Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles.
VALUATING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ARTICLES
For this assignment, you will read two articles, one with a quantitative methodology and another with a qualitative methodology, answer a series of questions about them, and summarize your evaluations.
ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS
Read the sample qualitative and qualitative articles in the following reading list:
Unit 8: Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles.
Then open and complete the Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles Template [DOCX].
Note: You may want to refer to Dissecting Research Articles [PDF] as you work on this assignment.
Review the Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles Scoring Guide to learn about the criteria by which this assignment will be evaluated. When you have completed your assignment, submit it in the assignment area.
SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS
Your assignment should meet the following requirements:
Written communication: Written communication must be grammatically correct and free of errors that detract from the overall message. Writing should be consistent with graduate-level scholarship.
Format: Submit the completed Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles Template as your assignment.
I will attach all of the parts. This assignment is submitting the Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles . Template [DOCX]. It will be labeled as to be comeplted.
Requirements: As described in the attached
Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Articles
For this assignment, you will review two articles, one with a quantitative methodology and another with a qualitative methodology. Then you will use this template to reflect on the elements of each article, answer a series of questions, and summarize your evaluation.
Note: You may want to refer to Dissecting Research Articles (linked in the assignment instructions) as you complete this activity.
Part 1: Reviewing Quantitative Research
If you have not already done so, read the following sample quantitative research article. Then answer the questions about each section as directed.
Quantitative Research Article
Chang, X., Zhou, Y., Wang, C., & Heredero, C. d. P. (2017). . Frontiers of Business Research in China, 11(2), 242–268.
Section 1: Abstract, Introduction, Hypothesis, Research Question, and the Literature Review
The first step to dissecting and evaluating a research article is the review for clarity and consistency. The abstract, the introduction, the problem statement, and the research hypothesis or research question should be clearly stated and consistent. The reader should be able to understand the relationship between each component. These components set the stage for the rest of the document.
Question 1. “An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows the readers to survey the contents of an article quickly and, like a title, it enables the persons interested in the document to retrieve it from abstracting and indexing databases” (APA, 2010, p. 25).
The article’s abstract clearly and accurately summarizes the content of the study.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 2. The introduction describes the research topic and depicts the problem statement. The introduction should inform the reader regarding the potential of the research to provide important and relevant answers.
The article’s introduction explains why this problem is important and why this topic is worth researching.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 3. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) state that the research problem is the heart of the research process, “To see the problem with unwavering clarity and to state it in precise and unmistakable terms is the first requirement in the research process” (p. 43). The research problem clarifies the goals and the direction of the research.
The article’s problem statement is clearly articulated, specific, and comprehensive.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 4. The key terms should be defined so that the reader understands exactly what the writer is saying.
The article’s research questions are clearly stated and the key terms are defined.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 5. The literature review outlines the theory and past findings that are relevant to the research goals. The literature review should document the importance of the research problem.
The article’s literature review supports the necessity to study the specific research topic.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 6. The article’s introduction, statement of the problem, and literature review are appropriate and consistent with the research question.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 1.
Section 2: Methodology – Research Design, Methods and Procedures, and Sampling
The method section describes in detail how the study was conducted. The evaluation of the methodology consists of reviewing the research design, the recruitment of research participants, and the data collection procedures. Different research methodologies have different reporting requirements. The evaluation of a research article will vary somewhat depending on whether the research article is quantitative or qualitative.
According to Creswell (2003):
a quantitative approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses positivistic claims for developing knowledge (i.e., cause and effect thinking, reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and questions, use of measurement and observation, and the test of theories), employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data. The goal of quantitative research is to support or disprove the hypotheses. (p. 18)
Quantitative research designs attempt to find relationships between and among variables. The essence of quantitative research studies involves numbers and measurement; therefore, the data collected involves numbers and, ultimately, statistical procedures are used to analyze those numbers. Quantitative research is aimed at verification.
Examples of quantitative designs are:
Experiment—an attempt to determine a cause-and-effect relationship. It involves the manipulation of an independent variable and measures the effects on the dependent variables.
Quasi-experimental design—a research design used when participants cannot be randomly assigned to the groups, but the researcher does manipulate an independent variable and measures the effects on the dependent variables.
Non-experimental designs (most often, a correlational study)—determines the relationship between two or more variables.
Survey—obtains information from one or more groups of people about their characteristics, opinions, attitudes, or previous experiences and tabulates the information.
In order to dissect and evaluate research articles, there is a need to have knowledge of research methodology. The critique of a research study is not based on your personal beliefs or ideas, but on the scientific soundness of the study. As you progress through your graduate program, you will develop the skills necessary to critique a research article. As you continue to read research articles, the following questions will guide you in developing your skills for critically reading and evaluating research articles.
Question 7. The research design is stated and there is a detailed description of how the study will be conducted.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 8. The methods and procedures regarding how data will be collected are clearly described.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 9. The research design is suitable to answer the research questions.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 10. The instruments used to measure the outcomes are described, the reasons they were chosen are discussed, and the validity and reliability of the instruments was established.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
To evaluate the research evidence, it is important to know who the participants are and how they were chosen. The sampling strategy refers to the process of obtaining the research participants to be included in the study. The sampling section should clearly indicate the specific procedures used to recruit the participants. It should also indicate the sample size and the eligibility criteria.
Question 11. The participants were properly selected.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 12. The sampling strategy was clearly explained.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 2.
Section 3: Quantitative Methodology
The next section of a research article—or the next subsection of the method section—discusses the variables that were measured.
Introduction to Understanding Variables
Variables are found in quantitative studies, not in qualitative studies. Variables are specific concepts that are being studied. They vary along a continuum in terms of their characteristics (continuous variables) or they have at least two categories (categorical variables). For example, let us say the study is to examine gender differences in levels of morality.
Gender is one variable in the study, and the other variable is level of morality.
