebirthofmanybabieswithsubstantialdeformitiesandageneraldeclineinthebirthratethroughoutthecontaminatedarea.Studiesareunderwaytodeterminethescopeofgeneticdamagetobothhumanandanimalpopulations.HundredsofthousandsofworkerscametoChemobylfromall’overtheSovietUniontoassistwithdecontaminationefforts.Theseworkersscrubbedtheareasaroundthereactorsandhelpedbuildaprotectivecasingfortheburnedreactor.TheSovietUnionlaunchedamassiveefforttowashcontaminatedhouses,removetopsoil,andhosedownpavement,roads,andrailwaylinesinthecityofKievandoutlyingareas.Thesecleanupeffortswerenotadequate,however,andcleanupteamswereunawareofthehotspotscausedbytherandomandunpredictableratesatwhichradiationfallstotheground.AsintheMarshallIslandsandotherareasexposedtoradiation,theaccountsofthesurvivorshelpusunderstandtheconsequencesofthedisasterforthepeopleitaffects.HereisastorybyEmma:It’snotsoeasyforamotherandgrannytosharesadexperiences,especiallyiftheycon-cernchildren.Theemotionaldamagetoourpeopleisaterriblething.TwoweeksaftertheaccidentIwasreturninghomebytrainfromvisitingmysoninMoscow,whowasservingtimeinthearmy.Therewerefourofusinthecompartment.Ihaveveryvaguememoriesoftwomenwhowereinthesamecompartmentwithme,butthefaceofthethirdstandsoutquitevividlyinmymemory.Hewasasoldier,aboyof19.Hewasoverwhelmedwithsorrow;therewasnojoyinhiseyes.Hecouldn’tfor-getthelastcoupleofdaysofhislife.HewasoneofthoseparticipatinginburyingtheperishedfromChernobyl.Hereishisstory:FivedeadfiremenwerebroughttothecemeteryinMoscow.Therewerefivegroupsofsoldiers,so-calledteams,whoweretoperformthefuneralsofthedead….Allofushadtowearspecialsuitsandmasksfortheburials.Theworstpartwastellingtherelativesoftheperishedthattheycouldnotcomeclosetothebodiesoftheirdead.Motherswerecryingbecausetheywereforbiddentohugtheirprecioussonsandhusbandsandtosaythelast”good-bye.”Thebodiesandthecoffinswerehighlyradioactiveanddangerous.

OTHERCASESTUDIES125Assoonasoneofthevictimshadbeenburiedinalockedandcoveredcoffinintoanunusuallydeeppit,thefirstgroupofyoungsoldiers,includingme,wasmadetorushintoaspecialbusthattookustosomekindofasaunawherewequicklytookoffthesuitsandhadashower.Ourrewardistendays’leavehome,butIdon’tfeelanyjoyaboutitanymore.ThreeyearsagoIhadtospendalotoftimeinthehospitalmyselfwithcancerandsawwithmyowneyesandlivedthroughthesufferingsofsomeofthem.Iknewagirl,Lidabyname,14yearsold,whosufferedsomuchbecauseshehadtowearaker-chiefallthetime,evenwhentheweatherwashot.ShelivedinChemobylitselfandbecamecompletelybald.ItisanewdiseasefromChemobylandtheysayithasnocure.Shedidn’twanttoseeherclassmates;sherefusedtoseeevenneighbors.Shefeltashamed,butwhyshouldshe?ThereweremanyverysmallchildreninBorovlyanyhos-pitalatthattimefromthecontaminatedzone.Themajorityofthemhadphysicaldefects;theycouldn’twalk,radiationaffectedtheirbones.TheirpoorMummieshadtocarrythemintheirhands,eventothebuildingwherepatientsgotradiationtreatment.Whenapatientgetsthistreatment,heorshehastoliemotionless.Canalittlechildofthreeorfourorfivedothatforfourminutes?No,ofcoursenot.Andbecauseofthiseverydaythepoorlittlechildrenweremadetosleepwithdrugs.Ican’timaginehowtheirmothers’heartscouldbearthat.Whenyouarewaitingforyourturn,youcanwatchthosewhoaregettingtheradiationtreatmentonatelevisionscreen.Evenmencouldn’tstandthat;theireyeswerefulloftears.Anotherthingthatstruckmetherewasthechildren’sindifferencetoeverythingandeverybody.Whentheyweregiventoysorsweets,theywouldn’tevenlookatthem,wouldn’tturntheirheads.Someremainedindifferentintheirbedseveniftheirmotherstriedtoentertainthembytellingfunnystories.Theywouldliestaringintotheceilingorwindow.Itwashardtosaywhethertheywerealiveornot.Ourheartswerebleeding.IcantellyoufranklythatwewomencursedChemobylandthosewhowereguiltyforthelackofmedicine.I’msurethatmanyofthoselittleoneswhodiedwouldhavesur-vivediftheyhadbeengiventheactualtreatmenttheyneeded.IfeelfullresponsibilityforwhatIsay.Once,twoyearsago,IwasinDruzhnywithagroupofforeignersasatranslator.Druzhnyisasettlementthatwaserectedfortheevac-uatedfamilies.Livingconditionstherewereextremelybad.Wevisitedafamilyofninewholivedinatlatletof24-squaremetersintotal.Moreover,agirlofelevenmonthshadcancer,hergrannywasinbedwithcancer,andherfatherwasveryill.Ourdoctorscouldn’tcurethechild,butoneoftheCanadianswhohadadaughterathomeofthesameagetookthegirltoCanadaandshewascured!Whenthebuswiththegroupofforeignerswasreadytoleave,manyBelarussianmotherssurroundedit.Allofthemhadtheirsickbabiesintheirhands.Crying,theyaddressedtheCanadian,pleading:”Takemine,pleasetakemine.Curemine.Mybabyisdying.Letmeevennotseehimeveragain,butlethimbehealthyandliveinanothercountry…”Canyouimagine?Motherssodesperatetosavetheirchildrenthattheywouldgivethemawaytoastranger!Itisterrible.(Roche1996)1Chernobylalsoaffectedindigenouspopulationsinuniqueandsevereways.AnthropologistSharonStephensilluminatedthesocialandeconomicconsequencesIReprintedbypermissionofChernobylChildren’sProjects.

126CHAPTER9oftheeventfortheSamireindeerherdersinSweden(Stephens1992).TheSamipe~pled~pendonplant,animal,andwaterresources,particularlyreindeer,fromtheIrenVIronmentforsurvival.ThereindeerthatareastapleoftheSamidietfeedonthegrasses.contaminatedbyradiationfromtheChernobylaccident.StephensnotedtheconflIctthatoccursbetweenthewomenwhoareafraidtoconsumethereindeermeatandoutsiderssuchasinternationalscientistswhoclaimthatthemeatissafetoeat.BecauseofthewaylaborisdividedamongtheSami,womenhaveanincreasedriskofradiologicalcontaminationfromtheenvironment.AsintheMarshallIslands,scientificexplanationsaboutradiationexposureproducedbyoutsidersconfuselocalcommunities,whoprefertoexpresstheirexperienceswithradiationintermsofvisiblechangesintheirdailylives.Radiologicalcontaminationoftheenvironmentaffectssubsistencecommunitiesinuniquewaysincomparisontothepublicatlargebecausetheydependoncontaminatedfoodsourcesfromtheirlocalenvironmentsforsurvivalandfortheirlivelihood.NEVADAFortwelveyears,beginningonJanuary27,1951,theU.S.govemmentconducted126atmosphericatomicweaponstestsatthe1,350-square-mileNevadaTestSite.Radia-tionfromthesetestscontaminatedallofthecontinentalUnitedStatesandreachedintoCanadaandMexico.EachofthetestsreleasedradiationatalevelequivalenttothatoftheradiationreleasedbytheChernobylexplosionin1986(Gallagher1993).TheAECchosetheNevadaTestSiteforthesamereasonittestednuclearweaponsintheMarshallIslands;theAECoperatedundertheassumptionthatitcouldconductsecrettestsandreducethreatstotheAmericanpublicbytestingweaponsinwhattheAECperceivedasaremote,harsh,uninhabitedlandscape.LikeintheMarshallIslands,theweaponstestingsitesexposedpeopledownwindfromthetestingarea,peoplewhohadsubsistedonthelocalresourcesforgenera-tions,tohighlevelsofradiation.InthecaseoftheNevadaTestSite,thetestsexposedNativeAmericans,cattleranchersandfarmers,test-siteworkers(oftenmigrantlaborerswhocouldnotfindemploymentinotherstates),andU.S.service-men(thosefromtheranks,nottheelite,oftenstraightoutofhighschool)toradia-tion.AswiththeMarshallese,theAECconsideredalloftheabove-mentionedpopulationstobeexpendable;anyinjuriessustainedbythesepeoplewereoflessimportancethanthemilitaryandstrategicvaluesofthetests.Immediatelyfollowingmanyofthedetonations,theAECwouldmarchU.S.ser-vicemenintothetestingareatosimulatebattlescenariosandtoassessthemen’sabil-itytocopewiththephysicalandpsychologicaleffectsofthetests.TheservicemenwhosurvivedtheirradiationexposurerefertothemselvesastheAtomicVeterans.Attheageofseventeen,theAECmarchedRobertCarterandhiscompanyintothetestsiteofthebiggestatmospherictestconductedinNevadaonJuly5,1957:IrememberthegroundwassohotthatIcouldn’tstandonit,andIwasjustburningalive.IfeltlikeIwasbeingcooked.Ihadahugesunburn,andIrememberbeinginalotofpaingoingbacktothebaseonthebus.ThedoctortoldmethathethoughtIhadradiationillnessbecauseIwas

OTHERCASESTUDIES127nauseated,dizzy,disoriented.Theydon’tdoanythingforradiationillness,theyjustwatchyoudie.(Carter,quotedinGallagher1993:57-58)Aftertheweaponstestingbegan,downwindersinNevada,Utah,andArizonacomplainedaboutcancerandotherillnessesaffectingpeopleandanimals.TheAECandtheU.S.governmentdismissedconcernsandanylinktothenuclearweaponstesting.Womenwhocomplainedaboutradiationbumsandthelossofhairweretoldtheysufferedfromneurosis(Gallagher1993).Sheepfarmerswhoreportedhighincidencesofdeath,stillbirth,andmiscarriageamongtheirflocks,aswellasthebirthofsomeanimalswiththeirheartsoutsidetheirchestsorotherbizarreconditionsneverwitnessedbythelocalpopulation,weretoldthattheprob-lemsweredueto”mismanagement,malnutrition,andperhapspoisonousplantsontherange”(AEC,quotedinGallagher1993:xxiv-xxv).TheU.S.governmentcon-sistentlytoldthedownwinders,asitdidtheMarshallesepeople,thatradiationpre-sentednodangertothem,asdiscussedbyDelayneEvans,asheepherder:Haveyoueverseenafive-leggedlamb?Idid.Haveyoueverseenaone-eyedlamb?Idid.Wewouldhaveaprevailingwindfromthesouthwestallthetime,anditbroughtitrightoverwherewerunoursheep,justoverthefencefromtheatomicrange.TheAtomicEnergyCommissiondroveupinastationwagonandsaid,”Youbettergetthehelloutofhere,it’shotterthanafirecrackeroutthere,”thendroveoff.Theywouldn’tstaytherefiveminutes.Isaid,”WherethehellamIgoingtomove2,000headofsheep?”They’llonlygotwomilesanhour,that’sasfastasasheepwillwalk,andwherecouldyougo?Thethingofitwas,theystayedthereforanother30daysandatetheshrubberywithallthatstuffonit.That’showtheewesgotitintheirthyroidsandthat’swhatkilledthelambs.Thosesheepofminehadscabsfromitontheirearsandnosesandtheirfeet.Theywereburnt,andeveryspotonthosesheepthatdidn’thavewooloverithadradiationburnsonthem.Ibettherewasn’tonesheepthatwasouttherein’53thatdidn’tdiewithintwoyearsbecauseIwasbuyingsheepallthetimetoreplacethem.Ihadtomortgagemyhometobuymoresheeptostartoutagain.Haveyoueverseenayounganimalthatwasborncompletelyrotten?Idid.They’dbebare.Ihadlittlelambsbornthatabsolutelydidn’thaveonespeckofwoolontheirbod-ies.Theyweretransparentandyoucouldseetheirlittleheartsa-beatin’untiltheydied.IneverseenanythinglikethatinmywholelifeuntilthenandI’vebeeninthesheepbusinessfromthetimeIwasalittleboyanthefarm….They[theAEC]thoughtwewereabunchofoldstupidsheepherdersbutthere’snoth-ingstupidaboutus….Thentheytriedtotellusthatoursheepweredyingfrommalnutri-tion!Hellalmighty,wewerefeedingthemeveryday,haulingwatertothemtokeepthemingoodshape,andtheywerefat!(Evans,quotedinGallagher1993:247-249)ItisinterestingtonotethatDelayneEvans’accountofthesheepbornwithoutwoolandwithtransparentskinmirrorsthedescriptionofthe”jellyfish”babiesbornintheMarshallIslands.ItwasnotonlythedownwindersandtheAtomicVeteransinjuredbythereleaseofradiationfromtheNevadaTestSite.In1962,theU.S.governmentdumpedfifteenthousandpoundsofradioactivesoilfromtheNevadaTestSitenearPointHope,Alaska,withoutthelegallyrequiredcontainers.AstheydidintheMarshallIslands,

128CHAPTER9U.S.governmentofficialsdumpedradioactivesoilnearthecommunitytostudythemovementofradionuclidesthroughtheecologicalandhumanfoodchains.Inthe1980s,theNevadaTestSitebecameamanufacturinglocationfornuclearweapons.Theradioactivewastefromtheweaponsproductioncreatedadditionalenvironmentalproblemsforthearea.Althoughmanynationsintheworldcontinuetocreateradioactivewastefrommilitaryandcommercialenterprises,therestillisnosafeandlong-termsolutionforthestorageofthiswaste.Nuclearwasteistheproductleftoverafternuclearfuelisspent.IntheUnitedStates,nuclearwastecomesprimarilyfromnuclearpowerplantsandfrommilitaryfacilitiesusedtoprocesstheradioactivematerialsinnuclearweapons.Bothpowerplantsandtheproductionofradioactivematerialsforweaponsproduceradioactivewaste.TheU.S.governmentestimatesthateighty-fivethousandtonsofnuclearwastewillexistinthiscountryalonebytheendof2030.TheU.S.governmentiscurrentlylookingforapermanentrepositorysitetostorethewaste.Formanyyears,theU.S.governmentplannedtouseYuccaMountaininNevadaasastoragefacility.Fundingforstoragefacilitywasterminatedin2011forpolicyreasons,nottechni-calorsafetyreasons,accordingtotheU.S.government.YuccaMountainisonfederallyownedland-landthattheShoshonetribealsoclaims-onthenorthwesternedgeoftheNevadaTestSite.ItislocatedinanareaatriskforanearthquakeandnearamajorwatersourcefortheLasVegasarea.ThestorageofnuclearwasteatYuccaMountaincreatesrisksfortheentirenation,notjustthepeoplewholiveclosesttothearea.AnyradioactivewasteburiedatYuccaMountainmusttraveltothesitebypublicroadways,railways,orairways.Again,asitdidwiththeMarshallIslands,theU.S.governmentviewstheareades-ignatedforradiologicalcontaminationasauseless,uninhabitedlandscapefitforthemilitaryandeconomicobjectivesofthecountry.TotheMarshalleseandtothetribesaroundYuccaMountain,suchastheShoshoneandthePaiute,theseareasarebountifulwithessentialresourcesforindigenouspeoplestocarryouttheirculturaltraditions.HANFORDAspartoftheManhattanProject,theU.S.governmentdesignatedspecificareasthroughoutthecountryforthemanufacturingoftheradioactivematerialsneededforitsnuclearweapons.Toproduceweapons-gradematerials,theU.S.governmentneededenormousamountsofcoldwatertorunandcoolthereactorsneededforplutoniumpro-cessing.Itturnedtothenation’slargestcold-waterriver,theColumbiaRiver.TheU.S.governmentestablishedHanford,a560-square-mileplutoniumprocessingfacilityineasternWashingtonState,withfifty-onemilesofriverfrontalongtheColumbiaRiver.From1944throughthelate1980s,HanfordproducedplutoniumfortheU.S.govern-ment’snucleararsenal,includingplutoniumforFatBoy,theatomicbombdroppedonNagasaki,Japan,andtheworld’sfirstatomicweaponstest,Trinity,inNewMexico.Throughthebombardmentofuraniumfuelwithneutronsandtheseparationofplu-toniumfromirradiateduranium,Hanfordproducedmassiveamountsofbomb-gradeplutonium,aswellasradioactiveby-products.TheU.S.govemmentresearchersreleasedsomeoftheseby-productsintotheenvironmentthroughHanford’ssmokestacks.

OTHERCASESTUDIES129ThemakingofplutoniumatHanfordwasamessyoperation.PlantmanagerspumpedwaterfromtheColumbiaRiverintoHanford’sreactors.Afterth~yhadco?ledthereactors,Hanfordoperatorspumpedthecontaminatedwaterbackmtothe~ver,makingtheColumbiaRiverperhapsthemostradioactiveriveronearthatthetIme.Hanfordresearchersmonitoredthehighlevelsofradiationinthefishandducksdown-streamfromthefacility,butfailedtonotifythepublicortorestrictfishingandsubsis-tenceactivitiesalongtheriver.Manytribalcommunitiesintheareareceivedhi?hlevelsofradiationexposurefromthefish,astapleintheirdiet.HanfordoperatorsdIS-solvedspentfuelrodsfromthereactorsinnitricacidtoseparatetheplutonium.Theythendumpedthecontaminatedliquidsontheporousandsandysoiladjacenttothefacility,whereitseepedintoandcontaminatedthegroundwaterbelowHanford.Hanfordisnowhometoapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthenation’shigh-levelradio-activewaste,includingcancer-causingby-products,suchascesiumandstrontium-substancesdumpedinto177undergroundtanks.Aboutfifty-fourmilliongallonsofhigh-levelradioactiveandchemicalwasteremainsinthetanks,approximatelytwelvemilesfromtheColumbiaRiver.Ageandtimehavecausedthetankstobreakdown,andasmanyas70ofthe177tankshaveleakedovertheyears,spillingmillionsofgallonsofwasteintothesoil.Someoftheleakingwastereachedthegroundwater,whicheventuallyflowsintotheColumbiaRiver.ResearchersestimatethatthewastecouldreachtheColumbiaRiverinthenextseveralyears.Nooneknowsthefullextentoftheleakagebecausethestorageareaisundergroundanddifficulttocharacterize.Contaminationoftheriverwillaffectthehealth,environment,andeconomyoftheentireregion.DOEpoursbillionsofdollarsintothecleanupatHanford,butthetech-nologyandpaceofoperationscannotadequatelycontaintherisk.Inadditiontothe177undergroundtanks,Hanfordcontainstwoindoorpoolsholdingtwenty-threehundredtonsofcorroded,highlyradioactivespentnuclearfuelunderwater.CalledKBasins,thesepoolsstoretwenty-threehundredtonsofspentnuclearfuelrods-80percentofDOE’snationalinventoryofspentfuelrods-justfourhundredyardsfromtheColumbiaRiver(Yarrow2002).Liketheundergroundtanks,theKBasinshaveleakedmillionsofgallonsofradioactivewaterintothegroundwaterthatflowsintotheColumbiaRiver(ibid.).AnearthquakethesizeoftheoneexperiencedbynearbySeattlein2001couldcrackthepoolsopenandspilltheradioactivewaterintotheriver.Thetypeoffuelinthesepoolswillbumifexposedtotheairandwouldquicklycreatearadioactivecloud.ThepotentialdangersoftheKBasinsmakethemoneofHanford’smostpressingenvironmentalproblems.Althoughthe177undergroundtanksandtheKBasinsaretwoofthelargestwastesitesofconcernatHanford,theremaybeasmanyasfourteenhundredtoseventeenhundredtotalwastesitesatthefacility(ibid.).Beyondthehigh-levelradioactivewasteproducedandstoredatHanford,theAECandthecontractorswhooperatedtheHanfordfacilityalsoreleasedradiationfromitssmokes~acksintotheatmosphere.AirborneradiationtraveledacrossWashingtonState,movedmtonorthernOregon,crossedIdaho,andenteredMontanaandpartsofCanada.Someoftheseemissionswerepurposeful.TheAECplannedotheremissionstostudythepathwayofradiationtotheenvironment,tothegrassthatthenearbydairycowsfedon,andthenintothemilkconsumedbydownwindcommunities.TheGreenRunwas//