Gender has two categories: (1) male and (2) female.
Level of morality can vary along a continuum—let us say in this case, morality scores can range from 1–100 with higher scores being more morally sensitive.
Variables can be divided into two categories: independent and dependent variables. The independent variable causes or influences the change. The dependent variable is the outcome variable and must be measurable. You can use this formula to help you differentiate between the independent and dependent variable:
X → Y
X influences Y where X is the independent variable and Y is the dependent variable.
In the case above, gender is the independent variable and level of morality is the dependent variable.
Question 13. Identify the variables in the study. Which is the independent variable? Which is the dependent variable? (There may be more than one of each.)
a. Independent variable (or variables):
b. Dependent variable (or variables):
Question 14. An extraneous variable can create problems for the researcher. Extraneous variables are undesired variables that can influence the dependent variable and change or invalidate the results of an experiment.
Can you identify any extraneous variables in the sample quantitative article?
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 3.
Section 4: Analysis, Findings, Discussion
After authors of quantitative articles present the methods that they used and discuss their variables, they present the findings from their analysis of the data. When evaluating the research findings, first look for the scientific research evidence. Examples of nonscientific evidence are opinions, value judgments, personal experiences, unsupported assertions, and second-hand reports. If the results are based on nonscientific evidence, they should not be treated as reliable.
When you are dissecting the findings of the study or the researcher’s presentation and interpretation of results, how do you decide what evidence to believe? The following questions are helpful.
Where is the evidence?
How do you know that is true?
Why do you believe that?
Can you prove it?
Is the research evidence relevant to the key points?
Does the researcher draw the correct conclusion from the evidence?
Is information missing?
Researchers are susceptible to confirmation bias, meaning that there can be a tendency to confirm personal beliefs. When evaluating a research article, it is important to be aware of possible confirmation bias, and of your own personal beliefs, so that you can objectively decide whether the results have been reasonably presented and interpreted.
The results section must thoroughly explain how the data were collected and what statistics were used to analyze the data. The results must be described in enough detail in order to justify the conclusions.
Question 15. The results are presented in enough detail to allow the reader to evaluate the results.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 16. The conclusions and generalizations are valid and justified by the data analysis.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 17. The researcher has considered other possible interpretations of the results.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 18. The discussion is reasonable in view of the data collected and analyzed.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 19. The research questions were answered.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 4.
Section 5: Ethics and Implications of the Research Findings
Ethics in research is of particular importance. For the purposes of this exercise, some fundamental ethical concerns are listed here.
Informed consent should be in the form of a written statement that fully informs the participant of the nature of the research project and what is expected of participants. The researcher has the informed consent form signed by the participant.
Harm and loss of dignity refers to the right to self-esteem and protection from harm. Involvement in the study should not be physically or mentally harmful to the participants.
Privacy and confidentiality relates to procedures to ensure that information is stored in locked areas and no one outside of the researchers will have access to participants’ records. The researcher must protect the anonymity of the participants.
Participants should be informed that they have the right to decline or withdraw from the research at any time without consequences.
After presenting the results, the researcher interprets the implications of the research findings. This includes recommendations for further research and suggestions for relevant application of the research findings.
Question 20. There is no evidence of ethical violations in this research.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 21. The researcher clearly states the implications and applications of the research.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 22. This research has contributed relevant information to the field of study in your school.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 23. The researcher offers a reflection on the limitations of the study, including the research design.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Summarize your evaluation of this study, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses and proposing possible changes that might improve the study.
Part 2: Reviewing Qualitative Research
If you have not already done so, read the following sample qualitative research article. Then answer the questions about each section as directed.
Qualitative Research Article
Ruppel, C. P. (2013). Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 27(4), 436–471.
Section 1: Abstract, Introduction, Hypothesis, Research Question, and the Literature Review
As you will recall from the Dissecting Research Articles resource, the abstract and the introduction to the paper contain a number of important points. They are the same for a qualitative article as they are for quantitative articles.
After presenting the results, the researcher interprets the implications of the research findings. This includes recommendations for further research and suggestions for relevant application of the research findings.
Question 24. “An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows the readers to survey the contents of an article quickly and, like a title, it enables the persons interested in the document to retrieve it from abstracting and indexing databases” (APA, 2010, p. 25).
The article’s abstract clearly and accurately summarizes the content of the study.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 25. The introduction describes the research topic and depicts the problem statement. The introduction should inform the reader regarding the potential of the research to provide important and relevant answers.
The article’s introduction explains why this problem is important and why this topic is worth researching.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 26. Creswell (2007) asserts that in qualitative studies, the “need for the study” is a more appropriate terminology than the problem statement. “The intent of a research problem in qualitative research is to provide a rationale or need for studying a particular issue or problem” (Creswell, 2007, p. 102). Still, both methodologies must demonstrate a need for the study or a problem statement.
The researcher clearly describes the problem or the need for studying the topic under inquiry.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 27. Were the key terms defined? The reader needs to understand exactly what the writer is saying.
The article’s research question is clearly stated and the key terms are defined.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 28. The literature review outlines the theory and past findings that are relevant to the research goals. The literature review should document the importance of the research problem.
The article’s literature review supports the necessity to study the specific research question.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 29. The article’s introduction, statement of the problem, and literature review are appropriate and consistent with the research question.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 1.
Section 2: Methodology – Research Design, Methods and Procedures, and Sampling
Question 30. The research design is stated and there is a detailed description of how the study will be conducted.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 31. The methods and procedures for data collection are clearly described.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 32. The research design is compatible with the research question.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 33. The researcher clearly describes how participants were recruited and selected.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 34. The sampling strategy was clearly explained.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 2.
Section 3: Information Specific to Qualitative Methodology
Creswell (2003) described qualitative research as follows:
a qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often makes knowledge claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives (i.e., the multiple meanings of individual experiences, meanings socially and historically constructed, with an intent of developing a theory or a pattern). . . . The researcher collects open-ended, emerging data with the primary intent of developing themes from the data. (p. 18)
Taylor and Bogdan (1998) noted that “qualitative methodology refers in the broadest sense to research that produces descriptive data—people’s own written or spoken words and observable behavior” (p. 7).
The goal of qualitative research is to gain an understanding of the experiences of the individuals who participate in the research study. Qualitative research is aimed at discovery, understanding, meaning, and developing knowledge from the perspective of first-person accounts of the experience under inquiry.
Examples of qualitative research methodologies are:
Phenomenology—the study of phenomena as experienced by the individual, with the emphasis on exactly how a phenomenon reveals itself to the experiencing person in all its specificity and concreteness. The participant experiencing a phenomenon is required to attend to it exactly as it appears in consciousness, without prejudgment, bias, or any predetermined set or orientation.
Grounded theory—a descriptive research approach that attempts to develop theories of understanding based on data from the real world. The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in the data collected.
Case study—an in-depth study of a single research subject (such as a program, an event, an activity, or a group of individuals).
Ethnography—a descriptive research approach that involves becoming a part of the culture you study. This model is based in the anthropological tradition of research. In this approach, the researcher would spend a long time becoming immersed in the culture of the population being studied.
Heuristics—a research model that places special emphasis on knowing through the self, by becoming one with the topic and experiencing it, as it exists in the world. Eric Craig (1978) defined heuristics in his work The Heart of the Teacher as “a private discovery oriented approach to understanding how individuals experience themselves and their world” (p. 22).
Generic or basic qualitative inquiry (or basic qualitative methodology)—an approach to eliciting opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or descriptions of experiences that is oriented toward issues external to the participants. An open-ended subjective opinion survey about people’s political beliefs would be an example.
To evaluate the research evidence, it is important to know who the participants are and how they were chosen. Sampling refers to the process of obtaining the research participants to be part of the study. The sampling section should clearly indicate the specific procedures used to recruit the participants. It should also indicate the sample size and the eligibility criteria.
In presenting the results of a qualitative research study, there needs to a clear and detailed description that includes direct quotes from data collected from the participants. One way in which the quality of the research results can be judged is by the reaction of the reader. Are the results believable? The reader should be able to say, “I understand” or “That makes perfect sense.” The presentation of the data should convince the reader of the credibility of the data analysis.
The results section of a qualitative study is a written presentation that includes the voices of the participants, the reflections of the researcher, and an interpretation of the answer to the research question and problem (Creswell, 2007). “A weak or unconvincing analysis can also stem from a failure to provide adequate examples from the data. . . . The researcher needs to make sure that their interpretations and analytic points are consistent with the data extracts” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, pp. 94–95).
Question 35. The presentation of the data permits the reader to understand how the results were interpreted.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 36. The direct quotes from the transcribed interviews support each category in the analysis.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of Section 3.
Section 4: Discussion and Analysis
When evaluating an article, look first for the scientific research evidence. Again, examples of nonscientific evidence are opinions, value judgments, personal experiences, unsupported assertions, and second-hand reports.
When you are dissecting the findings of the study or the researcher’s presentation and interpretation of results, certain questions can help with this evaluation. How do you decide what evidence to believe? The following questions will be helpful:
Where is the evidence (the words of the participants in qualitative research)?
How do I know that is true? Can I see it in the participants’ words?
Does the author support it with the participants’ words?
Is the research evidence relevant to the key issue being studied?
Does the researcher draw the correct conclusion form the evidence?
Is there information missing?
Researchers are susceptible to confirmation bias, meaning that there can be a tendency to confirm personal beliefs, and this is equally true in qualitative analysis. When evaluating a research article, it is important to be aware of possible confirmation bias, and of your own personal beliefs, so that you objectively review whether the results have been reasonably presented and interpreted. The results section must thoroughly explain how the data was collected and how the data was analyzed. The results must be described in detail in order to justify the conclusions or the interpretations of the data.
Question 37. The discussion and analysis are presented in enough detail to allow the reader to evaluate the results.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 38. The conclusions and generalizations are valid and justified by the data analysis.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 39. The researchers considered other possible interpretations of the results.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 40. The discussion is reasonable in view of the data presented.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 41. The research question was answered.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answers and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of the discussion and analysis elements.
Section 5: Ethics
Ethics in research is of particular importance. For the purposes of this exercise, some fundamental ethical concerns are listed here.
Informed consent should be in the form of a written statement that fully informs the participant of the nature of the research project and what is expected of participants. The researcher has the informed consent form signed by the participant.
Harm and loss of dignity refers to the right to self-esteem and protection from harm. Involvement in the study should not be physically or mentally harmful to the participants.
Privacy and confidentiality relates to procedures to ensure that information is stored in locked areas and no one outside of the researchers will have access to participants’ records. The researcher must protect the anonymity of the participants.
Participants should be informed that they have the right to decline or withdraw from the research at any time without consequences.
Is there any aspect of the design, sampling, data collection, or analysis that might reflect researcher bias or poor execution of the research that could lead to flawed conclusions?
Question 42. There is no evidence of ethical violations for this study.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Write one paragraph supporting your answer and reflecting on the ethical strengths and weaknesses of the research.
Section 6: Research Contribution to the Literature
After presenting the results, the researcher interprets the implications of the research findings. This includes recommendations for further research and suggestions for relevant application of the research findings. Did the authors identify directions or recommendations for future research? Did the authors propose what the next steps are for studies in their topical areas in light of previous literature and their findings?
Question 43. The researcher clearly states the implications and applications of the research.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 44. This research has contributed to the field of psychology or to the field of human services. (Why or why not should be discussed within your summary paragraph.)
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Question 45. The researcher offers a reflection on the limitations of the study, including the research design.