130CHAPTER9~intentionalreleaseofradioactiveiodinein1949.TrishaPritikin’sstorygivesusaglImpseofwhatmanyHanforddownwinderfamiliesandindividualscontendwithasaresultoftheGreenRunexperimentandtheirexposuretoradiation:IwasborninRichland,Washington,ontheColumbiaRiver,inlate1950.Ispentaveryhappychildhoodplayinginthecoldwatersandontheislandsintheriver,beinganaveragekidinRichland’snewlyplantedparks,andattendingSacajaweaElementarySchool,rightacrossfrommy”F”houseonStevensDrive[workersandtheirfamilieslivedinbarracksidentifiedbylettersofthealphabet].RichlandisthecommunityimmediatelyadjacenttotheHanfordnuclearweaponsfacil-ity,inthedesertofeasternWashingtonState.Beginninginthemid-1940s,Hanfordpro-ducedtheplutoniumthatwasusedasthetriggerfortheTrinitynucleartestin1945,andfortheatomicbombdetonatedoverNagasakilaterinthesameyear.Productionofpluto-niumgeneratedmassiveamountsofradioactiveiodineandarangeofotherpotentiallyharmfulradioactivesubstances,secretlyreleased,oftenatnight,ontothesurroundingcommunities.Someoftheradioactivesubstances,particularlyradioactiveiodine,traveledacrossWashingtonState,intopartsofOregon,Idaho,andMontana,andintoCanada.Over950,000curiesofradioiodinewasreleasedfromHanford.Richland,thecommunityclosesttoHanford,islocatedneartwoaccompanyingsmalltowns,KennewickandPasco.Together,thesethreetownsarecalledthe”Tri-Cities.”Hanford,partoftheManhattanProject,andtheTri-CitieswereisolatedinthevastexpanseoftheeasternWashingtondesert.Asrevealedbydocumentsdeclassifiedinlateryears,thisisolationwasintentionalonthepartofManhattanProjectplannersinordertolimittheareawhichwouldbecontaminatedshouldanuclear”event”occuratHanford.Deathandsick-nesswhichmightresultfromradioactivecontamination,shouldsuchadisasteroccur,wouldthusbelimitedtothoseofuswithinthethreecommunities.Igrewupinanuclearsacrificezone,blanketedbyradioactivity,drinkingmilkinfusedwithradioactiveiodinecowshadtakenupintheirpasturegrass,enjoyingaworry-freechildhood.AllthehousesinRichlandlookedalike.Welivedinan”F”house,whichwasessen-tiallyasmall,twostory”box.”FloorplansofthegovernmenthomesinthisAtomicEnergyCommissiontownreadlikethealphabet:A,B,C,D,andF.Ithinkthatwasthechoice.MyfriendslivedinBsandAs.Richland,alongwithKennewickandPasco,devel-opedintowhatseemedonthesurfacetobeanidyllicthree-towncommunity.Wehadanewlyestablishedsymphonyandtheater,severalschools,restaurants,andotheramenitiesforHanfordnuclearengineers,chemists,andotherworkersandtheirfamilies.Businesseswereestablished,calledtheAtomicLaundry,AtomicBowling,andAtomicFoods.MyfamilyspentmostsummerweekendsontheColumbiaRiver.Ilovedtoswimintheareasoftheriverwherethewateralwaysseemedtobewarmerthantherestoftheriver.Fromwhatwe’velearnedinlateryears,itappearsthatthewarmerpartsoftheriverwerewherethewarmereffluent,orliquidwasteproducts,fromtheninereactorsthatwereoper-atingatHanford,wentintotheriver.SoIwasprobablyswimmingintheeffluent.NotachoicemyparentsorIwouldhavemadehadwebeengiventhechoice.WeoftentraveledinourfamilyboattothebeachandtheislandsinthemiddleoftheColumbiawhereIwouldplaylikeanylittlekidwould,inthefinesands.Imademudpiesandallofthethingsthatlittlekidsliketodo,likeeatings.omeofthen:udpieIhadmade,enjoyingthetexture.Itwasbeautifulouttherewiththewmdan~thebIrds.Muchtomydismay,IhavesincelearnedthattheislandswerecoveredWIthCobalt-60from

OTHERCASESTUDIES131Hanfordwastesenteringtheriverupstream.OneofthetargetareasofCobalt-60inthebodyistheintestinaltract.It’sreallyhardtosooftendiscoversomethingnewaboutmychildhoodexposuresandwonderhowmanycancersIamatriskfornow.Iwasexposedaswelltoarangeofradioactivesubstancesmyparentsunknowinglytrackedhomefromwork.Theywouldcomehomefromworkwithstuffontheirclothes,stuffyoucouldn’tsee.Stuffontheirlunchboxes,stuffonthetiresoftheircar.TherewerehundredsofradionuclidesreleasedfromHanford.Whoknowswhichofthosewerestucktomyparents’clothing,asparticles,whichgottrackedhometotherugofmyFhouse.TheytrackedthecontaminantshomeandIcrawledthroughthisstuffwhenIwasababy.Babiesdothatsortofthing.Crawl,putmyhandontherug,putmyhandinmymouth.HeavenonlyknowshowmuchstuffIgotthatway.Thisisjusthorriblewhenyouthinkaboutthefactthatlittleinnocentbabieswereputinharm’sway.Noteventhehugetumbleweedscrashingthroughtown,orthegrittysandofdesertwindstormsdampenedmyenjoymentofahappychildhoodinwhathadalltheappear-ancesofanormalAmericantown.Ifeltsafeandprotected.Hadmyparentsknownofthesilentcloudsofradiationblanketingthecommunityduringmyinfancyandchildhood,themostvulnerabletimeoflife,theywouldhavemovedourfamilyimmediately.Buttheydidn’tknow.OnlythoseatthetopoftheHanfordmanagementchainandathighgovernmentlevelsknew.Theyknewofthehealthhazardsoftheradioactivesubstancestheywerereleasing.Theytoldthefamiliesofmanagementtogivetheirfamilies,andpartic-ularlytheirchildren,iodizedsalttopreventtheuptakeofradioiodinebytheirdevelopingthyroids.Radioiodinewasknownatthetimetocausethyroidcancerandotherdebilitatingthyroiddiseases.Theydidn’ttellpeoplelikemyDad,anew,entrylevelengineer,abouttheseprotectivemeasures.Mythyroidtookupsomuchradioiodinethatitnolongerworksatall,andIamdependentupondailysyntheticthyroidmedicationtherestofmylife.With-outthyroidreplacement,Iwouldpassintoalifethreateninghypothyroidcoma.Hanford’soffsitereleaseofradioactivesubstanceswasnotmadepublicbytheDepart-mentofEnergyuntilthelate1980s.Whenmyfamilyfinallyleamed,in1988,fromanarticlebyKarenDornSteele,intheSpokesmanReviewinSpokane,Washington,thatradioactiveiodinehadbeenreleased,overandover,intoourcommunityduringtheyearswelivedinRichland,myfatherandmotherwereindisbelief.And,withthatknowledge,asIbeganmyalmostfifteenyearsofworktomakethegovernmentandHanford’scontractorsdotherightthingforallofusharmed,mymotherandfatherwerenotsupportiveofmywork.For,ifHanfordhadindeedharmedusandsomanylikeus,thismeantthatmyfather’slivelihood,hisprofessionallife,hadharmedhisownfamily.HewasaNavyman,apatriot,whohadtakengreatprideinhiseffortsatHanford.Andnow,hehadtocometogripswiththenewsthathisgovernmenthadliedtohim,andtheseliesmayhavecausedharmtohisfamily.Myownthyroiddiseasewasjustthestart.Myfatherdevelopedhypothyroidismandanoduleonhisthyroid.Mymotherdevelopedhypothyroidismandhyperparathyroidism,adiseaseoftheparathyroidglands,whichsurroundthethyroid.Bothglandsareverysensitivetoradioiodine.Thiswasunheardofinmyextendedfamily,wheretherewasnohistoryofthyroiddisease,anywhere.NothyroiddiseaseandnoparathyroiddiseaseexceptinthoseofuswholivedinRichland,intheHanforddownwindsacrificezone.Myjoyisgone.Mygentlefatherdied,suddenlyandcruelly,farbeforehistime.Thenoduleonhisthyroidsuddenlyragedmalignant,generatingtumorsthroughouthisthroat,lungs,andbrain.Tosavehislife,atracheotomywasperformedintheemergency

132CHAPTER9roomofalocalhospitalwhenhisthroatandesophagusquicklyclosedastumorsblockedthepassageways.”Iwanttolive,”hescrawledinamessagetomeonhisengi-neer’spad,hisabilitytospeakendedbythetracheotomy.Hesubjectedhimselftoche-motherapy,hewasirradiatedoverandoverinanattempttostopthetumorsinhisbrain.Ashedied,hisspiritdiedtoo.Thedayafterhisdeath,aletterarrivedforhimfromtheDepartmentofEnergy.Uponopeningit,IlearnedthathehadwrittentotheDOEtoaskwhetherhehadbeenthesubjectofhumanradiationexperiments.TheDepartmentofEnergytoldhimabouttheGreenRun,anintentionalmassivereleaseofradioactiveiodinein1949.Thatplusallofhisworkexposures,allofhisoffsiteexposures.Mymothersufferedmassivelyasmyfatherdiedinpain.Hehadalwaystakencareofher.Nowitwasuptome,asshebegantosufferseizuresandshortnessofbreath.Shewashospitalizedoverandover.Hermildvisualproblemssuddenlyworsenedintolegalblindness.Asmyfatherdied,mymothersuffered.MyfatherdiedFebruary4,1996,justmonthsafterdiagnosiswithaggressive,meta-staticthyroidcancer.Thetracheotomytubewasneverremoved.Mymotherneverregainedhersight.Shespentthenextthreeyearsindarkness,notevenabletoseethephotoofmyfatherthatshekeptbyherbedside.Andthen,justassuddenlyasmyfatherfellill,mymother,onaSaturdayevening,developedstomachpainsandbythefollow-ingMonday,wasdiagnosedwithmassivetumorinvasionoftheliver,resultantfrommalignantmelanoma.Shediedweekslater.AsItriedtotellherIdidn’twanthertoleaveme,herbreathingstoppedandshewasgone.Mybrotherhaddiedshortlyafterbirth,partofapeakofneonataldeathswhichoccurredwithintheHanforddownwindareaduringyearsofoffsiteradiationrelease.Iwishallofthiswasadream.Iconsidermyselfaveryrationalperson,trappedwithinlifefactswhichreadlikesciencefiction.Logicallyandreasonably,ourgovern-mentshouldhaveapologizedtofamilieslikemine,andshouldhavehelpedthoseofuswhosuffersowithhealthcareforthediseasesanddeathwhichare”morelikelythannot”causedbyourexposures.Thatwouldatleastbeastart.Instead,noapologyhasbeenforthcoming.Noapology,nohelp.Nuclearworkers,ortheirsurvivors,cannowfileclaimsunderafederalworkerscompensationprogram,iftheycanshowthattheirexposuresmorelikelythannotcausedtheirdisease.Thesearechallenginghurdlestoovercome.Mymother,alsoaworkeratHanford,wasnotmoni-toredforherexposure.So,itwouldbeimpossibletoshowherexposurecausedherdis-ease.And,thoseofusexposedduringourmostvulnerabletimeoflife,infancyandchildhood(andinuteroaswellforsomeofus),havebeenignored,lefttocopewithallofthisonourown,invisibleandforgotten.Iwasbroughtupbymypatrioticparentstobelieveweliveinoneofthebestsocietiesonearth.Iwastaughttothinklogically,andthattruthwouldprevail.Myfamilyandfami-lieslikeminehavegiventheirhealthandtheirlivesinthedownwindregionsofHanford,intheserviceofthiscountry.Weareinneedofhelpanditisnowourgovernment’stumtotakeappropriatestepstohelpus,toshowusthatwearenotforgotten,thatoursacrificesarenotignoredanddisrespected.And,toapologizeforblanketinguswithradiation,whilelyingtoourparents,whowerepatrioticAmericanswhotrustedthegovernment’sreassur-ancesofsafetyastheydedicatedtheirlivesintheserviceofthiscountry.(Pritikin2002)22Reprintedwithpermission.

OTHERCASESTUDIES133Aswiththeotherareasdiscussedinthischapter,downwindfamilies-inthiscase,primarilyfarmingfamiliesandindividualsexposedtoradiationwhentheywerechildren-sufferfromtheeffectsofradiationexposure.Someofthisexposurewaspurposeful.ManyofthoseexposedliveoutsidetheimmediateHanfordregion,asradiationfromthefacilityexposedavastarea.Hanford’sdownwinderssufferfromavarietyofillnesses,suchasthoseseeninotherareasexposedtoradiation,includingcancers,thyroiddisease,stillbirths,andbirthdefects.IfradioactivewastecontinuestocontaminatetheColumbiaRiver,healthrisksintheareawillcertainlymagnify.ThiscreatesaradiologicalthreatnotjustforHanford,orforWashingtonState,butforallpopulationsthatborderthePacificOcean,theultimatedestinationoftheColumbiaRiver.NowthatthereactorsatHanfordarenolongeroperational,awindowofoppor-tunityexiststocleanuptheareaandpreventacolossalcontaminationoftheriverthatcouldirreparablyharmawatershedofpivotalimportancetoalargeportionofthePacificNorthwest.HanfordisownedbythefederalgovernmentandmanagedbyDOE.DOEemploysfourteenthousandworkersandspends$1.5billionayearforcleanup.Todate,theU.S.governmenthasspentmorethan$9billion;thetotalcostestimatedforcleanupofthissitealoneis$230billionover75years.SUBJECTSOFHUMANRADIATIONEXPERIMENTATIONAlthoughnuclearweaponstesting,theproductionofweapons-gradematerials,andaccidentsfromnuclearpowerplantsarethemostcommoncausesofhumanradia-tionexposurethroughouttheworld,thesearenottheonlymeans.AttheheightoftheColdWar,andintothe1980s,theU.S.governmentfinancedandauthorizedhumanradiationexperimentswithAmericancitizens,includingcitizensoftheTrustTerritoryofthePacificIslands.AftertheU.S.governmentdroppedatomicweaponsonHiroshimaandNagasakiandJapansurrenderedin1945,thewar-wearyAmericanpublicwaselated.Thiseuphoriawasonlytemporary,however,asAmericansquicklyrealizedtheycouldnotdefendthemselvesfromanattack.TheU.S.governmentneededtotestadditionalnuclearweaponstobetterunderstandthecapabilitiesofitsnewestweapons.FearandtheneedtoprotectthenationbecametheideologythatshapedfourdecadesofU.S.ColdWarhistory.TheroleoftheAECduringtheColdWarwastoassistwiththenation’spreparednessforanuclearwarbysanctioningresearchtounderstandhowradiationaffectsthehumanbody.Universities,hospitals,militaryfacilities,anddoc-torsacrosstheUnitedStateswillinglyconductedexperimentsthatcouldhelptheUnitedStatesprevailinanuclearwar.TheAEC’sOfficeofBiologyandMedicineconductedmuchoftheresearch,categorizedastopsecret.Overwhelmingly,thesubjectsoftheexperimentswerethemostpowerlessandvulnerablepopulationsatthetime:children,prisoners,AfricanAmericans,institutionalizedmentalpatients,pregnantwomen,thepoor,andcriticallyillpatients.Inmostcases,researchersdidnotaskforconsentfromtheparticipants(AdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperiments1995;Welsome1999).Evenifthepatientshadknownabouttheresearch,themarginality

134CHAPTER9ofsomeofthepopulationsmadeitdifficultforthemtosaynotogovernment-supporteddoctors.Incaseswhereresearchersaskedforconsent,participantswerenottoldaboutanyrisksassociatedwiththeexperiments.Inalllikelihood,research-ersknewthegeneralpublicwouldfindtheirexperimentsunacceptableandassumeditwouldbeeasiertotargetdisenfranchisedpopulationsfortheirwork.Examplesofthemorethantwentythousandgovernment-sponsoredhumanradi-ationexperimentsincludethefollowing:purposefullyexposingthearmedforces,uraniumminers,andMarshallesecitizens;injectingnewbornswithradioactiveiodinetodetermineiftherateofuptakeisthesameininfantsasitisinadults;havingpreg-nantwomendrinkradioactiveirontoseeifgestationaffectsabsorption;irradiatingthetesticlesofWashingtonStateprisoninmates;givingradioactivemilktoemploy-eesatGeneralElectricinHanford,Washington;andtaintingchildren’soatmealwithradioactiveironattheFernaldSchooloutsideofBoston,adumpinggroundfororphaned,mentallyill,andtroubledchildren.Manyoftheparticipantsintheseexperimentsweresickandseekingmedicalcareinhopesofrecovery.Theythoughtthedoctorsweretreatingtheirillnesses,but,infact,theyreceiveddosesofradiationthatoftenmadethemseverelysickorkilledthem(AdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperiments1995;WeIsome1999).HelenHutchison,forexample,thoughtshewasreceivingmedicationforseverenauseaexperiencedduringherpreg-nancywhenherdoctorhandedheramixturetodrinkin1946:”Whatisit?”sheasked.”It’salittlecocktail.It’llmakeyoufeelbetter,”sherecalledthedoctorsaying.”Well,Idon’tknowifIoughttobedrinkingacocktail,”sheresponded….”Drinkitall,”hetoldher.”Drinkitondown.”Theconcoctionwasfizzyandsweet,likeacherryCoke.Itwasn’tbadtasting.ThreemonthslaterHelenwasrolledintothedeliveryroom….Thebizarrehealthproblemsthatweretoplaguemotheranddaughterbeganseveralmonthslater.Helen’sfaceswelledupandwaterblistersappearedonherrightside….Thenherhairfelloutandshebegantotireeasily….[Herdaughter]Barbaraalsofeltexhaustedthroughmostofherchildhoodandnowsuffersfromanimmunesystemdisorderandskincancer….(Welsome1999:220)Therewere828women,inadditiontoHelen,whoreceivedradioactivecocktailstheyassumedwerenutritiousdrinksofferedtothemataprenatalclinic.Whatdoctorsgavethem,however,wasamixturecontainingradioactiveironthatimmediatelycrossedtheplacentaandcirculatedthroughthebloodoftheirdevelopingbabies(Welsome1999:221).TheirradiationcasesofpatientsattheM.D.AndersonCancerCenterattheUniversityofTexas,BaylorUniversity,andtheUniversityofCincinnatiepitomizetheviewthatdoctorshadtowardtheirresearchsubjects.Inthesecases,Dr.EugeneSaengerirradiatedaccidentvictimsfromthe”slums”ofCincinnati.AccordingtoDr.ClarenceLushbaugh,whoassistedDr.Saenger:Insuchtypicalslums,thesepersonsdon’thaveanymoneyandthey’reblackandthey’repoorlywashed.ThesepersonswereavailableintheUniversityofCincinnatiCentertoDr.Saengeraspersonswhoneededtobetotalbodyirradiated,andthey

OTHERCASESTUDIES135weregiventotalbodyirradiationbyDr.Saenger.Iwasonhiscommittee,bytheway,andIdidreviewwhathewasdoing,andIthoughtitwaswelldone.(Lushbaugh,quotedinWelsome1999:358)Theuncoveringofinformationaboutthesehumanradiationexperimentsenragedandconcernedthepublic,andpressurewasputontheWhiteHousetorespond.InJanuary1993,PresidentClintonestablishedaWhiteHouseAdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperimentstoinvestigatetheextentoftheexperimentationandtomakerecommendationstoensuretheseabuseswouldnevertakeplaceagain.Thefourteen-memberAdvisoryCommitteeissueditsfinalreportinOctober1995.Althoughthefinalreportgrosslydownplaystheintentionsandconsequencesoftheresearch,itprovidedabroadercontextforunderstandingtherelationshipofparticularexperimentstothegovernmentideologyduringthetimeperiod.CONCLUSIONRadiationhasdestroyedthelivesandenvironmentsofmillionsofpeopleonthisplanetanddisproportionatelyaffectsthemostmarginalandvulnerablepopulations.America’spursuitofstrategicpowerorcheaperformsofenergyoftenoutweighsconsiderationofthevulnerablepopulationsmostlikelytosuffertheburdens.Asadiscipline,anthropologyhasthetheoriesandmethodstohelpusbetterunderstandthecausesandconsequencesofenvironmentaldegradation.Ourtoolsforanalysisnotonlyhelpassessradiologicaldamages,butalsoextendtootherenvironmentalcrisessuchastheExxonValdezoilspillinAlaskaandtheindustrialchemicalaccidentinBhopal,India.Asanthropologists,wecantraveltocrisisareasandresearchtheconsequencesforlocalpopulations.Anthropologyplaysacriticalroleinwitnessinganddocu-mentinghumanenvironmentalrightsabuses.Wecanalsoworkwiththesepopula-tionstohelpthemseektheremediestheydesire.Anthropologyisusefulnotonlyforstudyingtherelativelypowerlesspopulationsinthesecircumstances,whichmostanthropologistsdo,butalsoforunderstandingthepowerstructuresanddeci-sionmakersoftheelite(Gusterson1993).Whetherresearchinglanguage,culture,orhumanenvironmentalinteractions,weanthropologistsidentifytheissuesandproblemswecareaboutmostdeeplyasindividualsandthinkaboutwayswecanhelp.Thereisanendlesssupplyofhumandilemmaswithwhichanthropologistscanbecomeinvolved,andcommunitiescanbenefitfromourtime,ourresearch,andourassistance.