____ Strongly Agree ____ Agree ____ Neutral ____ Disagree ____ Strongly Disagree
Summarize your evaluation of this study, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses and proposing possible changes that might improve the study.
References
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Craig, E. (1978). The heart of the teacher. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International.
Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R. (1998). Introduction to qualitative research methods (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
1 Dissecting Research Articles When evaluating research articles, there may be varying opinions on the credibility of the evidence presented. A beginning step for graduate learners is to determine if the article under scrutiny is a peer-reviewed research article. Peer review refers to the formal process that determines whether an article will be published. A journal is peer reviewed or refereed when a group of reviewers and an editor read and evaluate manuscripts (Beebe, 1993). According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010), peer review is conducted by a panel of scholars in the subspecialty of the submitted article. The peer review process focuses on the quality of a submitted manuscript in regards to the work being “original, valid, and significant” (p. 225). Although one could make a case for only using peer-reviewed journals, many important published studies have not gone through the rigorous process of peer review. Therefore, a graduate learner needs to understand how to judge the credibility of research studies. Developing Your Research Skills Knowing how to evaluate research does not happen naturally. Throughout life, individuals make decisions about truth based on nonscientific methods. Examples of nonscientific evidence are opinions, value judgments, personal experiences, unsupported assertions, and second-hand reports. Therefore, learning to distinguish between nonscientific evidence and scientific evidence is a learning process that requires self-awareness and practice. As a graduate student, recognizing nonscientific methods and learning how to apply critical thinking skills to the dissection and evaluation of research articles is an essential tool for your educational success. In this course, obtaining a comprehensive understanding of quantitative and qualitative research methods and data analysis is not the objective. The focus is on helping you achieve a basic understanding of key research concepts that form the foundation of the research process. This document will help you to develop the foundation of knowledge and understanding that you will continue to build upon as you complete coursework in your doctoral program. You will apply your knowledge of the research process when reading research articles for your courses and comprehensive exam papers, and when designing your dissertation proposal. As you continue in the transformational process, you will become increasingly sophisticated in critically evaluating the claims of authors in research articles and be able to separate out scientifically verified claims from unsubstantiated claims. According to Meltzoff (2001), “Research can be regarded as a process of asking a question (or a related series of questions) and then initiating a systematic process to obtain valid answers to that question” (p. 13). A research article describes the research design and the results of the study conducted.
2 Components of Research Articles • Abstract—The abstract is a 120–150 word summary of the entire article. It captures the essence of the entire article. • Introduction (Background)—An introduction sets the backdrop of the specific research topic and the study and identifies the research question (or questions). • Literature Review—This section provides a summary of the literature on key themes of the specific research topic. It also gives readers a sense of what has been written in the field about the specific research topic. • Methodology—This section is a detailed description of how data was collected. For example, it describes the overall blueprint of the study (research design), how the research participants were recruited (sampling), what measurements or instruments were used, and how the data was collected once the participants were recruited (data collection procedures). • Data Analysis—This section explains how the data was analyzed. • Findings—This section is a write-up of the findings. After the researchers collect the data, they write up the findings or the results. • Discussion—In this section, the researchers interpret the results that were presented in the previous section and the implications of the research findings. • References—In this section, the articles and literature used throughout the article are cited. In the assignment Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Articles, you will evaluate each of these components of a research article. The assignment directions will identify the evaluation questions you will ask. For now, remember that the key things to look for when evaluating research are: • Whether the terms and methods are clearly described. • Whether the literature review shows a need for the study and the background of the methodology. • Whether the methods and procedures used were consistent with the literature and with the research question. • Whether the findings—including their implications—are clearly presented. • Whether there are any ethical challenges in the study that may have affected the results. Abstract, Introduction, Hypothesis, Research Question, and the Literature Review The first step to dissecting and evaluating a research article is the review for clarity and consistency. The abstract, the introduction, the problem statement, and the research hypothesis or research question should be clearly stated and consistent. The reader should be able to understand the relationship between each component. These components set the stage for the rest of the document.
3 Quantitative Methodology – Research Design, Methods and Procedures, and Sampling The method section describes in detail how the study was conducted. The evaluation of the methodology consists of reviewing the research design, the recruitment of research participants, and the data collection procedures. Different research methodologies have different reporting requirements. The evaluation of a research article will vary somewhat depending on whether the research article is quantitative or qualitative. The following is a quantitative article: Chang, X., Zhou, Y., Wang, C., & Heredero, C. d. P. (2017). How do work-family balance practices affect work-family conflict? The differential roles of work stress. Frontiers of Business Research in China, 11(2), 242–268. According to Creswell (2003): a quantitative approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses positivistic claims for developing knowledge (i.e., cause and effect thinking, reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and questions, use of measurement and observation, and the test of theories), employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data. The goal of quantitative research is to support or disprove the hypotheses. (p. 18) Quantitative research designs attempt to find relationships between and among variables. The essence of quantitative research studies involves numbers and measurement; therefore, the data collected involves numbers and, ultimately, statistical procedures are used to analyze those numbers. Quantitative research is aimed at verification. Examples of quantitative designs are: • Experiment—an attempt to determine a cause-and-effect relationship. It involves the manipulation of an independent variable and measures the effects on the dependent variables. • Quasi-experimental design—a research design used when participants cannot be randomly assigned to the groups, but the researcher does manipulate an independent variable and measures the effects on the dependent variables. • Non-experimental designs—a research design used when one is interested in measuring the difference in some variable between a number of groups, whether one or a combination of variables predicts a certain outcome (another variable), or the relationships (correlation) between two or more variables. In order to dissect and evaluate research articles, there is a need to have knowledge of research methodology. The critique of a research study is not based on your personal beliefs or ideas, but on the scientific soundness of the study. As you progress through your graduate program, you will develop the skills necessary to critique a research article. Variables in Quantitative Studies Successful evaluation of a research article, in the case of quantitative studies, requires a basic understanding of variables—what they are and how they are described. Variables are specific
4 concepts that are being studied. They vary along a continuum in terms of their characteristics (continuous variables) or they have at least two categories (categorical variables). For example, let us say the study is to examine gender differences in levels of morality. Gender is one variable in the study, and the other variable is frequency of exercise. Gender has two categories: (1) male and (2) female. Frequency of exercise can vary along a continuum. In this case, let us say frequency scores can range from 0–10 times per week, with higher scores reflecting higher frequency of exercise. In some studies, the variables can be divided into two categories: independent and dependent variables. The independent variable causes or influences some change in the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the outcome variable and must be measurable. You can use this formula to help you differentiate between the independent and dependent variable: X → Y X influences Y where X is the independent variable (IV) and Y is the dependent variable (DV). For example, a researcher might ask whether a particular intervention causes a desired result. The intervention would be the IV and the desired result the DV. In the case above, gender might be considered the independent variable and frequency the dependent variable, but since gender cannot really be a cause of something like one’s exercise regime, most methodologists do not use the term IV and DV in such cases, preferring terms such as criterion variable and outcome variable. An important class of variables is named extraneous variables. An extraneous variable can create problems for the researcher. Extraneous variables are undesired variables that can influence the dependent variable and change or invalidate the results of an experiment. For example, suppose a researcher is investigating whether a particular training experience improves performance on some task. She assigns participants from an organization randomly to either the experimental group or the control group. Training is then provided to the experimental group, but not the control group. However, the fact that some of the participants may have more experience with the task than others could be an extraneous variable—it could confuse the results because the more experienced participants score higher as a result of their having more experience, not as a result of the training. Extraneous variables are the chief reason for controlled studies—studies designed to reduce or eliminate the influence of extraneous variables. Qualitative Methodology – Research Designs, Methods and Procedures, and Sampling Creswell (2003) described qualitative research as follows: a qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often makes knowledge claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives (i.e., the multiple meanings of individual experiences, meanings socially and historically constructed, with an intent of developing a theory or a pattern). . . . The researcher collects open-ended, emerging data with the primary intent of developing themes from the data. (p. 18) Essentially, qualitative research provides descriptions of experiences in the participants’ own words, which are then analyzed and interpreted by the researcher. Put the simplest way, where quantitative data are numbers, qualitative data are words.
5 The goal of qualitative research is to gain an understanding of the experiences of the individuals who participate in the research study. Qualitative research is aimed at discovery, understanding, meaning, and developing knowledge from the perspective of first-person accounts of the experience under inquiry. Examples of qualitative research methodologies are: • Phenomenology—the study of phenomena as experienced by the individual, with the emphasis on exactly how a phenomenon reveals itself to the experiencing person in all its specificity and concreteness. The participant experiencing a phenomenon is required to attend to it exactly as it appears in consciousness, without prejudgment, bias, or any predetermined set or orientation. A prominent expert in phenomenological research is Amedeo Giorgi (2009). • Grounded theory—a descriptive research approach that attempts to develop theories of understanding of processes based on data from the real world. The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in the data collected. Kathy Charmaz (2006) is an emerging leader in grounded theory research. • Case study—an in-depth description, using many kinds or sources of data, of a single research subject (such as a program, an event, an activity, or a group of individuals). Stake (1995) is a good introduction to qualitative case study research. • Ethnography—a descriptive research approach that involves becoming a part of the culture you study. This model is based in the anthropological tradition of research. In this approach, the researcher would spend a long time becoming immersed in the culture of the population being studied. • Heuristics—a research model that places special emphasis on knowing through the self, by becoming one with the topic and experiencing it, as it exists in the world. Eric Craig (1978) defined heuristics in his work The Heart of the Teacher as “A private discovery oriented approach to understanding how individuals experience themselves and their world” (p. 22). A foremost proponent of heuristic research is Clarke Moustakas (1990). Note that not all schools or departments approve heuristic research. • Generic or basic qualitative inquiry (or basic qualitative methodology)—an approach to eliciting opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or descriptions of experiences that is oriented toward issues external to the participants. An open-ended subjective opinion survey about people’s political beliefs would be an example. Caelli, Ray, and Mill (2003) provide an excellent introduction to generic qualitative inquiry. Other qualitative designs are approved by different schools. To find acceptable qualitative designs for the School of Business and Technology (SoBT), view Acceptable Research Methods and Research Designs for PhD Dissertations [PDF]. In presenting the results of a qualitative research study, there needs to a clear and detailed description that includes direct quotes from data collected from the participants. One way in which the quality of the research results can be judged is by the reaction of the reader. Are the results believable? The reader should be able to say, “I understand” or “That makes perfect sense.” The presentation of the data should convince the reader of the credibility of the data analysis. The results section of a qualitative study is a written presentation that includes the voices of the participants, the reflections of the researcher, and an interpretation of the answer to the research question and problem (Creswell, 2007). “A weak or unconvincing analysis can also stem from a failure to provide adequate examples from the data. . . . The researcher needs to make sure that
6 their interpretations and analytic points are consistent with the data extracts” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, pp. 94–95). Analysis, Findings, Discussion, and Ethics When evaluating an article, look first for the scientific research evidence. Again, examples of nonscientific evidence are opinions, value judgments, personal experiences, unsupported assertions, and second-hand reports. When you are dissecting the findings of the study or the researcher’s presentation and interpretation of results, certain questions can help with this evaluation. How do you decide what evidence to believe? The following questions will be helpful: • Where is the evidence (the words of the participants in qualitative research)? • How do I know that is true? Can I see it in the participants’ words? • Does the author support it with the participants’ words? • Is the research evidence relevant to the key issue being studied? • Does the researcher draw the correct conclusion form the evidence? • Is there information missing? Researchers are susceptible to confirmation bias, meaning that there can be a tendency to confirm personal beliefs, and this is equally true in qualitative analysis. When evaluating a research article, it is important to be aware of possible confirmation bias, and of your own personal beliefs, so that you objectively review whether the results have been reasonably presented and interpreted. The results section must thoroughly explain how the data was collected and how the data was analyzed. The results must be described in detail in order to justify the conclusions or the interpretations of the data. Ethics in research is of particular importance. For the purposes of this exercise, some fundamental ethical concerns are listed here. • Informed consent should be in the form of a written statement that fully informs the participant of the nature of the research project and what is expected of participants. The researcher has the informed consent form signed by the participant. • Harm and loss of dignity refers to the right to self-esteem and protection from harm. Involvement in the study should not be physically or mentally harmful to the participants. • Privacy and confidentiality relates to procedures to ensure that information is stored in locked areas and no one outside of the researchers will have access to participants’ records. The researcher must protect the anonymity of the participants. • Participants should be informed that they have the right to decline or withdraw from the research at any time without consequences.