10IMethodsandCommunityEmpowermentWhatisappliedanthropology,andwhyisitofvaluetotheMarshallIslands?Appliedanthropologistsworkwithcommunitiestobetterunderstandtheproblemstheyfaceandtohelpcommunityleaderstakethestepsnecessarytoaddresstheseproblemsinculturallyandlocallyappropriateways.Thefundamentalconceptunderlyingappliedanthropologyispraxis,definedasthemoralandethicalapplicationofourtheoriesandresearchc:vvarry1992).Appliedanthropologistsworkwithcommunitiestohelpthemdefmetheirproblems,consideralternatives,planandimplementinterventions,andassesstheout-comesoftheiractionsC:VVulffandFiske1987),andtheyemployethicalstandardstoensurethattheiractivitiesdonotcreatemoreproblemsforcommunitieswheretheywork.Inthissection,IwilldiscusstheresearchmethodsIemployedasanappliedanthro-pologistworkingintheMarshallIslands.Iwillnotprovideanaccountingofalltheresearchtoolsavailabletoappliedanthropologists;rather,Iwilldiscussthemethodsthatworkedbestformeinthisparticularsetting.DEVELOPINGBONDSOFTRUSTMyfustintroductiontotheMarshallIslandswasasaPeaceCorpsvolunteer.BylivingandworkingwiththeMarshallese-and,moreimportantly,bybecominganadoptedmemberofaMarshallesefamilythatemphasizedtheinherentresponsibilitiesofmem-berstocareforeachother-Ilearnedthelanguage,culture,andwhatthelivedexperi-enceentailsfortheMarshalleseonremoteouterislands.TheMarshalleseoftenintroducemetoothersbymyassociationwithmyadoptedfamilyonMiliAtoll.ThefactthatIampartofaMarshallesefamilysignalsthatIcareaboutandhavecommit-mentstopeopleintheMarshallIslands.TheseintroductionscommunicatetrustthatIwillusetheinformationtheyprovidetoservetheirbestinterests.Thus,myPeaceCorpsexperiencepavedthewayformetodofuturefieldwork.Havingastrong”bondoftrust”(ParkerandKing1987:172)isanimportantcomponentinmakingpeoplefeelsafeindisclosingintimateinformationabouttheirlives,particularlywhenitisrelatedtosensitivetopicssuchasthemedicalproblemsresultingfromradiationexposure.LEARNINGTHELANGUAGELearningthelocallanguageisessentialtofieldwork.Workingthroughtranslatorschangesthetenorofdialogues.Theresearchercouldmisscluesthatatranslatordoesnotthinktopointout.MyMarshalleselanguageabilitycertainlyisnotperfect,136

METHODSANDCOMMUNITYEMPOWERMENT137butitisfunctional.IknowwhenIneedhelpwiththelanguage.SomeoftheeldersIinterviewedfromRongelaptendedtousemoreoftheolderMarshalleselanguage(kajinetto)aswellastermsusedonlyintheRalikchainofislands.Ididnotknowtheolderlanguage,andasaPeaceCorpsvolunteerintheRatakchain,IdidnotlearnthevocabularyoftheRalikchain.Continuedlearningofthelanguageisanimportantongoingresearchgoal(Basso1995)thatIstrivetomeet.ARCHIVALRESEARCHBeforegoingintothefield,itisimportanttoreviewexistingdataandgovernmentrecordsaboutaresearchtopic(Trager1995).Asdiscussedearlier,Ireviewedthou-sandsofdeclassifiedU.S.governmentdocumentsaboutthetestingprogramintheMarshallIslandsanditsconsequencesfortheislands.Thesedocumentsprovidedmewithcluesabouttopicstoinvestigateduringinterviews.Forexample,somedeclassifieddocumentsdescribehowmedicalresearcherspulledbothhealthyanddecayedteethfromMarshallesecitizenstoinvestigateradiationconcentration.ThiswasnewinformationtomeandanissueIhadnotheardaboutfromtheMarshallese.LaterIquestionedseveralinformantsandlearnedthatinthepastresearchersfromBrookhavenNationalLaboratorytoldpeopletheywerefortunatebecausetheywouldreceivedentalexamsinadditiontomedicalcheckups.Aftertheexams,peoplecomplainedtoeachotherthattheresearchershadpulledhealthyteethfromtheirmouths.ItwasonlybecauseIbecamefamiliarwiththisinformationfromreadingthearchivalrecordsthatIknewtoexplorethetopicwithinterviewees.ThegovernmentoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)nowhasdocumen-taryevidence,aswellascorroboratingoraltestimony,abouttheremovalofhealthyteethforthepursuitofscientificknowledge,notthewell-beingoftheMarshallese.ACCESSTOINFORMATIONBeforecommunitiescanadequatelyaddressthechallengestheyface,theyneedaccesstoinformation.Tomaketheinformationinthedeclassifieddocumentsavailabletopeo-pleintheMarshallIslands,IwroteagranttotheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)tocreateadatabaseforthedocumentsandcopythematerialstoadigitalformforeasytranspor-tationtotheMarshallIslands.TheembassyalsourgedDOEtoestablishaWebsite(tis.eh.doe.gov/healthimarshalllmarshall.htm)containingalloftheDOEdocumentssothatresearchersandinterestedMarshallesecitizenscouldgainaccesstotheinforma-tion.GreatertransparencyandaccesstoinformationbenefittheMarshallese.BUILDINGONTHEWORKOFOTHERSIreviewedrelatedresearch,analyzingtheworkofanthropologistsJackTobin,LeonardMason,RobertKiste,andGlennAlcalay,aswellaslinguistByronBender,toestablishafoundationforbeginningmywork.Tobin,Mason,andKisteprovidedimportantinformationaboutthemultipleandfar-reachingproblemsthatoccurwhenacommunityisremovedfromitsland.Alcalayprovidedtheresearchmostrelevanttomyinterestsbyexaminingtheeffectsofthetestingprogramonwomen.Alcalay’s

–…~—-138CHAPTER10workinspiredmeandhelpedmeunderstandtheutilityofanthropology.Finally,Bender’scatalogingofMarshalleseplacenamesandtheirmeanings,aswellascom-pilingaMarshallesedictionarywithseveralMarshallesecolleagues,helpedmetakeadeeperlookatthemeaningoftheMarshallesewordsusedtodescribepeople’sexperienceswithradiation.LIFESTORYANDORALHISTORYCOLLECTIONFrommyresearchexperiencein1994,Icametounderstandthevalueandthebreadthofinformationaresearchercanacquirefromopen-endedinterviews.Icon-ductedbothlifestoryinterviewsandoralhistorieswithasmanypeopleaspossible.Oralhistories(orlifehistories)areverbalaccountsofreflectionsonaperson’slife.Lifestoriesrepresentshorter,morespecificexperiences.Becauseofmyparticularinterestinlinguistics,myinterviewsalsocapturemomentsoflanguageuse,preservedthroughtaperecordingsastexttoconsiderinconjunctionwiththeMarshalleselivedexperience.Iconductedalloftheinterviewsinpeople’sownhomesandcommunitiesasameansto”investigatespeechbehaviorin[its]naturalsettin[g]”(Winford1994:52).Thisrelaxedapproachmakestheinterviewssimilartomanagedconversations(Hart1996).Wheneverpossible,Iusedthelanguageoftherespondentstoconductinter-viewssothatinterviewsubjectswouldfeelcomfortableandexpressthemselvesasfullyaspossible(Bernard1995).Withtheexceptionoftwointerviews,IconductedalloftheoralhistoriesandlifestoriesinMarshallese.AMarshalleseresearchpart-neraccompaniedmeforthevastmajorityoftheinterviews.Inordertocreateanatmosphereconducivetoafreeexchangeofinformation,ithelpstouseopen-ended,informalquestionsandtoallowtheinformantstoguidethediscussioninarelaxedandflexiblemanner(Beebe1995;Bernard1995;Netting,Stone,andStone1995;Portelli1997).Byconductinginterviewsinthehomesoftheinformants,Ialsopickedupimportantcluesaboutthelivesofthepeoplethathelpedmeinterpretthetextsoftheinterviews.Knowingwhathappensoutsideofthetextsisnecessarytofullyunderstandwhattakesplaceinthetexts(Basso1995).Iplacedemphasisondevelopingabondoftrustandarapportwitheachofmyinformants.Whenconductinginterviews,ethnographersmustconsiderhowthenarratorandtheaudienceco-constructthetextsoftheinterviews(Basso1995).Thisnotionofco-constructionacknowledgesthatmanyfactors-mostnotably,thephysical,biologi-cal,cultural,linguistic,andpoliticaltraitsoftheethnographer-shapethetextsinavarietyofways.Forexample,mypresenceasanAmericanaffectedthecontentoftheinterviews,sincepeoplesometimesspeaktooutsidersdifferentlythantheydotomem-bersoftheirowncommunity.KnowingthatIamacitizenofthecountryresponsibleforthenucleartestingprogram,intervieweessometimessawmeasaconduittocom-municatetheirexperiencesandfeelingstotheAmericanpublicandpolicymakersinWashington,D.C.,whereIlivedandworkedatthetime.Ithinktherespondentspar-tiallyshapedtheirmessagestoreflectwhattheywantedpolicymakerstoknow.Iwasalsoawareofhowmygenderandthegenderofintervieweesaffectedtheoutcomeoftheinterviews.Onafewoccasions,myMarshallesemalecounterparts

METHODSANDCOMMUNITYEMPOWERMENT139hadtoleavetheinterviewareasothatIcoulddiscussmedicalandreproductiveillnessesalonewiththeinformants.Inthesecases,mygenderpositivelyinfluencedtheinterviews.Inothercases,whenmalerelativesdidnotremovethemselvesfromtheinterview,Icouldnotbringupreproductivemattersbecauseofcustomarytaboosdescribedearlier.Conductinganinterviewinprivateisdifficultbecausevar-iousfamilymembersandneighborswanderinandoutofhearingdistance,some-timessittingdowntolistentothestories.Withoutknowingthefamilyhistoryofeveryonepresentduringaninterview,IhadtobecarefulaboutthetopicsIraised.Tobeonthesafeside,IavoidedanydiscussionaboutreproductiveissueswhenmenwerepresentorwhenIreceivedacuefromtheinterviewee.LOCALCOUNTERPARTSANDKEYINFORMANTSWheneverIconductinterviewsintheMarshallIslands,IalwaysworkwithatleastoneMarshallesecolleague.Localcounterpartscanserveaskeyinformants,peoplewhoareparticularlyknowledgeableabouttheircommunities,tohelptheresearchergainaccesstoinformantsandinformation.WorkingwithaMarshallesecolleaguealsodemonstratestoinformantsthattheinformationgatheredisnotfortheresearchertotakeawayandanalyze,butfortheresearcherandthecommunitytoanalyzetogether.Ineveryinstance,myMarshallesecolleaguesandImutuallybenefitedfromcollaborativediscussionofinformationweobtainedfrominterviews.PUBLICEDUCATIONANDTRAININGOFSTUDENTSSinceIhadanabundanceoflinguisticandethnographicinformationfrommyfieldworkin1994,Idecidedtobasemy1997-1998researchoninformationfrominterviewsconductedbytheMarshallese.Ifindtheseinterviewsimportantfromalinguisticper-spectivebecausetheinterviewerandtheinformantsarebothnativeMarshallesespeak-ers.ComparinginformationthatIcollectedtothatgatheredbyMarshalleseinterviewersallowedmetotestthevalidityofmyownfmdingsand,moreimportant,toprovidetrainingtoMarshalleseresearchers.InvolvinglocalpeopleinmyresearchalsoprovidedmewithachecktomakesurethatmyworkhasvalueforthecommunitiesIstudy.ManyMarshalleseremainsensitiveabouttheexploitativeresearchconductedintheMarshallIslandsbyoutsiders,particularlyresearcherslinkedtothetestingpro-gram.Inafewcases,MarshalleseintervieweesopenlyexpresseddisdainfortheactionsofthoseresearcherswhocameintotheircommunitiesandfailedtoconsiderthebestinterestsoftheMarshallese.ThehistoryofresearchandabuseintheMarshallIslandsunderscorestheneedtocreateagenerationofMarshalleseresearcherswhocanconducttheirowninvestigations.Humancapacitybuildingisanessentialingre-dientofcommunityempowermentanddevelopment.In1998,myemployer,theRMIMinistryofForeignAffairs,allowedmetovolun-teersomeofmytimeattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands.Iworkedwiththeformerpresidentofthecollege,AlfredCapelle,toestablishaNuclearInstitutetostudythecon-sequencesofthetestingprogramfromaMarshalleseperspective.TheinstitutebecamearepositoryforthedeclassifiedU.S.governmentdocumentswhereMarshallese

140CHAPTER10s~dentsandthepubliccouldfmdinformation.Itaughttheinstitute’sfirstcourse,theHistoryofNuclearWeaponsTestinginthePacificRegion.ThefirstdirectoroftheNuclearInstitute,MarySilk,wasastudentinmyclassbeforeshebecamethedirector.ByworkingwithstudentsandfacultyattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands,Ihelpedtrainlocalcounterpartsintechniquesofdatacollection,analysis,transcrip-tion,andtranslation.Atthesametime,peopleleamedmoreabouttheirnation’shistoryofbeingsubjectedtonuclearweaponstesting.Aspartofthecourserequire-ments,studentsresearchedthechallengesfacingdifferentradiationcommunitiesintheMarshallIslands.Thestudentschosetoworkingroupsandfocustheirresearchonthreespecificpopulations:theMarshalleseworkerssenttothetest-siteareas;thepeopleofMejitAtoll,yetanothercommunitydownwindfromthetestsites;andthegenerationofMarshallesebornafterthetestingperiod.Inadditiontodoingarchivalresearch,studentscollectedlifestoriesfromeachofthethreepopulations.Studentscol-lected,transcribed,translated,andanalyzedtheirinterviews.BoththestudentsandIbenefitedfromtheproject.Theylearnedresearchtechniquesandvaluableinformationabouttheircommunities,andIgainedadditionalinsightsintotheresearchIconductedfortheRMIgovernment.Studentsgavefmalcopiesoftheirreportstokeyinformantsandtoleadersfromthevariouscommunities,includingsenatorsandmayors.Aftercompletingtheirprojects,mystudentswereanxioustosharetheirknowledgeaboutthetestingprogramwiththecommunityatlarge.Weinvitedthepublictohearguestspeakersdiscussvariousaspectsoftheirnuclearlegacy,andwefilmedthepresen-tationstocreateavideoarchive.Wesponsoredanationalessay-writingcontestandapublicceremonycommemoratingNuclearVictim’sRemembranceDayontheanniver-saryoftheBravotest.Todisseminatetheideasofthewriters,thewinnersofthenationalessaycontestforeachgradelevelreadtheirwinningsubmissionsoverthepublicradio.Fortheirfinalexam,studentsconductedalive,nationallybroadcastradioprogramtodiscussnuclearissuesandtheirfmdingsfromtheirprojects.Thisprogramreachedthousandsofpeopleintheurbancentersandremoteouterislands.Eachstudentcov-eredaparticulartesting-relatedtopicindetail.Attheendoftheirpresentations,thestu-dentsfieldedquestionsfromthepublicformorethananhour.Peoplecalledinbytelephoneorbyaradiotransmitterfromtheouterislands.Thepublicgavethestudentstremendoussupportandencouragementfortheirproject.Afterhearingthediscussionontheradiostation,somepeopleevendrovedowntothestationtocongratulatethestudentsaftertheshow;otherscalledtheradiostationtoexpresstheircongratulations,andstillotherswrotetothelocalnewspapertosayhowimpressedtheywerethatyoungMarshalleseknewsomuchabouttheissuesthatdramaticallyaffectthenation.OnewomanfromUtrikwhowasaliveduringthetestingprogramsaidthatshelearnedagreatdealfromthestudents,includingbasicinformationsuchasthenumberoftestsconductedandtheiryields.Thefactthateventhosewholivedthroughthetestingpro-gramdonotfullyunderstanditillustratestheneedtodisseminateinformationtothepublicfromthedeclassifieddocumentsandethnographicdata.Positivefeedback,togetherwiththeoutpouringofcommunitysupport,bolsteredthestudents’desiretolearnmoreabouttesting-relatedissuesandconfirmedthattheirhomecommunitiesvaluelearningaboutnuclearissues.Inspiredbythesuccessoftheradioshowandtheneedtocreateanongoingefforttoexplorenuclearissues,the

METHODSANDCOMMUNITYEMPOWERMENT141studentsestablishedaNuclearClubatthecollege.Thegoaloftheclubispublicedu-cation.Studentsuseskits,songs,films,andlecturestoeducatethepublicabouttheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramintheMarshallIslands.SeveralmembersoftheNuclearClubjoinedasummerstudyprogramoperatedbyAmericanUniversityinHiroshimaandNagasaki,Japan.AfterreturningfromJapan,theparticipantssharedwhattheylearnedwithothermembersoftheclub,whothendecidedtomakeregularpresentationstopublicmiddleandhighschools,includingthoselocatedintheouterislandswhenfundingmadeitpossible.Thepresenceofpeereducatorsmoti-vatesyoungerMarshallesetolearnabouttheirhistory.ThecontributionsofstudentsattheCollegeoftheMarshallIslandsinspiredtheRMIembassyinWashington,D.C.,toestablishitsowntrainingprogram.In1995,theembassyinvitedinternstoliveandworkintheembassyinexchangeforintern-shipcreditattheircolleges,eitherintheMarshallIslandsorelsewhere.TheembassygivespreferencetoMarshallesestudents,althoughstudentsfromJapanandtheUnitedStateshavealsoparticipatedintheprogram.Internsattheembassydonotanswertelephonesanddonotassistwithadministrativetasks.Instead,theybecomeactivemembersofthediplomaticteam,assistingwitheffortstoeducatetheU.S.governmentaboutproblemsandneedsintheMarshallIslands.Twooftheinternscreatedapermanentphotoexhibitabouttheweaponstestingprogramstillondisplayattheembassy.OtherinternswrotespeechesandletterstoCongress,developedinformationalbrochures,gatheredfilmfootageaboutthetestingprogramfromU.S.governmentarchives,andassistedwiththepreparationforhearingsonCapitolHill.Boththeembassyandthestudentsbenefitfromtheseexperiences;themorestudentsunderstandtheeventsthattookplaceintheMarshallIslands,themoretheywanttogetinvolvedineffortstoseekjustcompensation.TRANSCRIPTIONANDTRANSLATIONSeveralindividuals,includingmyself,influencedthetextsoftheinterviewsduringthetranscriptionandtranslationprocesses.Aftermypreliminaryfieldwork,IturnedovercopiesofmyinterviewtapestotheRMIgovernment.Thegovernmentfundedtheprojectandthereforeownedtheinformation.TheRMIgovernmenthiredtwoMarshallesementoundertaketheenormoustaskoftranscribingandtranslatingthemajorityoftheinterviews.Ialsotranscribedandtranslatedseveralofthepar-ticularlyimportantinterviewsmyself.AsIreviewedtheinterviews,Ifoundseveralimportantomissionsinthetranscriptionsandtranslations,dueinlargeparttothepoorqualityofthetechnologyintheMarshallIslands.Reviewingthetranscriptionandtranslationworkofothersgavemetheopportunitytomakeimportantcorrec-tionstomyownrecords.ElizabethCruz,awomanwhowasonLikiepAtollduringtheweaponstestingpro-gram,assistedmewithsomeofmytranslationsinWashington,D.C.Shewasparticu-larlyhelpfulbecauseshewasachildduringthetestingprogramandremembersmanyoftheexperiencesdescribedbythenarratorsintheinterviews.BecauseshelefttheMarshallIslandsasayoungwoman,herday-to-dayuseoftheMarshalleselanguage

142CHAPTERIOreflectsamoretraditionalmannerofspeakingconsistentwiththelanguageusedontheremoteouterislandwhereshegrewupinthe1950s.Atthattime,theEnglishlanguageandthevocabularyofglobalizationwerejustbeginningtoinfluencetheMarshalleselanguage.BecauseofherabsencefromtheMarshallIslandsduringtheperiodoflan-guagemodernization,ElizabethhasarichMarshallesevocabularycharacteristicofthespeechofmanyolderMarshallesewhogrewupontheouterislands.HerspeechhasnotbeenaffectedbytheincreaseduseofEnglishwordsfoundincontemporaryMarshallese.Ifoundherassistanceintranscribingandtranslatinginvaluable,especiallyregardingtheinterviewsIconductedwithelderlyradiationsurvivorsontheouterislands.SeveralMarshalleseinternsattheembassyalsoassistedmewithtranscriptionsandsometranslations.Allofthestudentssaidtheyenjoyedlisteningtotheinter-viewsbecausetheylearnedabouttheeffectsoftheweaponstestingandbecameinterestedinlearningmoreabouttheircountry’shistoryduringtheColdWar.OBSERVATIONParticipantobservationmaintainsdistancebetweentheobserverandthesubject(Bernard1995).Iaugmentedmyinterviewswithcloseobservation,whichallowsanthropologiststocomeasnearaspossibletotheirresearchsubjects,whilestillmaintainingtheabilitytostepbackandreflect.Thismethodworkedwellforme,sinceitmakesnocleardivisionbetweenresearcherandsubjectsandbroughtmetoparticipateinthelivesofmyinformants.Observationsareparticularlyimpor-tanttoethnographicresearchinradiationcommunities,asitisoftendifficultforpeopletodescribephysicaldisabilitiesusingonlywords.Oraltestimoniescapturedonataperecorderdonotamplyconveythephysicalchallengespeopleface.AsillustratedintheinterviewwithKitaandherhusband(seeChapter6),thespeakersneededhandgestures,inadditiontolanguage,toexplaindeformitiesandchangestotheirbodiesasaresultofradiationexposure.Thelimitationsoflanguagemakeobservationanimportantcomplementtointerviews.Thebestresearchusesacom-binationofmethods.Althoughphotographsandvideotapeshelptoconveyphysicaldifficultiesexperi-encedbyradiationsurvivors,Ifindthemtroubling.Firstofall,theytakeawaytheano-nymityofinformantswhowishtokeeptheirexperiencesconfidential.Second,theychangethedynamicsofaninterview.Ihavenoticedthatpeoplesuddenlyfeellikespe-cimenswhenthecameracomesout.Aninterviewercanverballycommunicaterespect.Whenacameraemergesonthescene,thephotographicsubjectbecomesanobjectratherthansomeoneinvolvedinarespectfuldialogue.Insomeinstancesduringmyfieldwork,informantsaskedmetotaketheirphotographsbecausetheywantedtopro-duceevidencethatwouldhelpotherpeopleunderstandtheirhardships.IreceivedsucharequestwhenIinterviewedJalelJohn,thegrandmotherofagirlonAilukwithmiss-ingknees,amissingarm,andmissingfingers(Figure10.1).Inhergrandmother’sview,thisgirlcouldbeaposterchildfortheeffectsofradiationonhumanbeings.Jalelaskedmetotakethephotographandshareitwithothers.AcopyofthisphotographisonpermanentdisplayintheRMIembassyinWashington,D.C.