7 References American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Beebe, L. (1993). Professional writing for the human services. Washington, DC: NASW Press. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. Caelli, K., Ray, L., & Mill, J. (2003). “Clear as mud”: Toward greater clarity in generic qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2(2), 1–24. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing ground theory: A practical guide though qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Craig, E. (1978). The heart of the teacher. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Giorgi, A. (2009). The descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Meltzoff, M. (1998). Critical thinking about research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
ArticleUsingCommunicationChoicesasaBoundary-ManagementStrategy:HowChoicesofCommunicationMediaAffecttheWork–LifeBalanceofTeleworkersinaGlobalVirtualTeamCynthiaP.Ruppel1,BaiyunGong1,andLeslieC.Tworoger1AbstractThisstudyexamineshowmembersofaglobalvirtualteamchosecom-municationmediawhilemanagingmultipleboundaries.ThestudyisuniqueinthatitconsiderstheperspectivesofU.S.managerswhoteleworkedfrom1H.WayneHuizengaSchoolofBusinessandEntrepreneurship,NovaSoutheasternUniversity,Lauderdale,FL,USACorrespondingAuthor:CynthiaP.Ruppel,H.WayneHuizengaSchoolofBusinessandEntrepreneurship,NovaSoutheasternUniversity,CarlDeSantisBuilding,3301CollegeAve.,Ft.Lauderdale,FL33314,USA.E-mail:[email protected](4)436-471ªTheAuthor(s)2013Reprintsandpermission:sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.navDOI:10.1177/1050651913490941jbtc.sagepub.com
domesticworkplacesandvirtualteammemberslocatedinofficesinIndia.Itdescribesthecomplexdynamicsofthedecision-makingprocessesthatteammembersusedinattemptingtoallocatetheirindividualresourcesinordertomeetthedemandsofahigh-performanceorganizationalculture.Thefindingssuggestthatmanagerschosemediathatmettaskrequirementsandmaintainedtheboundariesbetweentheirworkandpersonallivesratherthanmediathatwouldprovidethemostsatisfactoryexperience.Keywordsboundarymanagement,globalvirtualteams,mediachoice,telework,work–lifebalanceThenatureofamultinationalcorporation(MNC)frequentlynecessitatestheuseofglobalvirtualteamswhoseactivitiesarefacilitatedtovaryingdegreesbycommunicationmedia.Researcherssuggestthatinsuchteams,numerousboundaries(e.g.,thosecausedbycultural,geographic,ortime-zonedifferences)constrainthecommunicationbetweenteammembers(Chudoba,Wynn,Lu,&Watson-Manheim,2005;Maznevski&Chudoba,2000).Moreover,theliteratureontelecommutingmaintainsthatthebound-ariesbetweenteleworkers’workandpersonallivesshouldbeconsideredwheninvestigatingtheirmediachoices(Lal&Dwivedi,2010;Timmer-man&Scott,2006).Despitethecallforthisresearch,thediscussioncon-cerningsuchwork–lifeboundarieshasnotbeenempiricallylinkedtoteleworkers’choicesofcommunicationmedia.Forteleworkers,managingwork–lifeboundariesisparticularlycomplexwhentheirworkandlifeactivitiesareoccurringinthesamelocationandoftenatthesametimeastheyaremakingthesemediachoices.Theextantmedia-choiceliteraturesuggeststhateffectiveandefficientcommunicationrequiresthatmediabechosentoappropriatelymatchthedemandsofthetask(Daft&Lengel,1986;Daft,Lengel,&Trevino,1987;Dennis,Fuller,&Valacich,2008;Maznevski&Chudoba,2000).Butmatchingcommunicationmediawiththetaskmaybecomeincreasinglydifficultwhenthedecisionprocessisaffectedbytherealityofteleworkingwhilemanagingaglobalvirtualteam.Thestudythatwepresenthereexam-ineshowmembersofaglobalvirtualteammakesuchcommunication-mediachoiceswhilemanagingmultipleboundaries.Weconductedthisresearchbyobservingandinterviewingahigh-performanceglobalvirtualteaminaFortune100MNC.BecausethisteamRuppeletal.437
wasglobalinnatureandteammemberscopedwithanumberofcontextualissuessuchasorganizationalboundaries,cultureandtime-zonedifferences,and‘‘lessrich,asynchronousmodesofinteraction’’;hadnevermetfacetofaceduringtheiraward-winningproject;andhadreliedonlyonvirtualtoolstocommunicate,weconsideredtheteamtobehighlyvirtual(Kirkman&Mathieu,2005,p.707).Themorevirtualateamis,‘‘themorecomplexaretheissuesitmustaddresstofunctioneffectively’’(Zigurs,2003,p.339).Inaddition,teammembersworkedfromdomesticworkplacesratherthancor-porateofficesandattemptedtobalancetheirworkandpersonalliferoles.Forthepurposesofthisarticle,wedefinedomesticworkplacesas‘‘theirhomeofficesoranylocationmadenecessarybytheirworkandliferoles’’(Tworoger,Ruppel,Gong,&Pohlman,2013).TheteamconsistedoffourknowledgeworkersfromIndiaandtheirfiveU.S.