~co::Eb~Figure10.1AnunidentifiediQ)girlfromAi/ukAtoll..\,r>r~.~.r-~~,–“.~.•’..•’.:.•..•1″””_.r:..’~’Y,._,–.”:,,”,~..•~-;_.,~METHODSANDCOMMUNITYEMPOWERMENT143EXPECTTOBECHALLENGEDOvertheyears,severalradiationsurvivorsopenlychallengedmymotivesandmypresenceintheircommunities.BeforemyinterviewwithErtilang(seeChapter8),ItoldherthatIwasconductingresearchforhergovernment-andherleaders-andIhadaMarshallesecounterpartwithmewhoverifiedmyroleworkingfortheRMI.StilI,Ertilangchallengedmeandmadesuretheinterviewwasnoteasyforme.AlthoughIfoundherskepticalinterrogationuncomfortable,Ialsowelcomedit.IknewthatErtilang’sexperienceswithradiationexposureandexilewerepainfultodiscuss,anditwasherchoicetoshareornotshareherexperiences.WhenenteringacommunityintheMarshallIslands,Ialwaysbeginbyconvening.acommunitywidemeetingtodiscussthereasonsformyresearch,seeksuggestionsandpublicpermissionfromthecommunity,andallowcommunitymemberstoques-tionme.Bypepperingmewithquestions,communitymembershaveanopportunitytodetermineifmypresenceisacceptableandunderstoodbyall.Anthropologists,partic-ularlythoseworkingwithexploitedandinjuredcommunities,shouldexpecttohavetheirpresenceandintentionschallenged.Showingactiveresistanceandchallengingoutsidersareimportanttothesenseofself-sufficiencyandstrengthofacommunity.Thecommunityneedstoexerciseitsinformedauthoritytofeelcomfortablewithour

144CHAPTER10researchandpresence.Nomatterhowrespectfulweareofthecommunitieswevisitourpresenceisalwaysaburdenonsomelevel.’FIELDNOTESDuringmyfieldwork,Irecordedon-siteobservationsandthoughtseachdayinmyfieldnotejournals.ItookthesejournalswithmeeverywhereIwent.ImadequicknotationsduringinterviewsofthoughtsraisedbytheinformantsthatIwantedtoexplorefurther.Itriedtosavemyfollow-upquestionsfortheendoftheinterviewsoasnottodisruptthethoughtsandflowofthespeechinitiatedbytheinformants.Ialsousedmyfieldnotejournalstomakenotestomyselfabouttopicstopursueinthearchivaldocumentsoradditionalpeoplewhomightbegoodsourcesofinformation.Whenitcomestimetoanalyzethedatafromtheinterviews,Ialwaysfindithelpfultoreviewmyfieldnoteentriesandtorecallthephysicalcontextoftheinterviews,aswellasthoughtsthatoccurredtomeatthetime.WhenIreturnhomefromthefieldandreviewmynotes,IoftendiscoverthemesthatIwasunawareofwhileinthefield.REPEATVISITSTOTHEFIELDThefirsttimeIcollectedethnographicdatain1994,IthoughtIhadawealthofinforma-tionthatwouldkeepmebusyforalifetime.WhenIexaminedthecontentoftheinter-viewsmoreclosely,IcouldidentifyplacesinthedialogueswhereIfailedtofollowuponimportantcluesorwhereIdidnotdelvedeeplyenoughintoanissue.Repeatvisitstothefieldareimportantbecausetheyallowresearcherstoreachdeeperlevelsofunder-standingandtomaintaincloseworkingrelationshipswithinformants.After1994,Ireturnedtothefieldforhalfayearin1997andagainin1998,1999,2000,and2001.TheRMIembassyinWashington,D.C.,fullysupportedandpaidforalltheexpensesofmyearliertripsbecauseIwascollectingdatafortheRMIgovernmenttouseinconvinc-ingtheU.S.governmenttomeetitsobligationstothecornmunitiesaffectedbytheweaponstesting.ThePublicAdvocateattheNuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT)fundedmyinterviewsin1999and2000tohelpconstructRongelap’slandclaim.THEPOLICYREALMMymainroleasananthropologistworkingfortheRMIgovernmentwastohelpleadersdocumentandcommunicatetheneedsofthecommunitiesaffectedbytheweaponstestingtotheU.S.Congressandadministration.Inthiscapacity,Ioftenactedasaculturalbroker”translat[ing)oneculture/societyintotermscomprehensi-bletoanother”(Nalven1986:34)orasaliaisontryingtocreateunderstandingbetweentheU.S.andRMIgovernments.Withoutquestion,themostpowerfulwaytoconveytheneedsoftheradiationcom-munitiestotheU.S.governmentistoallowRMIgovemmentandcornmunityleaderstospeakforthemselvesduringbilateralmeetings.Priortothesemeetings,IbriefedMarshalleseleadersabouttheissuesIresearched,andIhelpedthemdevelopatech-niqueforeffectivelyconveyingtheirproblemsandneedstoU.S.governmentrepresen-tatives.Duringthemeetings,IsatquietlybehindtheMarshalleseleadersandletthemspeakforthemselves.OnlywhennecessarydidIwhisperinformationintotheirears.

METHODSANDCOMMUNITYEMPOWERMENT145Iviewedmyworkassuccessfulwhenreachingapointwhentheydidnotneedmyinputatthesemeetings,asmymajorgoalwastobuildthecapacityoftheMarshallese.Inoneinstance,RMIgovernmentleadersusedinformationaboutthenuclearweap-onstestingtoconvinceDOEtoputthecontractforadministratingthemedicalprogramouttobid.TheRMIgovernmentdidnotwantBrookhavenNationalLaboratorytocon-tinueasthecontractorbecauseitwastheinstitutionresponsibleforearlierhumanradia-tionexperiments.ITheRMInationalandlocalgovernmentsinsistedontheirparticipationindraftingtheproposal.Theywantedanewmedicalprovidertoensurethattheprogramconsideredaspectsofhealthcareimportanttotherecipientcommuni-ties.TheRMInationalandlocalgovernmentofficialsalsousedinformationfrommyresearchintestimoniestotheUnitedNations,totheWhiteHouse,totheU.S.Congress,inceremoniesinJapanrememberingthevictimsofHiroshimaandNagasaki,inmeet-ingswithPacificIslandsheadsofstate,intheirownparliament,andinothervenues.Ethically,weanthropologistsshouldgivetheknowledgewegatherbacktothecommunitieswhereitoriginated.Itisnotourknowledge-itbelongstothem.BygivingmyresearchbacktotheMarshalleseleadersandexplainingtheimplicationsofmyfindings,Ienabledthemtousemyresearchtoadvancetheirpolicyandpoliti-calgoals.Capacitybuildingisanessentialandimportantcomponentofappliedanthropologybecauseitmakescommunitiesstrongerandbetterabletofendforthem-selvesinthefuture.Communitiesandtheanthropologistsworkingwiththemshouldbenefitfromtheirinteractionslongaftertheirworkingrelationshipscometoanend.METHODSOFTHENCTPROJECTResearchmethodsmustbeadaptedtothegoalsoftheresearchandthecircum-stancesinthefield.Asanexample,IwilldiscussthemethodsthatDr.BarbaraRoseJohnstonandIdevelopedfortheRongelaplandclaimprojectwiththeNCT.OurapproachdrewonmytwelveyearsofexperienceandconnectionswithpeopleintheaffectedcommunitiesandonBarbara’sexperienceinhumanenviron-mentalimpactassessmentandreparationsresearch.ItalsodrewonBarbara’sandmysharedcommitmenttocommunityparticipationineveryphaseofresearch.2BeforewesetfootintheMarshallIslands,weworkedwiththePublicAdvocatefortheNCT,WilliamGraham,toestablishaMarshalleseadvisorycommitteethatwouldguideeveryphaseofourresearch.3Idiscussedthecompositionoftheadvisorycom-mitteewithGraham,whohadbeenaPeaceCorpsvolunteerintheMarshallIslands.Heservedinthe1960s,marriedaMarshallesewoman,andhasbeenanintegralpartof1AnycommenlsinthisbookabouttheproblemswiththeDOEmedicalprogramrelatetoBrookhavenNationalLaboratory,theU.S.governmentcontractorforfourdecades.2CulturalanthropologistStuartKirschalsoassistedwithinitialdiscussionsoftheMarshallesevalueoflandandprovidedinformationonothercompensationcasesinthePacificregioninvolvinglossofawayoflife.3DuringthefirstphaseofourresearchinMarch1999,Dr.Kirschjoinedourteam.

146CHAPTER10thecommunityforfourdecades.Grahamconvincedachief(iroij)fromRongelaptojointheadvisorycommittee.froijMikeKabuaisrespectedthroughoutthecountryforhisculturalrevitalizationeffortsandhisknowledgeofthetraditionalMarshalleselifestyle.AlsojoiningthecommitteewereaRongelapesewoman,LijohnEknilang,andaRongelapeseman,GeorgeAnjain,whocarriedthetitleoflandmanager(alap).TheyprovideduswithawealthofinformationaboutsubsistencepracticesonRongelapandkeyeventsthataffectedthepeople’saccesstoanduseofresources,aswellasthesocioeconomicconsequencesofthedamagesandlossesthecommunitysuffered.Bothwerealiveduringthetestingera,butsadlyGeorgeAnjainpassedawayshortlyaftercompletingthisproject.Committeemembershipwascompletewiththeadditionoftwowell-respectedMarshallesewithextensiveknowledgeabouttraditionalagriculturalandfishingpractices:froijWilfredKendallandhandicraftproductionexpertMaryLanwi.InMarch1999,ouranthropologicalteammetwiththeadvisorycommitteetodiscussourresearchplans,togainfeedback,andtorefineourplansbeforepresent-ingthemtothecommunity.Beforebeginningourresearch,weworkedwiththeRongelaplocalgovernmenttoconveneacommunitywidemeetingtointroduceour-selves,explainthepurposeofourresearch,andmakesurepeopleunderstoodthatweweregatheringinformationtosupportthecommunity’slandclaimtotheNCT.Communitymembersaskedmanyquestionsandagreedtoassistuswithourwork.FromMarchtoApril1999,IconductedinterviewswithmembersoftheRongelapcommunitywholivedonMajuroandEbeye;IalsoconductedinterviewsduringavisittoRongelapwhilecommunitymembersobservedtheresultsofanongoingrestorationproject.IhadtwoMarshalleseresearchpartners,TietaThomasandKristinaStege,whoaccompaniedmetohelpwiththeinterviews.TietawasanassistanttothePublicAdvo-catewholivedonEbeyeandknewmanyoftheRongelapeseresidingthereandonMejattoIsland.KristinamajoredinsociologyincollegeanddidherseniorreportabouttheplightoftheBikinians.Sheisanaturalandgiftedethnographerwhomadesubstantialcontributionstotheproject.Bytheendofourtimeinthefield,Kristinacon-ductedsomeinterviewsbyherself.SheeventuallywentontoconductherownresearchonthedisplacementofradiationcommunitiesandnowhasanM.A.inAnthropology.InMayandJuneof1999,Ianalyzeddatafrommyinterviewsandreviewedinfor-mationfromearlierinterviewsIhadconductedwiththeRongelapesein1994.Barbaracontinuedthedocumentaryreviewandexaminedsimilarcasesofenviron-mentaldamagewithsocioeconomicimplicationsfromothercommunities.BarbaraandIthenproducedadraftreportofourresearchforthePublicAdvocate.InJuly1999,BarbaraandIreturnedtoMajurotopresentthepreliminaryfind-ingsinourreport,toelicitcommentsandfeedbackfromRongelapcontributors,toconductfollow-upinterviews,andtotrackdownremainingdocumentarysources.Wedistributedourdraftreportforcommenttotheadvisorycommittee,informants,andkeycontactsintheMarshallIslands,aswellasseveralenvironmentalsocialsciencecolleaguesindifferentpartsoftheUnitedStates.In2001,thePublicAdvocateaskedBarbaraandmetoreviseourreporttofocusspecificallyonthehardshipsandconsequentialdamagesexperiencedbytheRonge-lapeseasaresultoftheirexileandtheirinvolvementinU.S.governmenthuman

METHODSANDCOMMUNITYEMPOWERMENT147experiments.Iconductedfollow-upinterviewsinApril2001inMajuroandinJuly2001inHawai’i.ManymembersoftheRongelapcommunity,particularlythosewhowantaccesstoabetterqualityofhealthcareintheUnitedStates,nowliveinHawai’i.BarbaraexploredU.S.governmentdocumentstofindcorrespondingevidenceforthepainfulmemoriesexpressedbytheinformants.InJuly2001,theRMIandDOEcon-venedanannualmeetinginHawai’itodiscussissuesandproblemsrelatedtoDOE’senvironmentalandmedicalprogramsintheMarshallIslands.ThesenatorfromRongelapatthetime,AbaccaAnjain-Maddison,arrangedforgroupmeetingswithmanyoftheRongelapesewomenresidinginHawai’i.Heactivelyparticipatedinthegroupdiscussionsandfacilitatedthewomen’sdiscussionofthedifficultiestheyfacedinmanagingtheirradiation-relatedillnessesandgettingaccesstomedicalcareasrequiredbythe177AgreementoftheCompactofFreeAssociation.BySeptember2001,BarbaraandIsubmittedoursecondreporttothePublicAdvocate.ThisreportbecamethebasisfortheRongelapcommunity’sclaimtotheNCTforhardshipsandconsequentialdamages.InOctober2001,BarbaraandIflewtoMajurotoparticipateinthehearingbeforetheNCT.Forseveraldaysleadinguptothehearing,Iworkedone-on-onewithRongelapesewitnessestoreviewtheirexperiencesandpreparethemtoappearbeforetheNCTjudges.Thecommunityalsoaddeditsdistinctiveflavortothebeginningofthehearings.TheRongelapeseinsistedonopeningwithaprayerandasongasiscustomaryintheMarshallIslands.Theyalsowantedtoreadthenamesofalltheircommunitymem-berswhohadsufferedfromtheeffectsofradiationexposure,butwerenotpresentatthedeliberationsbecausetheyhadpassedaway.Acouncilwomanreadthenamesofthedeceasedonebyone.Althoughthereadingofthenameswasnotrecordedasanofficialpartofthehearing,itremindedallwhowerepresentofthehumanlossesimpactingeveryoneoftheirfamilies.TheRongelapeseshapedthetoneofthehear-ingandparticipatedfullyinitsthree-dayproceedings.Duringthehearing,witnessesfromtheRongelapcommunitysharedtheirexperi-enceswiththejudges.IaskedthewitnessesquestionsinEnglishbecausetwoofthethreejudgesdidnotspeakMarshallese.AMarshalleseinterpretermadecertainthatthewitnessesfullyunderstoodthequestions.ThewitnessesrespondedinMarshallese,andtheinterpreterstranslatedfortheEnglish-speakingjudges(Figure10.2).Attheendofthehearing,theRongelapcommunitywaselated;peoplefinallyfeltasiftheyhadhadtheirdayincourt-andachancetotelltheirstoriesfromFigure10.2MembersoftheRongelapcommunitysingingabouttheirlossesandtheirlandattheendoftheirhearingbeforetheNCT.

148CHAPTER10theirownperspeCtive.Theywereconfidentthatthejudgeswouldunderstandthepainandsufferingoftheircommunity.CONCLUSIONForanthropologistsinterestedinempoweringcommunitiestobettermanageandrespondtochallenges,appliedanthropologyprovidesanarrayoftools.Appliedanthropologistshaveanobligationtoservetheinterestsandneedsofthecommu-nitieswheretheywork.Wecandothisbycollaboratingwithlocalcounterpartsandcommunities’duringeveryphaseofourresearchandbygivingtheresultsofourworkbacktothecommunities.Thesepracticesensurethatourresearchisforthebenefitoftherecipients.AsanappliedanthropologistworkingfortheRMIgovernment,IworkedwithMarshalleseleadersandtheirlocalattorneystoproducetangibleoutcomesforcom-munitiesandthenation-whetherintheformofapieceoflegislationpassingtheU.S.Congress,achangeinanexecutivebranchpolicytowardtheRMI,orachancefortheRMItopresentitsviewstoforumssponsoredeitherbytheUnitedStatesorbytheinternationalcommunity.Moreimportantthanthetangibleout-comes,however,arethecommunityempowermentefforts.IconsidermyrolewiththeRMIgovernmenttohavebeenasuccessonlyifitsleadershavebecomemoreself-reliantandbetterabletomanagetheirradiation-relatedissuesandprob-lemsinthefuture.Bytraininglocalcounterparts,disseminatinginformation,andteachingleadershowtopresentthemselvesandtheirissueseffectivelytotheU.S.government,IhopetohavehelpedMarshalleseleadersbecomeincreasinglyskilledatadvancingtheirinterests.