-basedmanagers,oneexecutive-levelmanager,twosenior-levelman-agers,andtwomid-levelmanagers.Wewerepresentattheteam’sfirstface-to-facemeetingthatwasconductedatoneoftheheadquarters’officesintheUnitedStates.Theteamwaswrappingupitsaward-winningglobalreorganizationproject,andthecompanywaspreparingtoreorganizebasedontheresultsofthiseffort.Thissettingprovidedusanopportunitytoconductacasestudyofanacknowledgedhigh-performingteamandtoexplorethefollowingtworesearchquestions:1.Inaglobalvirtualteam,howdoteammanagerswhoworkfromdomesticworkplacescopewiththeadditionalencroachmentontheirwork–lifeboundarieswhiletryingtomaintainahighperformance?2.Inaglobalvirtualteam,howdotaskrequirementsandwork–lifeboundariesinfluencemediachoice?ThisstudyisimportantbecauseasMunkvold(2005)stated,‘‘weneedaccountsofpracticalexperiencefromglobalprojectsofthisnature’’(p.78).Referringtoglobalvirtualteamsandglobale-collaboration,healsostatedthat‘‘furtherresearchshould…conductmorefieldstudiesofglobale-collaborationindifferentsettings’’(p.85).AlthoughMunkvoldstudiedanorganizationtoexamineitsadoptionofthesetechnologies,wefocusontheusers,muchlikeDenstadli,Julsrud,andHjorthol(2012),whocalledforfurtherstudiestobetterunderstandusers’motivationswhenselectingmedia,especiallyastheyrelatetoface-to-faceinteractionsandvideocon-ferencing.Weareparticularlyinterestedinuserswhoareglobalteamman-agersworkinginthedomesticworkplaceandmustmanagetheboundaries438JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
betweentheirrolesatworkandinlife.Webelievethattheirattemptstomanagetheseboundarieswillaffectmediachoices.Firstwereviewtheliteratureonwork–lifebalanceandmediachoice.Thenweexplainourmethodology,presenttheresultsofourstudy,anddiscussthesefindings.LiteratureReviewPriortodiscussingtheroleofboundariesinmaintainingawork–lifebal-ance,weneedtodefinework–lifebalance.WeuseGrzywaczandCarlson’s(2007)definitionofwork–lifebalanceasthe‘‘accomplishmentofrole-relatedexpectationsthatarenegotiatedandsharedbetweenanindividualandhisorherrole-relatedpartnersintheworkandfamilydomains’’(p.455).Thisdefinitionisappropriateforresearchandpracticewithinorga-nizationsbecauseitprovidesmeaning‘‘outsidetheindividual’’(p.458)andallowsustoexaminehowteleworkers’communication-mediachoicescanhelpthemtobalancetheirworkandpersonallives.TheRoleofBoundariesinMaintainingaWork–LifeBalanceAnincreaseintaskdemands,theglobaldispersionofteammembers,andcompanycostcuttinghaveresultedinsomeemployeesworkingprimarilyfromhomewithnotraditionaloffice.Anindividual’sworklocationmightincludemultiplesites(e.g.,hotels,airplanes,customers’offices,poolsides,automobiles,schools,orsportsfields)duetoeithertheworkorthepersonalcircumstancesofthatindividual’sprofession.Also,duetotheexcessiveworkloadsorthevarioustimezonesofglobalvirtualteammembers,workhourssometimesexpandto24hoursaday,7daysaweek(24–7).Theymightworkwhileconductingpersonallifeactivities(e.g.,exercising,wait-ingtocollectchildrenfromschool,orparticipatinginweekend,vacation,orsocialevents).Withthedevelopmentofmobiletechnologiesthatallowustodoworkanytimeandanyplace,theboundariesbetweenworkrolesandliferoleshavebecomeincreasinglyblurred(Harrington&Ladge,2009;Jordan,2009;Lal&Dwivedi,2010;Maruyama,Hopkinson,&James,2009).Fur-ther,whenemployeesarehomebased,theboundariesformedbyaseparateworkplacearesignificantlydiminished(Jordan,2009).Becausesuchemployeesdonotleavetheirworkspacetomovetotheirlifespace,phys-icalspaceorlocationnolongeractsasaboundaryforthemtocrossinswitchingroles.Toacknowledgethathome-basedemployeesconductworkRuppeletal.439
notonlyattheirhomesbutat‘‘anylocationmadenecessarybytheirworkorliferoles,’’weusethetermdomesticworkplace(Tworogeretal.,2013).Additionally,whenemployeesworkglobally,work–timeboundariesmaybecomeblurred.Maruyama,Hopkinson,andJames(2009)foundthatforteleworkers,controllingworkhourswasthemostimportantfactorinachievingwork–lifebalance.Inaglobalvirtualteamwithmemberswhoworkindifferenttimezones,thisabilitytocontrolworkhoursishinderedwhensynchronouscommunicationisneeded.Probablyatleastonepartytoanysuchcommunicationisinatimeperiodthatistraditionallyconsideredpersonaltime.Suchblurringoftimeboundariesislikelytohaveanimpactontheeffectivenessofcommunication(Griffith&Harvey,2001;Ross,2001;Siebdrat,Hoegl,&Ernst,2009).Thus,theboundariesbetweenworkandpersonallifearediminishedwhenthemembersofaglobalvirtualteamteleworkfromdomesticwork-placeswhereasotherboundaries,suchastime-zoneandculturalbound-aries,areincreasinglyobvious(Kirkman&Mathieu,2005).Ashforth,Kreiner,andFugate(2000)describedacontinuumofrolesthatindividualsperforminordertomaintainwork