II/CompetingNarrativesofHistoryThehistoryoftheMarshallIslandsrepresentstheextremeincolonialdominationwherethepowerfuldecidedthattherelativelypowerlessshouldsacrificetheirhealthandtheirlandstoscience,medicine,andglobalpoliticalandstrategicinterests.AlthoughtheU.S.governmentliterallymadeaHollywoodproductionoutofitsefforttoasktheBikiniansforpermissiontousetheirlandfortesting,itisclearthattheMarshallesepeoplehadnoabilitytorefusearequesttohostthemilitaryactivities.TheU.S.government,nottheMarshallese,chosethelocationtotestitsnuclearweapons.TheU.S.governmenttoldtheMarshallesetheirrelocationwouldbetemporaryandthattheycouldreturnhomeafterthetestingprogram.Sixtyyearslatertheentirecornmuni-tiesofRongelapandBikini,aswellashalfoftheEnewetakpopulation,remaininexile.TheU.S.governmentalsopromisedtolookafterthehealthandwell-beingoftheciti-zensinthetrustterritory.Stilltoday,thosedirectlyexposedtodangerouslevelsoffall-outfromtheBravoincidentlackcompletemedicalcare,andthousandsofMarshallesepeopleexposedtoradiationarenoteligibleforcare.TheU.S.government-byitsownadmissionintheCompactofFreeAssociation-hasalegalandmoralobligationtotakefullresponsibilityforthedamageandinjuriescausedbythetestingprogram.Thepriceofcleanup,adequatemedicalcare,andcompensationintheMarshallIslandsisexpensive,unquestionably,butitisafractionofthe$1.5billiontheU.S.gov-ernmentspendsannuallyoncontemplatingcleanupoftheHanfordfacilityinWashingtonState.IftheU.S.governmentcanlocatefundingtoconductitsmilitaryactivities,surelyitcanfindtheresourcestoremedytheresultingdamagesandinjuries.TheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprograminthecontinentalUnitedStatesandtheMarshallIslandscostAmericantaxpayersapproximately$5.8trillion.Ofthatfigure,only0.04percentreachedthevictimsoftheweaponstestingprograms(Schwartz1998).Thescientistswhoinventedthenuclearbombsknewtheyhadcreatedweaponsofgenocide.TheseweaponsinflictedincalculabledamageduringthewarwithJapanandlaterontheMaohiofFrenchPolynesia,downwindersinNevadaandHanford,andnumer-ousothercommunities,includingthoseintheMarshallIslands.InthecaseoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI),throughoutthetrusteeshipandintothepost-colonyera,thestrategicmilitaryandresearchinterestsoftheU.S.governmentoutweighedconcernsforthesafety,health,andwell-beingoftheMarshallesepeopleandtheirislands.GovernmentrepresentativesfromtheUnitedStatesusedtheirpowertoarrangefortheteststooccur,tocontrolorsuppressinformationabouttheimpacts,todeterminewhichpeopleandislandslegallyconstitute”exposed”groups,andtodecidewhichcommunitieswouldreceivecom-pensationorU.S.governmentprogrammaticsupportfortheirradiation-relatedinjuries149

150CHAPTER11a~dd~mages.DoctorsandscientistsvigorouslypursuedtheirresearchagendasWIthlIttleornothoughtaboutMarshalleseknowledgeofandexperienceswithradiation-informationthatanthropologyiswellsuitedtouncoverandamplify.FromaMarshalleseperspective,theinadequateresponseoftheU.S.governmenttotheirproblemsunderscoresthattheU.S.governmentconsidersthemanexpend-ablepopulation,onewhosesufferingsandpainarepartofthepriceofColdWarpol-itics.TheU.S.governmenthasahistoryofexploitingandtramplingthevaluesofothers,suchasitsownNativeAmericanpopulations,inordertopursueitsself-interests.TheMarshallesepeoplestillstruggletocopewiththedevastationoftheirfragilecoralislandstheydependonforsurvivalandcometotermswiththepervasivedeathsandhealthproblems.Studyinghistoricaleventshelpsanthropologistsunderstandthefactorsthatshapemodemlifeincommunitieswheretheyconductresearch.TheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram,conductedsixdecadesago,isevidenttodayinvirtuallyeveryaspectofMarshalleselife.Asdiscussedearlier,itisimpossibletoseparatetheMarshalleseradiationlanguagefromthehistoryandrelationshipoftheMarshallesepeopletotheirimmediatesurroundings,aworldfilledwithinvisiblecontaminationaswellasobservabledevastation.Thetestingprogramaffectedmen,women,youth,theelderly,thelegallyexposedpopulation,thetest-siteworkers,andthepeoplefrom”unexposed”atollssuchasAiluk,Likiep,Wotje,andMejit.Weseepsychologicalproblemsrelatedtodespairanddepression,aswellasthestarkrealitiesofdeathandillness.Weseeaneconomythatcannotutilizelargeportionsofitsresourcebaseandland.Weseeasocialstructureandpoliticalsystemweakenedandchangedbytheintroductionofradiationintothemostvaluedpossessionofall,Marshalleseland.Inspiteofthepainandproblemsresultingfromthetestingprogram,wecanalsoseetheincredibleresilienceandresistanceoftheMarshallese.TheMarshallesehaveprotestedthetestingprogramanditsconsequencestotheUnitedNationsandtheU.S.government.Muchtotheircredit,theMarshalleserefusetoacceptU.S.governmentexplanationsclaimingtheminimaleffectsofradiationexposure.TheMarshallesecontinuallyandactivelychallengeU.S.governmentpoliciesthatlimittheirinclusioninmuchneededmedicalandenvironmentalmonitoringprograms.FLAWSINTHEU.S.GOVERNMENT’SACCOUNTINGOFHISTORYBycomparingtheU.S.govemment’shistoryofthetestingprogramwithdocumentaryandethnographicevidencepointingtoadifferenthistory,thecracksintheimposedhistorybegintoemergeandgivewaytoanewnarrativeofthepast.TheU.S.govern-mentuseditspowertocontrolallinformationrelatingtothetestingprogramandtocarefullyconstructaverylimitedrangeofdamagesandinjuriesresultingfromthetest-ingprogram.Throughtheindependentworkofscientists,lawyers,journalists,anthro-pologists,andothers,RMIgovernmentleaderscannowrefutetheU.S.government’saccountingofevents.Thenewnarrativeofhistorydebunkslong-held,legallybindingassertionsbytheU.S.government.BelowarethreeexamplesamongmanyinstancesoffaultyU.S.governmentassertionsabouttheconsequencesofthetestingprogram.

COMPETINGNARRATIVESOFHISTORY151U.S.ASSERTION#1:THEEXPOSUREOFMARSHALLESEPOPULATIONSTORADIATIONFROMTHEBRAVOTESTWASTHERESULTOFANACCIDENTALWINDSHIFfGiventheextensivemeteorologicaldatafromprevioustestsandknowledgeabouttheunpredictablenatureofthetradewindsintheMarshallIslands,itwasnotan”accident”thatwindblewradioactivefalloutoverinhabitedislands.TheU.S.governmentsoonafterwardcon-ductedhumanradiationexperimentsonthesevulnerablepopulationswithouttheir-consentorknowledgeandfailedtotakeanyprecautionstominimizetheirinjuries.Furthermore,theU.S.governmenthadasaprecautionevacuatedresidentsfromatollsdownwindfromsmallertests,butfailedtoevacuatepeopleforwhatwasplannedtobethebiggestanddirtiesttestofalltime.ThoseonboardanavalshipanchoredoffthelagoonofRongelaponthemorningoftheBravotestknewthatnear-lethallevelsofradiationfellonRongelap,buttheypurposefullydecidednottoevacuatetheresidentswhentheshipdeparted.Ataminimum,theU.S.governmentgrosslyfailedinitsdutytoprotecttheresidentsofthetrusteeshipfromharm.IftheeventsonMarch1,1954,wereanaccident,whydidtheU.S.governmentfailtoconductaninvestigation?U.S.ASSERTION#2:THEU.S.GOVERNMENTPROVIDEDADEQUATEMEDICALCARETOTHEINJUREDPOPULATIONSAFTERTHEIREXPOSURETOBRAVOAlthoughtheU.S.governmentgavemedicalattentiontothepeoplefromRongelapandUtrikaftertheirexposuretoBravo’sfallout,itwasprimarilyinterestedinusingthesepopulationstofurtheritsownmedicalandscientificinterests.Forexample,theU.S.governmentdocu-mentedandphotographed(Figure4.1)theradiationbumsreceivedbythepeopleofRongelap,butdidnotofferthempainmedicationevenwhenthebumsreachedbelowtheskinandexposedthebonesinpeople’sfeet(IsaoEknilang,October31,2000).TheU.S.governmentdidnotaskthepeopleofRongelapandUtrikforper-missiontoincludetheminstudiesoftheirillnesseseventhoughtheirparticipationresultedinincreasedexposuretoradiationandfurtherharm.InthecaseoftheRongelapese,theWhiteHouseAdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperi-ments(1995)acknowledgedthatU.S.governmentresearchersinjectedMarshallesesubjectswithradiationorhadthemdrinkanirradiatedsubstance.ForboththeRongelapeseandtheUtrikese,theU.S.government’sdecisiontoreturnthepeopletotheircontaminatedhomelandscreatedanopportunitytostudythetransferofradiationfromtheenvironmenttohumanbeings.TheU.S.governmentalsoprematurelyresettledtheBikiniansontheirhomelands.Inallthesecases,theU.S.governmentsystematicallymeasuredcumulativelevelsofradioactivityintheenvironmentandinthebloodandurineofthepeople.Thebioaccumulativecontami-nationinthemarineaswellastheterrestrialecosystemthatislandersreliedonforfoodincreasedtheharmtheyexperiencedfromthetestingprogram.TheU.S.govern-mentmonitoredincreasedradiationburdens,butfailedtoreporttheincreasesuntilyearslater.Furthermore,failuretorestrictlocalconsumptionoffoodscontaininghighlevelsofradioactivityledtoincreasedradiationexposureforthecommunitieswhoreceivedgiftsoffood,asiscustomaryintheMarshallIslands.Medicalcareandmedicalstudiesarenotthesamething,particularlywhenthecaregiversarenotinterestedintreatingtheproblemsidentifiedbythepeople,suchasblistersintheirmouthscausedbyeatingcontaminatedfoodsorreproductiveabnormalities.

——————152CHAPTER11u.s.ASSERTION#3:THEONLYPEOPLEEXPOSED1DHARMFULLEVELSOFRADIATIONFROMBRAVOWERETHEPEOPLEWHORESIDEDONRONGELAPANDUTRIKONMARCH11954InadditiontotheexternalexposurepeoplereceivedfromBravo’sfallouto~March11954,allt~o~ewhoresettledtheircontaminatedhomelandsreceivedinternalexpo~suretoradIatIOn.Moreover,thetestingprogramtosomedegreeexposedeveryoneresidingintheMarshallIslandstoradiation.DuringthetimesthattheU.s.govern-mentrelocatedthefouratollpopulationsofBikini,Rongelap,Utrik,andEnewetaktoalternativelocations,itcontinuedtestingweapons.FocusingonlyontheBravotestfailstoconsiderthecumulativeimpactandexposureofnumerousweaponstests.MorethanadozenoftheU.S.weaponstestsintheRMIsurpassedthesizeoftheHiroshimabomb.FocusingononeeventabsolvestheUnitedStatesofresponsibilityfortheothersixty-sixdetonations.TheU.S.governmentignoresthemedicalneedsofmanypopulationsexposedtodangerouslevelsofradiation.ExamplesofthesepopulationsincludetheMarshallesetest-siteworkers;thepeopleofAiluk,Likiep,Mejit,andWotje;thegenerationofMar-shallesebornoncontaminatedislands;thepeopleprematurelyresettledoncontaminatedislands;theoffspringofpeoplewithgeneticandchromosomalabnormalitiesresultingfromtheirexposuretoradiation;andthesubjectsofhumanradiationexperiments.ANEWNARRATIVEOFHISTORYHistoricalandethnographicdatademonstratethattheU.S.governmentignoredorcoveredupanarrayofknowledgecriticaltothehistoryoftheMarshallIslands’intersectionswiththeColdWar.Thiserasedandcovered-upknowledgeincludesbothU.S.governmentknowledgerecordedinwrittendocumentsandethnographicdatadetailingthelivedexperienceswithradiationoftheMarshallesepeople.ThelocationofthiserasedknowledgehighlightstheflawsintheU.S.government’srepresentationofthehistoryoftheU.S.weaponstestingprogram.TheU.S.government’sconstructionofhistoryfailstoincludecriticalaspectsofacompletehistory.Asdiscussedabove,theU.S.governmentdoesnotincludemultipleexposedpopulationsinitsdefinitionofexposedpeople.Additionally,theU.S.govern-ment’sversionofhistorydoesnotacknowledgehumanenvironmentalrightsabusessuchasallowingpopulationstoresettleandremainoncontaminatedislandsdespitethefactthatresearchersknewitwouldcauseincreasedradiationburdens.Furthermore,theU.S.governmentdoesnotacknowledgetheproblemscausedbyexileandlandlossandthewaystheseaffectwomen,men,youth,theelderly,andtheentiresocialstructureofthecornmunities.Womenhaveexperiencedlossofpowerassociatedwithlandrightsandhavesufferedreproductiveabnormalities.Menhavelosttheabilitytoprovidefortheirfamilies.Theyouthhavenotdevelopedunderstandingoforconnectiontotheirfuturelandholdings.Theelderlyhavelostcustomaryrespectaccompanyingknowledgeabouttheenvironment,aswellasthedignitytodieandbelaidtorestontheirownland.Duetothechangeinsocialstructure,thechiefhaslosttheabilitytoexerciseauthority,accumulateresources,anddispersefoodtoneedypeoplebecauselandandresourcesnowlaydormant.ItisclearthattheofficialU.S.governmentaccountingofeventsespousedintheCompactofFreeAssociationandthe177Agreementisincompleteanderroneous.

COMPETINGNARRATNESOFHISTORY153TheRMIgovernmentisactivelyreplacingthecolonialversionofhistorythatignorestheneedsandexperiencesofthepeoplewithanewhistorythatincludesthevoicesofalltheradiationpopulationsintheMarshallIslands,includingthosethattheU.S.gov-ernmenterasedfromrecognition.ProvidingacompletehistoryoftheeventsintheMarshallIslandswouldtakeyearsofresearchundertakenjointlybyalltheradiationcommunitiesintheRMI.Evenso,anewnarrativeofthehistoryofthetestingprogramisemerging-ahistorythatincludesamuchbroaderaccountingofthedamagesandinjuriescausedbythetestingprogramtoalloftheaffectedpopulationsintheRMI.ThecollisionofthehistoriesoftheU.S.governmentandtheMarshallIslandsresultedinalargestrategicgainfortheUnitedStatesandextensivedamage,injury,anddeathfortheMarshallesepeopleandtheirland.Thepowerfulnationgainedunquan-tifiablemilitaryadvantageandsecureditssuperpowerstatusintheColdWar.Therela-tivelypowerlessnationwasleftwithsevere,long-termhealthandenvironmentalcatastrophes;displacementofentirecommunities;andpsychological,social,cultural,political,andeconomicproblems.TheU.S.governmentasserteditsmilitaryobjectivesontheMarshallIslands,andtheMarshallesepaidforthiswiththeirlivesandlivelihoods.Byacknowledgingamorecompletehistoryofthetestingprogram,theU.S.andRMIgovernmentscanrecognizethefullscaleofinjustices,injuries,anddamagesexperiencedbytheMarshallese.TheRMIandU.S.governmentsmustworktogethertojointlyaddresstheseproblems.Congressmustupdateitspoliciestoreflecttheevo-lutionofscienceandourcollectiveunderstandingthateventhesmallestamountsofradiationcausedamage.AddressingtheissuespresentedintheRMIgovernment’sChangedCircumstancespetitiontoCongressprovidesanimmediatevehicletoembracethenewnarrativeofthehistoryofthetestingprogram.TwocompetingconstructionsofhistorystillpresentachallengetotheRMIgovernment.Electedofficialswhoconstantlyfacereelectiontendtopursuetheinter-estsoftheirconstituents.FacingU.S.responsibilitiesintheMarshallIslandsisnotapriorityforanyconstituentgroupintheUnitedStates.BecausetheMarshallIslandsisatinycountry,atleastinoveralllandmass,withfewresources,littleornopowerininternationalpolitics,andnovoiceintheU.S.Congress,chancesareslimthattheU.S.CongresswillspendthetimeandmoneyrequiredtoinvestigatetheU.S.government’slingeringresponsibilitiesandfundanyawardsmadeundertheChangedCircum-stancespetition.WiththeexceptionofafewchampionsfromthePacificregion-mostnotably,congressionalrepresentativesfromHawai’i,Guam,andAmericanSamoa-fewmembersofCongresstakethetimetolearnaboutissuesintheRMIevenwhenthebilateralrelationshipbetweentheMarshallIslandsandtheUnitedStatesfallsunderthejurisdictionoftheircommittees.LOOKINGTOWARDTHEFUTURETheMarshallesehavebecomeactivelyengagedinchallengingtheU.S.govern-ment’sversionofhistory,inredefininghistorytoincludetheirownexperiences,andinpressuringtheU.S.governmenttochangeitspoliciesandtakefullresponsibil-ityfortheconsequencesofthetestingprogram.TheMarshallesearenotvictims;theyaresurvivors.Wethinkofvictimsasweakorparalyzedbytheirsituationandunable

154CHAPTER11tocareforthemselves.Asurvivor,ontheotherhand,isonewhoendures,onewiththeinnerfortitudetosurviveandflourishdespiteobstaclestheymustovercome.Withindependentresearchandstrongleadership,theMarshallesefeelempow-eredtodemandjusticefortheirnationanditspeople.CallsforjusticecomefrommanysurvivorswhofeelangryandresentfultowardtheU.S.governmentforitsexploitationoftheMarshallesepeople.ForrealandmeaningfulhealingtotakeplaceintheMarshallIslands,theU.S.governmentmustacknowledgethefullextentoftheinjuriesanddamagesandtakefullresponsibilityfortheproblemsitcaused.Appliedanthropologistscancontinuetoplayaroleinassistingtheradiationsur-vivorsintheMarshallIslandsandinthecommunitieswheretheymigrateintheUnitedStatesandelsewhere.Bydocumentingtheexperiencesoftheradiationpopu-lationsthroughethnographicinvestigation,itispossibletocaptureandamplifyapor-tionofthevoicesoftheundocumentedradiationpopulations.Whilenotattemptingtospeakonbehalfoftheradiationpopulations,theethnographicevidencesupportsadifferentnarrativethanthehistoryperpetuatedbytheU.S.government.Inthiscase,ethnographicinformationservesasananthropologicaltoolforvalidatingtheexis-tenceofradiationpopulationsintheMarshallIslandswithneedsoutsidethenarrowparametersofinjuryanddamagescurrentlyaddressedbytheU.S.government.Anthropologistsareuniquelyqualifiedbothtounderstandandarticulateproblemsfacingcommunitiesandtoassistpeopleinaddressingthoseproblems,particularlyinthepolicyrealm.Policyisaprimaryvehicleforsocialchange;anthropologistscanpro-videvaluableassistancetocommunitiesbyshowingthemhowtoadvancetheirinter-eststhroughchangesinpolicy.Anthropologistsconsiderhowglobalinterestsaffectthespecificcommunitieswheretheywork.GiventheuniquehistoryoftheRMIandtheabusiveresearchthattookplaceinthepast,allanthropologistsandresearchersworkingwiththeMarshalleseneedtoemploythebestmethodsandmostrigorousethicalstandards.Itisessentialtoincludeaffectedpartiesineveryphaseofourwork,fromdesign-ingaresearchapproachtogatheringandanalyzinginformation.Wemusthumbleourselveswhenweareoutsidersinthecommunitieswherewework.Ifwearewel-comeandwecancontributepositively,thenourdisciplinehasgreatpotentialtofur-therbuildthecapacityofcommunitiesactivelyseekingtoimprovetheirqualityoflife.Anthropologyshowsusthatwehaveacommonhumanityandecosystem;thedeleteriousimpactsofnuclearweaponsarenotjustissuesforthepeoplewholiveeachdaywithfirsthandexperienceofthedevastatingimpactsoftheseweapons.IaminaweoftheMarshallese,apeoplewhoseresilience,adaptation,hope,and,yes,enjoymentoflifeinspireme.IhavedonemybesttoassisttheMarshalleseovertheyears,butitisIwhohasbenefitedthemost.IamabetterpersonbecausetheRMIanditspeopleserendipitouslycameintomylife.Komemooltata.

12/TheFailureofReconciliationandtheMobilityofStructuralViolenceTheu.s.CongressprovidedtheMarshallesewithalegalmechanismtoadvancetheirclaimsforadditionalassistanceintheChangedCircumstancespetitionprovisionoftheCompactofFreeAssociation.Onceagain,theMarshallesearestrongadvocatesfortheinterestsandneedsoftheirpeople.StartingwiththeirpetitiontotheUnitedNationsduringtheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramandcontinuingthroughtheirChangedCircumstancepetitionsubmittedtotheU.S.governmentinSeptember2000,theMarshallesehavedocumentedtherangeofhealth,environmental,andsocialneedslinkedtothetestingprogram.BravofortheMarshalleseforbeingsuchextraordinaryandtirelessadvocatesfortheirinterestsandformakingsustainedeffortstoholdtheU.S.governmentaccountablefortheconsequencesofitsactions.Figure12.1FormerPresidentKessaiNote.155

-156CHAPTER12RONGELAPULTIMATUMInthecaseofRongelap,theU.S.governmentnowwantsthecommunitytoreturntotheplacethecommunityleftin1985becauseofthehealthproblemsexperiencedwhilelivingoncontaminatedlands.AlargeportionofthecommunityhasbeenlivingontheislandofMejatto,Kwajalein,formorethantwentyyears.TheU.S.governmentwantstheRongelapesetoreturntoaportionofRongelap,themainislandoftheRongelapAtoll,byOctoberI,2011.Itmaintainsthatmillionsofdollarsincleanupandrehabilitationefforts,includingremovingthetopfifteeninchesoftopsoilandtreat-ingthelandwithpotassiumtoblockcesiumuptakebyplants,haverenderedRongelapsafeforhabitation.NowtheRongelapesemustreturntotheirhomeislandsbytheabovedateorrisklosingU.S.governmentfinancialsupportforcriticalfoodprogramsaswellasthedevelopmentandmaintenanceoftheislandofMejatto(Anjain-Maddison2011).InresponsetothisU.S.ultimatum,LemeyoAbon,whoexperiencedtheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingerafirsthand,said:”Idon’twanttoreturntoRongelap.,.Iamafraid….Ifwegobackitwillbeourdeath-isittheUnitedStates’intentiontoeliminateus?”(quotedinJohnson2010).IsthisafairultimatumtogivetotheRongelapese?HowcantheRongelapesetrustU.S.governmentrepresentativesnowwhenpreviousU.S.governmentofficialstoldFigure12.2TheauthorandJohnAnjain,Jr.,attheRM1En:bassyinWashin.8.ton,D.C,afteracongressionalhearingabouttheRMl’sChangedCircumstancespetltwn.

.THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE157thecommunitymemberstheywere”safe,”yetallowedthemtobeexposedtoharmfullevelsofradiation?SinceradiationisaninvisiblethreatthattheRongelapesecannotsee,hear,smell,ortouch,theywillbecompletelyreliantonforeigntechnologyandexpertstodeterminewhethertheirlocalculturalpracticesexposethemtoharmfullevelsofradiation.WilltheRongelapeseseektoemigratetotheUnitedStatesinlargernumbersiftheydonotfeelsafeorcomfortablereturningtotheirhomeislands?Priortothetesting,theRongelapeselivedonandusedresourcesfromthreeatolls-Rongelap,Rongerik,andAilinginae-yetthecleanupofthreeatollsiscostprohibitive:Doesreturningthepopulationtoaportionofoneislandinathree-atollsystemfulfilltheU.S.government’scommitmenttothecommunity?IftheRongelapesereturn,willtheU.S.governmentcontinuetosupportcostlyrehabilitationeffortsonotherislands?Whatarethechallengesofsustainingasenseofcommunitywhenfamiliesandpeopledisagreeaboutreturningtotheirhomeislands-whenelderswanttogohometodieontheirlandandtheyoungergenerationexpressesfearaboutreproducingandlivinginanenvironmenttheydonottrust?ThemayorofRongelap,JohnAnjain,senthisnamesake,JohnAnjain,Jr.,totheUnitedStatesdecadesagosothathewouldnotbeexposedtoradiationlikehisbrother,Lekoj,whodiedofleukemia.JohnAnjain,Jr.,representstheburdensofthenextgeneration-agenerationgrowingupawayfromhome,oftendiscon-nectedfromculture,language,family,andcommunity.Dothebenefitsofleavingtheirhomesoutweightheconcernsandcostsofstaying?TheseareallquestionstheRongelapesecommunitymustconsiderasthedeadlineforreturnnears.STRUCTURALVIOLENCEStructuralviolenceisatermreferringtothewaysthatinstitutionsslowlykillpeo-plebyfailingtomeettheirbasicneeds.NooneintheU.S.governmentdeniesthatitstestingprogramreleasedtheequivalentof7,000HiroshimabombsintheMarshallIslands.NooneintheU.S.governmentdeniesthatthereisalinkbetweenradiationexposureandillness,suchascancer,orthatthereisoftenalatencyperiod,causingthesecancerstoemergemanyyearsafterexposure.Yet,in2011,nooncologistresidespermanentlyintheMarshallIslands.TheMarshallesehavenoaccesstochemotherapyanywhereintheirislandseveniftheycanaffordit.Thisisaclearexampleofstructuralviolence,asthefailingsofthehealthcaresys-temintheMarshallIslandsliterallyresultinhigherdeathratesforcommunitiesthathavebeenexposedtoradiation.Cancerisoftenadeathsentenceforthosewhocannotleavethecountrytopurchasethehealthcareneeded.TheviolenceofthetestingprogramdidnotendwhentheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogramendedin1958:thepersistenceofradiationandthelackofadequatehealthcareandenvironmentalcleanupmeanthatradiationcontinuestorenderviolenceagainstthebodies,lives,andcultureoftheMarshallese.WhentheUnitedStatesandtheMarshallIslandsendedtheirtrusteeshiprelation-shipin1986,theU.S.governmentgrantedtheMarshallesetherighttocometotheUnitedStatestolive,work,andgotoschool.Astheydobackontheislands,theMarshalleseintheUnitedStatesmovearoundregularlyinsearchoftheresources

158CHAPTER12Figure12.3AMarshallesewomanwhoflewtoHawai’iforchemotherapy,alifesavingtreatmentshecouldnotreceiveintheMarshallIslands.theyneedtosustainthemselvesandtheirfamilies.OftentheymovetheirresidenceintheUnitedStatesseveraltimes,dependingontheavailabilityofjobsandpublicser-vicesindifferentstates.Eachstatehastheauthoritytodetermineeligibilityforstate-basedprograms,suchasfoodandhealthcareprogramsforlow-incomepopulations.SincetheyarenotAmericancitizens,theMarshallesecannotaccessmostpublicassistance,yettheyoftenarriveintheUnitedStateswithinadequateeducationtopre-parethemforworkandwithavarietyofhealthcarechallenges.Manyofthesehealthcareproblemsareexpensive,asarekidneydisease(particularlywhenitrequiresdialysis)andcancer.OtherhealthcareissuespresentpublichealthproblemsintheAmericancommunitieswheretheMarshallesereside,suchasillnessesresultingfrominadequateeconomicandinstitutionalresourcesintheMarshallIslands.Com-municablediseases,suchastuberculosisandleprosy,oftenariseinconditionsofpov-ertyandhavethepotentialtospreadbeyondtheresettledcommunity.Micronesiansarenottheproblem;rather,itisinequalityandafailuretomeetthebasicneedsofpeopletoopoortopurchasewhateverisrequiredtomeetthoseneedsthemselves.MOUNTINGTENSIONApproximately20,000MarshallesenowliveintheUnitedStates,predominantlyinHawai’i.AnotherlargecommunityexistsinSpringdale,Arkansas,whereitgrewinresponsetotheavailabilityofunskilledjobsattheTysonchickenfactory.Jobsinslaughterhousespaylittleandaresodangerousthatitisoftenonlyimmigrants,with

THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE159.fewornootheroptions,whowilltakethesepositions(StullandBroadway2(04).SignificantMarshallesepopulationsalsoliveinOregon,Washington,Oklahoma,andCalifornia,includingasizableRongelapesepopulationinSacramento.InternetblogsfrequentedbytheMarshalleselivingintheUnitedStatesindicatethattheyappeartoliveineverystate,includingAlaskaandMaine.DuringthecurrentperiodofeconomicinstabilityintheUnitedStates,fundingshortagesexistineverysocialsector,particularlyinhealthcareandeducation.MostAmericansdonotunderstandthereasonswhytheyhaveMarshalleseneighborsorwhyMarshallesestudentsoccupyseatsintheirchildren’sschools.ResidentsofthesecommunitiesexpressagrowingresentmentagainsttheMarshallese,whomtheyviewasdrainsonscarcepublicresources.Between1997and2003,thenumberofMarshal-lesemovingtoHawai’iincreasedby20%(Graham2(08).Micronesians,includingtheMarshallese,representonly1percentofHawai’i’spopulation,butconstitute20%oftheresidentsinhomelessshelters(HooverandNakaso2007);49.6%oftheMarshalleseresidinginHawai’ilivebelowthepovertylevel(U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior2003).TheMarshalleseentertheUnitedStatesaslegalresidents,butstructuralviolenceevidentintheislandsmigrateswiththem;theyoftencannotgainaccesstothehealthcaretheyneedbecauseoftheirlow-incomeorimmigrantstatus.Forstatisticalpur-poses,theU.S.governmentandlocalentitieslumpallMicronesianstogether.AllcitizensoftheFreelyAssociatedStates(FAS)havetherighttomigratetotheUnitedStates,buttheU.S.governmenthasaspecialobligationtotheMarshalleseimpactedbythetestingprogram.MostofthetensionsrevolvingaroundMicronesianmigrationfailtodistinguishbetweentheMarshallesewithradiation-relatedillnessesandotherMicro-nesianimmigrants.AnthropologistJulieWalshKroekerpointsoutthat”itismislead-ingtoassumethatCOFA[CompactofFreeAssociation]peoplesshouldbetolerated,ifnotwelcomedinHawaii,becauseof’thetragichistoryofnuclearweaponstesting'”(“MediaSaidtoFuelMicronesianStereotypes”2011).TheMarshallesecometotheUnitedStatesforavarietyofreasons,including,butnotlimitedto,healthcareforradiation-relatedillnesses.Beforepublicationofthefirsteditionofthisbook,IinterviewedseveralRongelapesewholiveinHawai’i;theyindi-catedthattheyseekoutmedicineandtreatmentintheUnitedStatesthattheycannotreceiveathome(AlmiraMatayoshi,June13,2001).Oneoftheseinterviewees,Ms.AlmiraMatayoshi,hassincediedofcancer.TheMarshallesewithvalidhealthcareneedslinkedtothetestingrepresentonlyasmallportionoftheFAScitizenscom-ingtotheUnitedStates,yetthissubpopulationfacesthesamemountingstereotypesasotherMicronesians.TensionsinHawai’imountedin2010whenthegovernorofHawai’iremovedMicronesiansfromthestateMedicaidprogramdespitethefederalgovernment’sinclu-sionofFAScitizensintheseprograms.Citingbudgetconstraints,underGovernorLindaLingle,theStateofHawai’iswitchedtheMicronesianstoaprogramcalled”BasicHealthHawaii.”SeijiYamada,M.D.,M.P.H.,attheJohnBumsSchoolofMed-icineattheUniversityofHawai’i,pointedoutthatthismovewasdiscriminatorybecausetheBasicHealthprogramis”severelyinadequate”(Yamada2011).Forexam-ple,manyMicronesiandialysispatientswereputatriskwhentheycouldnotreceive

160CHAPTER12treatment(Sullivan2011).Micronesiansdecidedtochallengetheruling.ParamountchiefsfromtheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI)donated$25,000toassistwithcourtfees,andMicronesianplaintiffssecuredprobonoattorneys(Severance2011).InDecember2010,U.S.DistrictCourtJudgeMichaelSeabrightoverturnedtheStateofHawai’i’sdecisionandreinstatedMicronesiansintheMedicaidprogram.Theadminis-trationofnewGovernorNealAbercrombierecentlychallengedJudgeSeabright’srul-ing;theissueofMicronesianeligibilityisstillmovingthroughthecourtsystem.OnMay12,2011,ninemembersoftheU.S.Congress,includingrepresenta-tivesfromHawai’i,Arkansas,Alaska,Guam,andNewMexico,wrotealettertotheU.S.secretaryofstateandsecretaryoftheinteriorregardingtheeconomicimpactofMicronesianmigration.TheletteraskstheU.S.governmenttoworkwiththeFASgovernmentstoidentifyandreducethemigrationofpeoplelikelytobecomereliantonpublicservicesintheUnitedStates:…itappearsthatthesinglegreatest[C]ompactimpactcostisforservicestothosewhoneedlong-termmedicaltreatmentforconditionssuchasdiabetes…[W]ebelievethatconsiderationneedstobegiventoreducingthenumberofmigrantswhoarelikelytobecomeapubliccharge….Accordingly,werequest…screeningmeasuresthatcouldbeimplementedbytheFASgovernmentstoreducetherateofmigrationofpersonswhoarelikelytodevelopanover-relianceonsocialservices.(Murkowskietal.2011)Theletterdistinguishesbetweenthebodiesofthehealthycontributorstosocietyandthebodiesofthosewhodrainpublicresources.TheMarshallesewhocansuc-ceedinAmericanschoolsand/orcontributetotheU.S.economyarewelcometoentertheUnitedStates.TheMarshallesewhosebodiesbeartheconsequencesofcolonialism,poverty,andstructuralviolenceareunwantedeveniftheUnitedStatesplayedacriticalroleincontributingtotheirpoorhealth.Again,thepolicieslumpallMicronesianstogetherandfailtonotethehealthissuesrelatedtothetestingprogram.AsaconsultantactiveindraftingtheRMI’sChangedCircumstancespeti-tion,NealPalafox,M.D.,M.P.H.,notedthatdiabetes,thespecificillnesscitedinthelettertothesecretariesofstateandtheinterior,isasecondaryconsequenceofthetestingprogram(RepublicoftheMarshallIslands2000).Communitiesrelo-catedbythetestingprogramorunabletogrowlocalfoodsintheircontaminatedenvironmentsmustrelyonimportedfoods,oftenhighinsaltandfat.MIXEDMESSAGESTheMarshallesereceivemixedmessagesfromtheU.S.governmentandthecom-munitieswheretheyreside.Whenitcomestoaccessinghealthcareandbasicresources,theMarshalleseexperiencediscrimination:Withinhealthcare,discriminationtakestheformofinferiorcareordenialofservices.Micronesiansoftencomplainofimpersonal,brusquetreatment.Healthcenterphysiciansattemptingtoreferpatientstohospitalsaretold,”Wedon’ttakepatientsfromyourclinic.”FrontdeskstaffhavebeenoverheardsayingthatMicronesiansaregivenundesirableappointmenttimesbecause”they’renotgoingtokeepitanyway.”Amedicalstudentnotesthatmanyopinethat”everybodyissickofcaringforandwastingtheirtaxesonthesepeople

THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE161thathavenoappreciationforwhatisbeingdoneforthem,andfaketheirillnessestostayinthehospitalforfreefoodandboard.”Thestudentwaseventoldbyanattendingphysician,”Weshouldajustwipedtheislandsofftheearthwhenwehadthechance.”(Yamada2011)MicronesiansstudentsofJulieWalshKroekerattheUniversityofHawai’iscrutinizedmediacoverageoftheMarshalleseandfoundthatjournalistsoftenportrayemigrantsfromtheFASas”leeches”(“MediaSaidtoFuelMicronesianStereotypes”2011).InthecaseofstockingtheranksoftheU.S.military,Micronesiansreceivewel-comingmessagesfromtheU.S.governmentandU.S.citizens.DuringtheColdWar,theU.S.governmentneededtheMarshalleseandtheirlandtohelpsecureU.S.militarypower.ThebodiesoftheMarshallesecontinuetobeU.S.militarycommodities.DespitebeingunwantedimmigrantsintheUnitedStates,theMarshallesearerecruitedandencouragedtoweartheU.S.militaryuniform.TheycurrentlyserveineverybranchoftheAmericanarmedforcesandarepresentlydeployedinIraqandAfghanistan.WhenU.S.PresidentBarakObamadeliveredhiskeynoteaddresstograduatingcadetsattheU.S.CoastGuardAcademyinMay2011,hehighlightedthefirstMarshallesetograduatefromthatinstitution(YokweOnline2011).AtthehighestleveloftheU.S.government,officialsexpressappreciationfortheMarshallesebodiesthatwearaU.S.militaryuniform.WhydoestheUnitedStateswelcometheMarshalleseintotheranksofitsmilitary,buttreatthemas”leeches”whentheyseekabetterqualityoflifeinourcommunities?MuchofthetensionconnectedtoMarshallesemigrationresultsfromalackofunder-standingabouttheroleofAmericancolonialismincontributingtothestructuralvio-lence,environmentalcontamination,anddiminishededucationalandemploymentopportunitiesintheislands.MostAmericansdonotknowaboutorunderstandtheuniquehistoryofthebilateralrelationshipbetweentheMarshallIslandsandtheUnitedStatesthatgrantedtheMarshalleseimmigrationrights.Thislackofhistoricalknowledgeisapparentinpublicreactions,suchasthisblogpostaboutMicronesiansinHawai’i:[T]heyreproducelikerabbitsyethaveNOmeanstopayforthehealthcare,education,andproperupbringingoftheirchildren.TheycometoHawaiiknowingthattheycanleechoffourgeneroussystem-morekids??noproblem-MOREVOUCHERS.Freefood,shelter,healthcare,allwhileourlocalfamiliesarestruggling.(MicronesianSeminar,nodate)Insimilarfashion,journalistsatTheMorningNewsNWA(NorthwestArkansas)On-linereportedonFebruary7,2008:UTILEROCK-ThepeopleoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslandsareamongtheunhealthiestpeopleintheworld.Anestimated6,000-8,000MarshalleseimmigrantsliveinSpringdale,AR…DeputyStateHealthOfficer…testifiedthatbetween2000and2005,NorthwestArkansashadninecasesofcongenitalsyphilis,sixofwhichinvolvedMarshallese;38peoplewithinfectioussyphilis,21ofwhomwereMarshallese;andninecasesofleprosy,allMarshallese…Sen.BillPritchard,R-Elkins,saidtheriskofanoutbreakofseriousdiseaseishighanddescribedthesituationasa”timebomb.”Ironically,thejournalistusedthemetaphorofabomb-inthiscase,atimebomb-todiscussthehealthimpacttheMarshallesehaveontheUnitedStates.AbsentisanydiscussionofthehealthconsequencesofU.S.colonialismintheislands.Thistypeof

162CHAPTER12Figure12.4Winthaloran,servingwiththeWashingtonStateNationalGuardinIraq.coverageobviouslyelicitssensationalresponsesfromthepublic,asisevidentinthebn-lineresponses.Publicreactionsdemonstrateignoranceaboutthehistoryoftherela-tionshipandportraytheMarshalleseasdisease-riddenthreatstotheUnitedStates:WhyarewelettingallthesepeopleintotheU.S.?Dowewanttobeathirdworldcoun-try,too?Unbelievable!Howdid6000to8000MARSHALLISLANDpeoplegetto’SPRINGDALEARKANSAS??????WTF????HowbigcanSpringdalebetohavethi~manyforeignersfromONEPLACE??WHOOK’dTHIS??LEPROSY???OMG!APPLIEDAND.PUBLICANTHROPOLOGY,Fordecades,appliedanthropologistshavebeenputtingtheirresearchandmethodstousetofostersocialchange.Withitsattentiontoholismandcomplexity,coupledwithrigorous,long-termfieldwork,anthropologyhasthepotentialtocreateunderstandingsaboutcriticalsocialissuesofourtimes.Asresearchersandglobalcitizens,however,anthropologistsmustdomorethanobtainknowledge.Asubsetofanthropologists,calledpublicanthropologists,focusesonthewaysourdisciplinecaninfluencepublicpolicyandshapepublicdebates(hencethenamepublicanthropology).~—.~._~–“….~

THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE163Anthropologyisonevehicleforsocialchangebecause,asadiscipline,itcanhelpusunderstandthecomplexitiesofAmericancolonialismandtheimpactsofnuclearweaponstestingthatpersistforgenerationsbecauseofchangestomigration~dhealthcare,aswellaseconomicandeducationalopportunities.PublicanthropolOgiStsseekopportunitiestoexplainhowtheirinsights,derivedfromresearchandtheory,impactpublicpolicy.InthecaseoftensionssurroundingMarshalleseimmigrationtotheUnitedStates,anthropologycanhelpAmericancitizensunderstandwhytheMarshallesecometotheUnitedStatesandtheroleoftheUnitedStatesincontribut-ingtothesemigrationpatterns.Hereisanexampleofpublicanthropology.IwrotethisarticletohelpU.S.citizensandlawmakersunderstandwhyMarshallesepeopleareinWashingtonStateandwhytheyneedcontinuedaccesstovitalstate-providedfoodsupportprograms.ItappearedinTheNewsTribuneshortlyaftertheearthquakeandnuclearpowerplantdisasterinFukushima,Japan:BUDGETARYCUTSTHREATENLIVESOFWASHINGTON’SHUNGRYANDSICKHollyM.BarkerMyheartgoesouttothepeopleinJapanreconstructingtheirlivesandcomingtotermswiththeradiologicalcontaminationthatwillthreatentheirwell-beingfordecadestocome.Iamremindedofanotherpopulationinourmidst,apopulationinWashingtonStatethathasfirst-handexperiencewiththewaysradiationexposureleadstodiminishedfoodsecurityandmigration:thepeopleoftheMarshallIslands.TheMarshallIslandsisaformertrustterritoryoftheUnitedStates.From1946-1958,atimewhenMarshalleseheldtheequivalentofU.S.passports,theU.S.governmentusedtheirislandstotesttheabilitiesofitsnewestweapon,thenuclearbomb.TheU.S.detonated67atmospherictests,theequivalentof1.6Hiroshimabombseverysingledayfor12years,tobetterunderstandtheimpactsofradiationonhumanbeingsandtheenvironment.BecauseoftheuniquerelationshipbetweentheU.S.andtheMarshallIslands,whenthetwonationsendedthetrusteeshiprelationshipin1986,theU.S.grantedMarshallesetherighttocometotheUnitedStatestolive,workandgotoschool.MarshallesecometotheU.S.foravarietyofreasons,includinghealthcareforradiation-relatedillnesses,sincetherearenooncologistsorchemotherapybackhome.Theyarelegalimmigrants-servingineverybranchoftheU.S.armedforcesandwear-ingAmericanuniformsinIraqandAfghanistan-buttheyarenotU.S.citizens.AndjustliketheirneighborshereintheStates,iftheyfallonhardtimes,avoidinghungerbecomesaconstantproblem.AWashingtonStateprogramthatprovidesvitalassistancetotheMarshalleseisStateFoodAssistance.WhenCongressdroppedlegalimmigrantsfromthefoodstamppro-gramin1997,itputthousandsofWashingtonfamiliesatgreaterriskofhunger.Gov.GaryLockeledanefforttosetuptheStateFoodAssistanceprogramtomaintainourpublicresponsibilitytoallofWashington’shungry.Thenandnow,SFAisrunontopofthefederalfoodstampsprogram,keepingadministrativecostslow.It’sthekindofflexibleservicethathelpsmakesurethatWashingtonStatefeedsitshungry.

164CHAPTER12Abo.ut1,000MarshalleseinWashingtonStaterelyonSFA.IffoodcutshappenalongsideproposedfederalcutstoMedicaid/Medicare,thiswillliterallycreatelife-and-deathscenarios.BerniceRalphowasborntheyearU.S.nuclearweaponstestingstartedintheMarshallIslandsandwasemployedbytheU.S.governmentforyearsasasecurityworkeratKwajaleinAtoll,aU.S.missile-testingrangeintheMarshallIslands.Althoughsheisaformerfederalemployee,sheisnoteligibleforSocialSecuritybecausesheisnotaU.S.citizen.ShecametotheU.S.toreceivemedicalassistancethatisn’tavailableintheMarshallIslands.BerniceisnowondialysisanddependsonboththefoodstampprogramandMedicaid!Medicaretoprovidehealthcare.”Iftheycutthesefoodandhealthcareprograms,Iwilldie,”shesays.FamiliesonestepawayfromaneconomicprecipicearecommoninWashingtonthesedays,ascutbackstostateandlocalserviceshitthemostvulnerable-thosealreadyjoblessorwhohaveuseduptheirTemporaryAssistanceforNeedyFamiliesbenefits–evenharder.OnemillionWashingtoniansareonfoodstamps.Morechildrenaregrowingupinpoverty.Butstatelegislatorsarecontemplatingcuttingatinyportionofthehunger-pronefamiliesoffofassistance:legalimmigrants,liketheMarshallese,andotherswithadocumentedreasonforcomingtotheU.S.AstheHouseandSenatewrangleoverbudgetarymattersinthecomingweeks,theyneedtounderstandhowimportantthisformofassistanceistodiversesectorsofourcommunity.IasktheLegislaturetopreserveStateFoodAssistance.Theletterpromptedseveralemailsandphonecallsfromorganizationsworkingtosecurevitalassistanceforlow-income,legalimmigrantsinWashingtonState.AsinHawai’i,eligibilityisstillunderdiscussion.Mymotivationforwritingtheletterwastoprovidepolicymakerswithanexampleoflegalnon-U.S.citizenseligibleforthefoodprogramandtoeducatereaderssotheymightdisplaycompassionandunderstandingiftheyencounterMarshallesepeopleintheircommunities.NUCLEARCLAIMSTRIBUNALForthreedecades,anthropologistCraigSeveranceworkedwithnumerousislanderstu-dents,includingMarshallesestudents,attheHilocampusoftheUniversityofHawai’i,wherehehelpedestablishacertificateprograminPacificIslands.SeveranceisanotherformerPeaceCorpsvolunteerwhoselifebecameintertwinedwithMicronesiansafterhisserviceinChuuk.SeveranceistroubledbyamisconceptionthatexistsinHawai’i:manypeoplebelievetheMarshallesereceivetrustfundsfromtheU.S.governmentwhetherornottheyhavemedicalailments.ThismisconceptionfuelstheresentmenttowardMarshalleseeffortstoaccesshealthcareinHawai’ibecausepeoplethinktheMarshallesehaveadequatefundstopurchasetheirownhealthcare(Severance2011).AlthoughitistruethatjudgesattheNuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT)inMajurohavemadebillionsofdollarsinawards,theU.S.CongresshasnotappropriatedadequatefundsfortheNCTtopayclaimantstheirawards.TheNCTbeganmakingawardstoclaimantsin1991.AsofMay2009,theNCThadlessthan$100,000intotalassetsand

,.ITHEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE165hadterminatedpaymentstoclaimantsduetoinsufficientfunds,leavingmorethan$2billioninunpaidclaims.Over50percentofMarshalleseclaimantswhoreceiveawardsforradiation-relatedillnessesdiewithoutreceivingfullcompensationfromtheNCT.Jor-takeEnni,forinstance,diedafterreceivingjusttwo-thirdsofher$12,500awardfromtheNCT.Whileamechanismexiststoprovidefundingformedicalconditionslinkedtoradiationexposure,claimantsreceiveonlymodestamountsofcompensation-andcertainlydonotbecomewealthyoreveneconomicallyself-reliant.Inadditiontotheclaimsformedicalconditions,theNCTcannotpayclaimsforlanddamagesandlossofuseacknowledgedbythejudges.FifteenatollsfiledclassactionclaimswiththeNCTforlanddamages,includingthefouratollsofEnewetak,Bikini,Utrik,andRongelap,aswellasAiluk,Likiep,Maloelap,Wotje,Mejit,Jaluit,Majuro,Wotho,Ailinglaplap,Lib,andLae.Thefirstfouratolls,whichweredesignatedas”exposed”toradiation,receivedsubstantialawardsfromtheNCTjudgesforthelossofanddamagetothemostvitalresourceintheMarshallIslands-theland.Thejudges’rulingsincludeacknowledgmentofthevaporizationofislandsandthehardshipspeo-plesufferedduetotheirinabilitytoaccesstheirland.TheNCTlumpedtheremainingelevenatollstogetherinoneclaimbecauseofsimilarwordingandissues.TheunpaidawardsforBikiniandEnewetakarepartRMI’sChangedCircum-stancespetitionbecausetheNCTissuedrulingsawarding$563milliontoBikiniand$244milliontoEnewetakbeforethesubmissionofthepetitionin2000.Sincethefirsteditionofthisbook,theNCThasissuedlandawardstoUtrikandRongelapaswell.TheUtrikcommunityfileditspetitionwiththeNCTinMarch1998andreceivedarulingandanawardeightyearslater,inDecember2006.Thelapseoftimereflectsthecomplexityoftheselegalcases,theneedtoconsultexpertsinmanyfields,andthedeathofNCTChairandJudge,OscardeBrum.InitsrulingontheUtriklandclaim,theTribunalhasdeterminedtheamountofcompensationduetotheclaimantsinthiscaseis$307,356,398.91.Thisincludes$257,060,898.91forthevalueofpastlossofuseofUtrikandTakaAtollsasaresultoftheircontaminationfromthenucleartestingprogram.Itfurtherincludes$5,000,000torestoreUtriktoasafecondition.Finally,itincludes$45,295,500.00fortheconsequentialdamagesresultingfromlivinginacon-taminatedenvironment.(NuclearClaimsTribunal2006)AnthropologistGlennAlcalayplayedavitalroleinarticulatingtheconsequentialdamagestheUtrikeseexperiencedfromlivinginacontaminatedenvironment.ItisinterestingtonotethattheNCT’sawardin2006includes$5milliontoattenuateradi-ationlevelstoasafelevel.AftertheBravoevent,theU.S.governmentevacuatedtheUtrikeseandbroughtthemtoKwajaleinforobservationandenrollmentinProject4.1.TwomonthslatertheU.S.governmentreturnedtheUtrikesetotheirhomeislandsandcontinuedtostudyhowtheirbodiesrespondedtotheradiationabsorptionfromtheenvironment.FromtwomonthsaftertheBravoeventuntilnow,theUnitedStateshasmaintainedthatUtrikhasbeensafeforhumanhabitation,yettheNCTassertedthatin2006thelandneededremediationtoattenuatetheradiationtosafelevels.TheseconflictingviewpointsmakeitexceedinglydifficultfortheRMIgovernmenttoobtainfundingfromtheU.S.governmenttohonortheawardsmadebytheNCT.

166CHAPTER12ANTHROPOLOGYANDTHERONGELAPLANDCLAIMThesecondlandawardissuedbytheNCTsincesubmissionoftheRMI’sChangedCircumstancespetitionisthatmadetoRongelap.Chapter5detailstheworkthatanthro-pologistBarbaraRoseJohnstonandIdidtodocumenttheconsequentialdamagesforthePublicAdvocateoftheNCT,WilliamGraham.IwasagraduatestudentwhenBarbaraandIbeganourworkin1999,andIwillalwaysbegratefulforhermentoring;sheshowedmehowtobeananthropologistandhowtoeffectivelycombinetheoryandaction.TheNCTmadeitsawardtoRongelapinApril2007.Thatawardwasthelargestofallthelandawards:$1billion,including$35millionfortheconsequentialdamagesdocumentedusinganthropologicalmethods.AlthoughtheNCTdoesnothavefundstopayfortheaward,theRongelapcommunitycelebratedtheverdictbecauseitrepresentedthefirstofficialrecognitionandvalidationoftheirversionofhistory.ThecommunityaskedBarbaraandmetopublishabooktosharethepeople’sknowledgewiththerestoftheworld.In2008,BarbaraandIcoauthoredConsequen-tialDamagesofNuclearWar:TheRongelapReport(LeftCoastPress).SeveralaspectsoftheRongelaplandclaimilluminatetheroleanthropologycanplayindocumentingandaddressinghumanenvironmentalrightsabuses.Althoughtherearetoomanytolist,Iprovideafewexamplestoillustratehowanthropologyinfluencedthejudges’finaldecisionontheRongelaplandclaim.NOTJUSTLAND,BUTALSOSEAWesternnotionsoflandappraisalscalculatetheamountoflandunderconsideration(squareacreage)andthehighestandbestuseofthatland(thegreatestamountofmoneyalandownercouldreceivefromuseofthatland,suchasfarmingorrental).BeforetheRongelapclaim,theNCTlimiteddiscus-sionstothepeople’suseoflandandterrestrialresources.Asananthropologistwithabackgroundinbiology,BarbarahadmanyideasabouthowwecouldexpandtheNCT’sunderstandingofthelossofahealthy,self-sufficientwayoflife-andspecifi-callybringmarineresourcesintoconsideration.Throughfocusgroups,individualinter-views,mappingexercises,andlinguisticanalysis,wedocumentedtheuseofmarineresourcesasvitaltothewell-beingoftheRongelapese.WeprovidedthePublicAdvo-catewiththelocalnamesforreefsandseamounts,indicatingtheimportancepeopleplacedonmakingregularvisitstothesemarineresourcelocations.Wehelpedexpandthejudges’notionof”land”toincludethelagoonandalsodocumentedhowtheRongelapesesometimessetupresidenceontheislandsofRongerikandAilinginaeAtollsanddependedonthemforvitalresources.Thejudgescalculated”land”lossanddamagesbyconsideringthesquareacreageofboththelandandtheseaareasfromathree-atollsystemthatsupportedthecommunity.HUMANRADIATIONEXPERIMENTATIONUsinginformationgatheredfromdeclassifiedU.S.governmentdocumentsandtheoraltestimoniesoftheRongelapese,BarbaraandIhelpedthePublicAdvocateconvincetheNCToftheneedofanewcategoryofcom-pensationforhumanradiationexperimentation.Intheirfinalruling,theNCTjudgesstated:”theTribunalbelievesthattheemotionaldistressresultingfromtheparticipationinthese[humanradiation]studiesandthemannerinwhichtheywerecarriedout,warrantscompensationandisacomponentoftheconsequentialdamages”(Nucleari

THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE167ClaimsTribunal2007).TheNCTagreedtoaward$12,500toeachpersonwhopartici-patedinoneoftheseexperimentsunknowinglyandwithoutgivingconsent.THEIMPORTANCEOFVOICEFromthebeginningofProject4.1anditsstudiesofhumanabsorptionofradiationfromtheenvironment,U.S.governmentresearchersdehumanizedtheRongelapesebyreferringtothembytheirassignedpatientnum-bersandbyfailingtoconsiderthefullscopeofradiationinjuriestheyexperienced.DocumentingthelandclaimsandpresentingevidenceatNCThearingsprovidedanopportunityfortheRongelapesetorehumanizetheirhistory.Thecommunitywantedtoputnamesonthedeadandonthelivingwhoweresuffering.InitsfinaldecisionregardingRongelap’slandclaim,thejudgesincludedlargesegmentsoftheoralhistorieswegatheredandanalyzedforthePublicAdvocate.Womencameforwardtoreporttheviolationofculturaltaboosandthemortificationtheyexperiencedeventhoughtheyfoundpublicdiscussionofthesetopicsextremelypainful.TheycouldnotremainsilentandallowtheU.S.governmenttogetawaywiththeseabuses.Thejudges’finaldecisionalsoincorporatesexcerptsfromthepublichearings,includingthefollowingpassagesfromwomenIinterviewedinthepresenceofthejudges.Thewomendiscussedthepublicindignitiestheyexpe-riencedaftertheU.S.governmentrelocatedtheRongelapesetoKwajalein:IreallycriedwhenwewereonKwajalein.Whenitwastimetodecontaminateus,theygaveusthemen’sunderwearthattheNavywore.Theunderwearwastoosmalltocoverus,anditwascompletelysee-throughwhenwegotwetfromthehosetheysprayeduswith.Thewaterfromthehosewasstrong,too![ThemaleRongelapesetranslator]…wastranslatingandassistingtheNavy,andsawallofusstandingtherenaked.Wehadtearspouringdownourfacesbecausewecouldn’tbelievethatourcustomwasbeingviolatedsobadly.[Themaletranslator]…wasrelatedtosomanyofthewomen,anditwaslikeourculturewasbeingrippedapart.(NuclearClaimsTribunal2007)Atthepublichearing,thespeakerofthepreviousexcerptsatwithanotherwomanelder.Thetwowomenstrengthenedeachotherastheytearfullygavewit-nesstotheabusesofthepast.Althoughtheirnamesareapartofthepublicrecord,Idonotusethemherebecauseofthehighlysensitivecontentandthepossibilitythattheirmalerelativesmightreadthisbook.Thewomanaccompanyingtheprecedingspeaker,ahighlyrespectedelderwhohassincepassedaway,alsosharedherexperiencesandthoughtsabouttheshame-fultreatmentshereceived:Infrontof[themaleRongelapesetranslators]…,threetimesadayforthreemonths,theRongelapesewomenweretoldtoundressandstandnakedatthelagoon’sedge.Thewomenwouldcryfromembarrassmentandtrytocovertheirgenitalswiththeirhands.U.S.Governmentofficials,allmen,ranGeigercountersupanddownthebodiesofthenakedwomenbothbeforeandaftertheybathedinthelagoon.Frequently,theGeigercounterswouldstartclickingwildlywhentakingreadingsfromthehaironthewomen’sheadsandfromtheirpubichair.TheU.S.Governmentworkerswouldtellthewomentosoaptheirpubichairagain,infrontofeveryone,beforeasecondreading.[Themaletranslators]…triedtoaverttheireyeswheneverpossiblebuttheirpresencebytheirnakedmothersandsisterswasmortifying.(NuclearClaimsTribunal2007)

168CHAPTER12InclusionoftheinterviewsinthefinaldecisionbyNeTjudgesshowshowthemethodsofanthropologyamplifiedthevoicesofclaimantsindeterminingtheout-comeoftheproceedings.Inthiscase,anthropologyplayedanimportantrolei~reclaimingandrehumanizingthehistoryofRongelap,includingthemostpersonalandpainfulconsequencesexperiencedbythecommunity.CLIMATECHANGEANDSEA-LEVELRISEAnotherenvironmentalcatastrophefacingtheMarshallIslandsisclimatechange.ForthecurrentgenerationoftheMarshallese,thechallengesofthenucleareramaybeeclipsedbyglobalclimatechange,whichnowposesaseverethreattothesover-eigntyandtherightsoftheMarshallesetooccupytheirlands(Barker2011b).Asoccurredinthecaseofnucleartesting,theprioritiesofpowerfuloutsidersresultinacompromisedqualityoflifeforislanders.AccordingtotheUnitedNations,forty-sevensmallislandnationsintheworldcollectivelycontribute0.03percentoftheworld’scarbonemissions.Incomparison,theUnitedStates,whichrepresentsFigure12.5MarshallesepartiCipatinginaStep-It-UpclimatechangerallyinSeattle.’~•’~..—.”‘,-,1I,;~'”»=a:I:@”{-j:

THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE1694percentoftheworld’spopulation,producesapproximately25percentofthecarbonemissions.Ironically,smallislandnationsthatcontributeverylittletotheproblemofclimatechangearethemostvulnerabletoitseffects;sea-levelrisecausedbythemeltingofpolariceandtheheat-inducedexpansionofoceanwaternowthreatentosubmergemanyoftheseislandsandrenderthemuninhabitable.InthediscourseintheUnitedStates,fueledbyourmedia,islandsareoftenreferredtoassinking,asinthisheadlinefromCNN:”Sinkingisland’snationalsseeknewhome”(CNN,November11,2008).Talkingabouttheislandsassinkingratherthantheseasasrisingtransferstheassignmentofcausationandresponsibil-ityfortheimpactsofclimatechangefromthepolluterstotheislands(Miller2011).AtollssuchasthoseintheMarshallIslandsaresubmergedvolcanoes-theycannot”sink.”Unconsciously,islandersthemselvesbegintoreplicatethewesterndis-course.ThepresidentofNauru,StephenMarcus,wroteanop-edaboutclimatechangepublishedinTheNewYorkTimesonJuly18,2011;itwasentitled”OnNauru-ASinkingFeeling”(Marcus2011).Anotherop-edappearinginTheNewYorkTimesonthesamedayasMarcus’piece(Rayfuse2011)mentionedtheMarshallIslandsbynameinitsdiscussionofsea-levelriseandincludedadisturbinggraphic(seebelow).Theimage(byWesleyBedrosian)perpetuatesthe.*..~.’…”‘

170CHAPTER12misconceptionthattheislandsaresinkingandshowsahelplessbystander,awest-erner,whocandonothingmorethanplacehishandsonhisheadwhiletheislandsinksliketheTitanic.Thisgraphicformofdiscoursecontinuesapatterninwhichwesternnationssimultaneouslysidestepresponsibilityforenvironmentalissuesanddonothingwhiletheislandsexperiencelife-alteringenvironmentalcrises.Wedonothavetheluxuryofthinkingaboutnuclearcontaminationorclimatechangeasaproblemforoneparticularcommunityornation.Ourglobalenvironment,economy,andlivesareinterconnected.Residualradiationcontamination,andthehealthandenvironmentaleffectsitproduces,bringsunwantedimmigrantsandexpensiveillnessestoourshoresintheUnitedStates.Sea-levelrisemaymaketheMarshallIslandsuninhabitableinthenextfiftyyears(M.Stege2008).Climatechangerefugeeswillneednotonlyaplacetolive,butalsoaccesstobasicservicesandopportunities-achallengeforallofus,notjusttheMarshallese.IfU.S.citizensareincreasinglyintolerantofMicronesians,howwilltheyrespondtotherelocationneedsofotherU.S.-affiliatedareas,suchasPuertoRico,Guam,orAmericanSamoa,ifthoseislandsbecomeuninhabitablebecauseofclimatechange?AsdiscussedinChapter3,theU.S.government”cleanedup”EnewetakAtollbycreatingatemporarynuclearstoragefacilityonRunitIsland.TheDefenseNuclearAgencyconstructedtheRunitDometopreventlargeamountsofplutoniumandotherradionuclidesfromenteringtheecosystemandfoodchain.PlutoniumisaradionuclideFigure12.6RunitDomeonEnewetakAtoll.

/I/THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE171/withahalf-lifeof24,000years,meaningthatin24,000yearsfromnowtheplutoniumwillbehalfasradioactiveasitistoday,anditwilltakeanadditional24,000yearsbeyondthattocutinhalfagainthedegreeofradioactivity.Radiationisanenergyformthatonlystopswhentheenergydissipates.Onlytimecanremoveradioactivity.PlutoniumremainsinhighquantitiesonEnewetak,anditisparticularlylethalwhenitissuspendedintheairandlivingcreaturesbreatheitintotheirlungs.Aspeckofplutonium-anamountinvisibletothenakedeye–cancauselungcancerifitisinhaled.AsthephotooftheRunitDomeillustrates,theplutoniumstoragefacilitysitsonlyafewfeetfromthePacificOcean.TheMarshallesedonothavethehumanorfinan-cialresourcestomonitortheintegrityofthisstructureortopreventitfromsuccumb-ingtotherisingseas.IfthatplutoniumfallsintothePacificOcean,itisnotjustaproblemfortheMarshallese-itisaproblemforglobaltunafishinginthenorthwest-ernPacificandfortheWestCoastoftheUnitedStates,whichbordersthePacificOcean.RadioactivewastefromthetestingprogramthatremainsinsecureintheMarshallIslandsmakesallofourlivesandourenvironmentinsecureaswell.Thechallengeforanthropologyandforallofus,asglobalcitizens,istodemonstrateourinterconnectivity.Policymakersandaveragecitizensneedtounderstandthatthechallengesofradiationexposureandclimatechangearenotjustburdensforpeopleinfarawayplaces,butalsoexperiencesthatdiminishthequalityoflifeforallofus.MyhomeinSeattleisnotvulnerabletotheeffectsofsea-levelrise,butenvironmen-talrefugeescomingtomycommunityimpactpublicservicesforall.F.igure12.7UniversityofWashingtonstudentsmeetingwithaMarshallesecommunityout-SIdeofSeattle.LatertheyoungmanwiththeyellowleimovedtotheMarshallIslandstobecomeateacher.

172CHAPTER12CONCLUSIONTheMarshallesearestrongpoliticaladvocateswhoregularlyvoicetheirneedstotheU.S.government.Formanyreasons,suchaslimitedfinancialresourcesandalackofpoliticalwill,theU.S.governmenthasnotadequatelyaddressedthelingeringconse-quencesoftheU.S.nuclearweaponstestingprogram.TheextentofthechallengestheMarshallesefaceandtheinadequateresponseoftheU.S.governmentoftendepressmystudents.Ineverwantpeopletoleamabouttheseissuesandfeelhopeless.OneofthereasonsIloveteachingisbecausethegenerationbehindmealwaysseemstoask”WhatcanIdotohelp?”It’snotenoughtoleamaboutatopic,suchastheplightoftheMarshallese-Iamimpressedbythenumberofstudentscompelledtotakeaction.AsAmericancitizens,weshouldfeelastrongconnectiontotheMarshallese-theColdWareraandthetrusteeshiprelationshipintertwinedourhistories.ThousandsofmilesofoceanseparatemostU.S.residentsfromtheradiationissuesintheMarshallIslands,butbecauseofthelimitedeconomic,educationalandhealthcareoptionsintheislands,weseemoreMarshalleseinourstatesandourcommunities.TheMarshalleseneedtoaccessadequateresourcestostopthemobilityofstructuralviolence.Whatcanyoudotohelp?CONTACTYOURLEGISLATORSTheMarshallesedonothavearepresentativeintheU.S.CongresstoadvancetheirpoliticalinterestsbecausetheyarenolongerapartoftheUnitedStates.CitizensoftheUnitedStatescanplayastrongroleinhelpingtheMarshallesebycontactingtheirelectedofficialsinWashington,D.C.,to•Letthemknowyouarearegisteredvoterandtheirconstituent(sincecongres-sionalrepresentativesaremotivatedtomeettheneedsoftheirconstituentsforreelectionpurposes);•UrgethemtoworkwiththeircolleaguestoprovidetheMarshallesewithaU.S.standardofhealthcareandenvironmentalcleanuptoaddressthefullscopeofdamagesandinjurieslinkedtothenucleartestingprogram;and•SupportthepresenceoftheMarshalleseinyourstateorcommunity(addressingthegrowingbacklashtowardandlackofunderstandingaboutwhytheMarshallesecometotheUnitedStatestoimprovetheirqualityoflife).EDUCATEOTHERSIfyouarelikemewhenIwasanundergraduateincollege,youprob-ablyhadlittleornounderstandingabouttheMarshallese.TheU.S.governmentworkedhardtomaintainacultureofsecrecyarounditsmilitaryandsecurityactivitiesduringtheColdWar.Itistimetobreakthatsilenceandrecognizethat,eventhoughnationsavertedcombatduringtheColdWar,itstillproducedcollateraldamages.Youcould•WritealettertoyourlocalnewspapertellingpeoplewhytheyshouldcareabouttheMarshalleseandtheseissues;•VisitclassroomsandeducateotherstudentsabouttheMarshallIslands;and•Usethemediaofyourgeneration,suchassocialnetworking,toreachouttootheryoungpeople.Thisissomethingthatmanypeopleinmygenerationcan-notdobecausewearenotwellequippedtoexplorethefullpotentialandcrea-tivityofsocialnetworking.

“THEFAILUREOFRECONCILIATIONANDTHEMOBILITYOFSTRUCTURALVIOLENCE173Forexample,lookatthismusicvideoavailableontheweb:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJiTwM107n.Aformerstudentofmine,ChrisCunningham,wasinspiredtowritethesongafterlearningabouttheMarshallIslandsinclass.ChristaughtEnglishandmusicintheMarshallIslandsafterhereceivedhisB.A.BothhismusicandtheuseoftheinternetbringtheseissuestoyourgenerationinwaysIcouldneverachieve.Ifyoulikethevideo,passitalong!BUILDTHECAPACITYOFTHEMARSHALLESETheproblemsofradiationexposurecan-notbeconfinedtotimeandspace;theyarenotjustissuesthataffectpeoplewholiveddecadesagoonremoteislands.TheMarshalleseexperiencedprotractedexpo-sureontheirislandsandcontinuetofacechallengeswhethertheyresideontheislandsoftheirbirth,intheUnitedStates,orelsewhere.PleasejointheMarshalleseinbuildingthecapacityoftheircommunities,wherevertheyreside.Youcan•BuildfriendshipswiththeMarshalleseinyourcommunitiesorstates;thiscounteractstheU.S.government’sdehumanizationoftheMarshalleseduringthetrusteeship;and•Contactme([email protected])ortheMinistryofEducationintheMarshallIslandstoinquireaboutteachingopportunitiesintheMarshallIslands.Everyoneofmyformerstudentswhotaughtintheislandshasreportedposi-tiveexperiences,eventhoughtheyfeltchallengedattimes.Figure12.8Erilw(aformerstudentattheUniversityofWashington)teachingintheMarshallIslands.

174AfeWC:::g::lmveledtoA]a,kawithRangel,,!,elde<LijohnEkniIangtD1″”‘ticipateinaconferenceaboutnuclearnonproliferation.Afteralongday,Iaskedherifshewastired.Lijohntoldmethatshewas,butthatitwasokay.Shesaidthatifknowingaboutherexperienceshelpseducateothersaboutthedangersofradiationexposureandnuclearweapons,thenherhardshipswerenotinvain.ShesaidthatifexperimentswiththeRongelapeseallowmedicaldoctorstobettertreatpeoplewithradiationexposureorthyroiddisease/cancer,thenthereisapositiveoutcomefromthetestingprogram.Sheaddedthatthisgiveshercomfortandhelpshersleepbetteratnight..Thatnightinourhotelroom,asLijohnsleptsoundly,IreflectedonhowmuchIlearnfromLijohnandtheMarshallese.TheMarshallesehaveresilience,anabilitytopersevereandremainpositiveeveninthemostdireanddifficultcircumstances.Theyhaveadeepappreciationforandenjoymentoflife;youcanalwaysfindtheMarshallesejokingandlaughing,sometimestorelievetheirpain.Theyshowincredibleingenuityandadaptabilityinmovingfromplacetoplacetocultivateresourcesandseeknewopportunities.Embeddedintheirlanguageandcultureisrichtraditionalknowledge”theinformationandideasthathelpthemadapttochangesresultingfromnucleartestingorclimatechange.DespitethehardshipstheMarshallesefaceandtheunwillingnessoftheU.S.gov-ernmenttoacknowledgeoraddresstheneedsoftheMarshallese,Iendthisbookwithhopeandoptimism.Thenextgenerationofstudentsandscholarsbehindmehascre-ativeskillsandtoolsthateclipsethoseofmygeneration,coupledwithapassionforsocialjusticethat!seeinmystudents.Sufferingandhardshiphaveoccurredandwillcontinue,butwecanplayaroleinmakingthelivesofothersalittlebitbetter.Thatisthegoalofappliedanthropology-andperhapsthereasonallofusareonthisplanet.

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AppendixCATEGORIESFORPERSONALINJURYAWARDS,,NUCLEARCLAIMSTRIBUNALListofcompensableillnessesfromNuclearClaimstheTribunalandawardamountsforeachillness:1.Leukemia(otherthanchroniclymphocyticleukemia)2.Cancerofthethyroida.ifrecurrentorrequiresmultiplesurgicaland/orablationb.ifnon-recurrentordoesnotrequiremultipletreatment3.Cancerofthebreasta.ifrecurrentorrequiresmastectomyb.ifnon-recurrentorrequireslumpectomy4.Cancerofthepharynx5.Canceroftheesophagus6.Cancerofthestomach7.Cancerofthesmallintestine8.Cancerofthepancreas9.Multiplemyeloma10.Lymphomas(exceptHodgkin’sdisease)II.Cancerofthebileducts12.Cancerofthegallbladder13.Canceroftheliver(exceptifcirrhosisorhepatitisBisindicated)14.Cancerofthecolon15.Caliceroftheurinarytract,includingtheurinarybladder,renalpelves,andurethra16.Tumorsofthesalivaryglanda.ifmalignantb.ifbenignandr,?quiringsurgeryc.ifbenignandnotrequiringsurgery17.Non-malignantthyroidnodulardisease(unlesslirriitedtooccultnodules)a.ifrequiringtotalthyroidectomyb.ifrequiringpartialthyroidectomyc.ifnotrequiringthyroidectomy18.Canceroftheovary19.Unexplainedhypothyroidism(unlessthyroiditisindicated)20.Severegrowthretardationduetothyroiddamage21.Unexplainedbonemarrowfailure22.Meningioma182$125,000$75,000$50,000$100,000$75,000$100,000$125,000$125,000,$125,000$125,000$125,000$100,000$125,000$125,000$125,000$75,000$75,000$50,000$37,500$12,500$50,000$37,500$12,500$125,000$37,500$100,000$125,000$100,000

j23.RadiationsicknessdiagnosedbetweenJune30,1946,andAugust18,1958,inclusive”24.BetabumsdiagnosedbetweenJune30,1946,andAugust18,1958,inclusive25.Severementalretardation(providedbornbetweenMayandSeptember1954,inclusive,andmotherwaspresentonRonge1aporUtrikAtollsatanytimeinMarch1954)26.Unexplainedhyperparathyroidism27.Tumorsoftheparathyroidglanda.ifmalignantb.ifbenignandrequiringsurgeryc.ifbenignandnotrequiringsurgery28.Bronchialcancer(includingcancerofthelungandpulmonarysystem)29.Tumorsofthebrain,includingschwannomas,butnotincludingotherbenignneuraltumors30.Cancerofthecentralnervoussystem31.Cancerofthekidney32.Canceroftherectum33.Cancerofthececum34.Non-melanomaskincancerinindividualswhowerediagnosedashavingsufferedbetabumsundernumber24above35.CanceroftheboneSource:NuclearClaimsTribunalhttp://www.tribunal-mh.org/claim.htIn.APPENDIX183$12,500$12,500$100,000$12,500$50,000$37,500$12,500$37,500$125,000$125,000$75,000$75,000$75,000$37,500$125,000

Glossary\\\,”<ACHREWhiteHouseAdvisoryCom-mitteeonHumanRadiationExperimentsAECU.S.AtomicEnergyCommission(precededDOE)alapmanagersofthelandatollaclusterofislandsformedaroundthelipofavolcanoboombombedbwebwenatoaMarshallesestorybwij(jowi)clanciguaterafishpoisoningCompactofFreeAssociationP.L.99-239definingthebilateralrelationshipandagreementsbetweentheMarshallIslandsandtheUnitedStates.copradriedcoconutmeatDOEU.S.DepartmentofEnergyhibakushaJapanesetermforatomicbombsurvivorsiroijchiefkajinettohistoricMarshalleselanguagekiroopgrape,orgrapebabieskotanwetoboundariesbetweenlandparcelslifestoriesshorterexperienceswithinthelifeofapersonmatrilinealresourcespassedthroughwomenMIRVAMarshallIslandsRadiationVic-timsAssociationmeramenlightenmentNCTNuclearClaimsTribunalNitijelaparliamentary,governmentbodyoftheMarshallIslandsoralhistories,orlifehistoriesverbalaccountsorreflectionsofaperson’slifeouterislandsislandsoutsideofthetwourbanareaspowdertheMarshallesetermusedtodescriberadioactivefalloutRalikwesternor”sunset”chainofislandsRatakeasternor”sunrise”chainofislandsri-jerbalworkersofthelandri-paelleforeignersrorochantsTTPITrustTerritoryofthePacificIslandswetoaparcelofland,usuallywithbothlagoonandoceanaccess184

)IfI,//Index,IAbercrombie,Neal,160Abon,Lemeyo,156ACCC.SeeAdvisoryCommitteeonChan-gedCircumstancesAdvisoryCommitteeonChangedCircumstances(ACCC),113AdvisoryCommitteeonHumanRadiationExperiments(ACHRE),39,44,133,134,135Ailinginaeatoll,witnesstestimoniesofBravotest,51AilukatollwitnesstestimoniesaboutU.S.governmentmedicalproviders,56witnesstestimoniesaboutU.S.governmentscientists,56witnesstestimoniesofbirthdefects,54witnesstestimoniesofBravotest,52witnesstestimoniesofmedicalandenvironmentalproblems,55alap,12,74Alcalay,Glenn,28,29,137,165AmericanUniversityinJapan,141Anjain,George,146Anjain,Jeton,65Anjain,John,157Anjain,John,Jr.,156,157Anjain,Malal,61,69Anjain-Maddison,Abacca,90,147anthropologists,25buildingonworkof,137challengingof,143effectsonpolicies,144futureof,153keyinformantsand,139localcounterpartsof,139inMicronesia,26repeatfieldvisitsof,144inRMI,28onTIPI,25workwithU.S.military,26anthropology,162applied,136,162inthePost-Trost-Territoryera,27public,162Rongelaplandclaimand,166anthropology,applied,136appliedanthropology,136,174185archivalresearch,137atolls,S,12,13,15Kwajalein,9submerged,9AtomicBombCasualtyCommission(ABCC),118AtomicEnergyCommission(AEC),31,82AtomicVeterans,126atomicweapons,19Austronesianlanguagefamily,13Balos,Henchi,98″BasicHealthHawaii,”159Bender,Bryan,27Bender,Byron,137Biedermann,Andy,122Bikiniatollresettlementandreturnofpopulationof,44testcrateron,23testingon,34Bikinians:AStudyinForcedMigration,The(Kiste),27_birthdefects,102,107witnesstestimoniesof,”53blame,expressionsof,.95BombedPeople,71bombingsurvivorsinJapan,117Bravotest,23,24,151exposurefrom,41Marshallesenarrativeof,57weatherduring,40witnesstestimoniesof,51BrookhavenNationalLaboratory,29,82burialcustoms,69Bush,GeorgeH.W.,35bwij,11Capelle,Alfred,139Carter,Robert,126Carucci,Laurence,28,29casestudies,117cesium,64ChangedCircumstancespetition,111,153Chernobylnuclearaccident,123chromium-51studies,44clanlines,11Clinton,Bill,39,44

186INDEXcoconutbabies,107COFA.SeeCompactofFreeAssociationColumbiaRiver,128communityempowerment,136CompactofFreeAssociation,28,30,32,92,Ill,149,155177agreement,30177HealthCareProgramof,112CompactofFreeAssociation(COFA),160CongressofMicronesia,29ConsequentialDamagesofNuclearWar:TheRongelapReport(JohnstonandBarker),60,166CoordinatedInvestigationofMicronesianAnthropology(ClMA),26copra,6copraindustry,17coralatolls,63Cousteau,Jacques,122Cruz,Elizabeth,141culturalbrokers,144deBrum,Tony,50decontamination,witnesstestimoniesof,53DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),34Donaldson,Laurence,106Ebeye,66,67cemetery,71lifeon,67Eknilang,Isao,65,71Eknilang,Lijohn,64,146,173,174elderlypersons,lossoflandaffecting,73Emos,Dorothy,61,64Enewetakatoll,28mapof,48resettlementandreturnofpopulationof,47RunitDomeon,38testingon,34Englishlanguagecommunicationfailedin,77concealmentof,83patternsofborrowingfrom,81usedtosubordinateMarshallese,101Englishloanwords,80,84,85EnjebiIsland,28environmentalproblems,witnesstestimoniesof,55evacuation,witnesstestimoniesof,53Evans,Delayne,127exposedcategory,38,80,109FAS.SeeFreelyAssociatedStates(FAS)FederatedStatesofMicronesia(FSM),30fieldnotes,144food,radiationaffecting,74FreelyAssociatedStates(FAS),30FrenchPolynesia,nucleartestingin,120FSM.SeeFederatedStatesofMicronesia(FSM)Gilbert,Thomas,17Graham,William,60,145,166grapebabies,84,93,106GreenRun,129,130Greenpeace,66Hanfordplutoniumprocessingfacility,128hibakusha,117,118,120Hiroshima,atomicbombingof,117homelessencampment,159hospitalexpenditures,114housingproblems,68humanradiationexperiments,134,167hydatidiformpregnancies,81,106information,accessto,137interviews,transcriptionandtranslationof,141iroij,12,13,61,62,74iroijrilik,13Jacklick,Alvin,108Japan,atomicbombingof,117JapaneseNationalInstituteofHealth,118jebro,13jellyfishbabies,106Jenwor,Jerkan,69,74John,Jalel,142Johnson,Raymond,85Johnston,BarbaraRose,28,60,145,166Joran,Wintha,162Juda,20,97Juda,Rubon,97,98Kbasins,129Kabua,Imata,113Kabua,Mike,75,146Kahn,Miriam,121kajinetto,13kanal,14Kebenli,Mwenadrik,61,62,69Kebenli,Norio,65,72Kendall,Wilfred,50,146Kili,26king,defined,97Kiste,Robert,8,27,137Kolnij,Timako,69Kreiger,William,26Kroeker,JulieWalsh,159,161Kwajaleinatoll,30,32,66

landclaimsinACCC,114importanceof,61matrilinealinheritanceof,10,72parcelsof,11rightsto,10languageancientreligious,13forassigningresponsibility,94forexpressingpowerlessness,98learningof,136old,12radiation,82andtestingprogram,76Lanwi,Mary,146laroij,14LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory,31legalissuesinACCC,113lifestories,138LikiepatollwitnesstestimoniesaboutU.S.governmentmedicalproviders,57witnesstestimoniesaboutU.S.governmentscientists,57witnesstestimoniesofbirthdefects,55witnesstestimoniesofBravotest,53witnesstestimoniesofmedicalandenvironmentalproblems,56Lingle,Linda,159linguisticdata,themesin,93loanwords,80Locke,Gary,164Lodge,William,25LoRauut,90Lushbaugh,Clarence,134Majuro,66,67Maohipeople,121,122,123Marcus,Stephen,169Marshall,John,17MarshallIslands.SeealsoRepublicoftheMarshallIslandscolonialhistoryof,16earlymigrationto,10environmentalcatastrophe,climatechange,168fIrstnationalanthemof,70Germanruleof,17Japaneseruleof,18languageanddialectsof,12locationandecologyof,5Micronesia,5nucleartestingin,149,150self-governmentof,29socialandpoliticalstructureof,10INDEX187Spanishruleof,16structuralviolence,155asTrustTerritoryofthePacifIcIslands,22U.S.navaladministrationof,19U.S.nucleartestingin,5andU.Srelationship,162,163,164MarshallIslandsRadiationVictimsAssociation(MIRVA),38,86Marshalleselanguageavoidanceofconfrontationin,84dialectsof,76esoteric,14placenamesin,15pronounsin,14asresistance,79andtestingprogram,76vernacularforin-groupcommunication,83Marshallesepeopleethnographyof,50gender,ageandstatusinexile,72landrights,61narrativehistoryof,50narrativeofBravotest,57terrestrialandmarineproperty,63Marshalleseradiationlanguage,107Marshallesestudents,159trainingof,139Mason,Leonard,27,137Matayoshi,Almira,72,159Matayoshi,James,73matrilinealsociety,10maximumpermissibleexposure(MPE),40Mead,Margaret,26.medicalcareinACCC,114medicalcosts,114medicalfIles,fIresdestroying,100medicalproblemsoffIciallynotrelatedtoradiation,104witnesstestimoniesof,55Mejatto,66men,lossoflandaffecting,72Micronesia,5Milne,John,86,87,88,89miscarriages,103,105missionaries,17,20molarpregnancies,’81,106MorningNewsNWA,The(NorthwestArkansas),161Murkowski,Frank,115mutualsecurities,31.Nagasaki,atomicbombingof,117NCT.SeeNuclearClaimsTribunalNevada,nucleartestingin,126.II,~IIiII

188INDEXnicknames,14Nitijela,12Note,Kessai,113,155NuclearClaimsTribunal(NCT),28,35,60,111,165hearingbefore,147methodsof,145NuclearInstituteoftheCollegeoftheMarshallIslands,85,139,140NuclearVictim’sRemembranceDay,96,140nuclearwaste,128Obama,Barak,161observations,142OnNauru-ASinkingFeeling(Marcus),169OperationCrossroads,20oralhistories,138Palafox,Neal,160PeaceCorpsvolunteer,authoras,6,29,136personalinjuryawardsinACCC,113categoriesfor,182Pevec,Davor,28photographs,limitationsof,142plutonium,170exposureto,38processingatHanford,128PointHope,Alaska,radioactivedumpingnear,127poison,80Pollock,Nancy,27Polynesia,nucleartestingin,120powerlessness,expressionsof,98praxis,136Pritikin,Trisha,130Project4.1,41pseudonyms,14psychologicalproblemsofradiation,71publicanthropology,162publiceducation,139radiationbioaccumulationof,64chromosomalabnormalities,81intheenvironment,64exposureto,23,79harmfrom,78humanexperimentationwith,133levelsinMarshalleseworkers,38miscarriages,79reproductiveproblems,83stigmaof,71studiesoflevelsof,36radiationlanguage,79,80,82,89,90.SeealsoMarshalleseradiationlanguageRadioBikini(film),77radioactivecocktails,134radioactivefallout,24radioisotopestudies,44radiologicalproblems,31radionuclides,64RainbowWarrior,66Ralikchain,9,17Ralikdialect,9,13Ralpho,Bernice,164Ratakchain,9Ratakdialect,9,13Reagan,Ronald,111Relang,Samos,85,86reproductiveillnessesofwomen,101andatollofresidence,105futilityof,105stigmaof,102RepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI),24,77.SeealsoMarshallIslandshistoryof,153mapof,8RepublicoftheMarshallIslands(RMI),153U.S.government,militaryandresearchinterestsof,149U.S.weaponstests,152resettlementofcommunities,44resistance,songsof,89ri-jerbal,12,61,74ri-paelles,16Robison,William,79RonaldReaganBallisticMissileDefenseTestSite,32RonaldReaganBallisticMissileTest,9Rongelapatollresettlementandreturn,45testingon,34witnesstestimoniesaboutU.S.governmentmedicalproviders,56witnesstestimoniesaboutU.S.governmentscientists,56witnesstestimoniesofbirthdefects,54witnesstestimoniesofBravotest,51witnesstestimoniesofevacuationanddecontamination,53witnesstestimoniesofmedicalandenvironmentalproblems,55Rongelaplandclaim,166Rongelapultimatum,156Rongelapeseareasofthelandandreefs,62chiefsandstatus,74experiencesinexile,64relocationof,65

RongerikAtoll,27,41,42,97RunitDome,170,171Saenger,Eugene,134Samireindeerherders,126Seabright,Michael,160self-sufficiency,lossof,66Severance,Craig,164Silk,Mary,85,140songsofresistance,89177song,91Spoehr,Alexande

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