–lifebalance,rangingfromthoseresult-inginhighsegmentation(impermeableboundaries)tothoseresultinginhighintegration(completelyblurredboundaries).Suchboundary-managementstrategiesareillustratedbyLalandDwivedi(2010)intheirstudyofworkerswhoattemptedtomanagetheirboundariesbyallocatingspecifictimeandspacetoeachdomain.Buttheiruseofmobilephoneswithoutsuchlimitationsinfringeduponthesebound-ariesandrequiredthemtodevelopspecificstrategiesforpreservingandmanagingtheseboundaries.Theseboundary-managementstrategiesforpreservingwork–lifebalanceincludedlimitingthenumberofpeoplewhopossesstheirmobilephonenumber,notusingtheirmobilephonefornon–work-relatedcommunication,screeningtheircallsandtextsandrespondingselectively,placingtheirmobilephoneinaspecificlocation,activelyturningtheirphoneonandoff,andusingavirtualnumbertomanagemultipledevices.Thus,withincreasedvirtuality,workersmustestablishandactivelyman-agetheirwork–lifeboundarieswhiledealingwiththeotherboundariesthatincreasedglobalvirtualityimposesontheirwork.Toamelioratethisappar-enttensionbetweenhavingtosuccessfullyperformtheirvirtualworkwhiletryingtomaintainawork–lifebalance,suchworkersneedboundary-managementstrategies.Inourliteraturereview,wefoundseveralcallsforstudiesleadingtoanunderstandingofhowboundary-managementstrate-giesareemployedtoachievework–lifebalance(Grzywacz&Carlson,440JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
2007;Hilletal.,2007),withsomecallsstressingtheneedforstudiesthatalsodealwithincreasinglevelsofvirtuality(Harrington&Ladge,2009;Jordan,2009).Inthisstudy,weattempttoanswerthesecallsbyexaminingourfirstresearchquestion,whichaskshowglobalvirtualteammanagersinthedomesticworkplacecopewiththeadditionalencroachmentontheirwork–lifeboundarieswhiletryingtomaintainahighworkperformance.MediaChoiceInaglobalvirtualteam,technology-basedmediaformthebackboneofteamcommunicationandcoordination.Teammembers’mediachoicesreflecttheirworkapproachandinfluenceteamdynamicsandoutcomes(Timmerman&Scott,2006).Butthemajortheoriesaboutmediachoicefocusmoreonmatchingmediawithtaskdemandsratherthanonthepeopleinvolvedandtheirrelationships.Bothmediarichnesstheoryandmediasynchronicitytheorysuggestthatmediachoiceshouldbebasedontaskdemandsortask-relatedcommunica-tionprocesses.Mediarichnessisachievedthroughcuemultiplicity(i.e.,numberofcuessimultaneouslyshared),languagevariety(i.e.,numberoflanguagesymbolssimultaneouslyconveyed),andpersonalfocus(i.e.,theamountofpersonalfeelingsandemotionscommunicated;Daftetal.,1987).Bothfieldandlaboratorystudiesonmediarichnesshavefoundacorrelationbetweenthecarefulchoiceofmediarichnessbasedontaskdemandsandhightaskperformance(Daftetal.,1987;Rice,1992).Butotherinvestigationsfoundthatmedia-richnesschoicesdidnotpredictoronlypartiallypredictedtaskperformance(Hambley,O’Neill,&Kline,2006;Straus&McGrath,1994).SuchfindingschallengeDaftetal.’sargu-mentthatthefitbetweenmediarichnessandthetaskenvironmentisessen-tialforhightaskperformance.Mediasynchronicityisdeterminedbyspeedofinteraction(i.e.,theamountoftimetakenforthereceivertoobtaintheinformation),parallelism(i.e.,thenumberofsimultaneoustransmissionsthatcaneffectivelytakeplace),rehearsability(i.e.,theabilitytoreviewamessageduringencodingbeforesendingittothereceiver),andreprocessability(i.e.,theabilitytoreviewthemessageatalatertime;Dennisetal.,2008).Studieshaveprovidedempiricalevidencethatagoodfitbetweenmediasynchronicityandtheteam’sneedforsynchronouscommunicationleadstosuperiorteamperformance(DeLuca&Valacich,2006;Herbsleb&Mockus,2003;Munzer&Borg,2008).ButScholl,McCarthy,andHarr(2006)foundRuppeletal.441
thatstudentsubjectspreferredasynchronouscommunicationtosynchro-nouscommunication.Sincemediatoolsforvirtualglobalteamsbecamewidelyusedinorga-nizations,studieshavefoundthatnon–task-relatedfactorsalsoaffectmediachoice.Thesefactorsarerelatedtouserandsocialaspectsofthetechnol-ogy’simplementation,suchasusers’perceptionsoftheauthoritativenessofthemedia(Barry&Fulmer,2004),favorabilityofthemessage(Barry&Fulmer,2004;Beise,Niederman,&Mattord,2004;Sussman&Sproull,1999),andsocialpressureinthecontext(Beiseetal.,2004;Kirkman,Rosen,Tesluk,&Gibson,2004)aswellastheirtechnologicalability(Hollingshead,1998;Venkatesh,2000),familiaritywiththemediaandwiththeircommunicationpartners(Carlson&George,2004),andcompensatoryadaptationbehaviors(Fuller&Dennis,2009;Kock,Lynn,Dow,&Akgun,2006;Munzer&Borg,2008).Oneofthecriticismsofthemedia-choicetheoriesisthattheyassumethatmediausersmakerationaldecisionswhenchoosingamediumforagiventask(Timmerman&Scott,2006).WiththeprevalentuseofglobalvirtualteamsinMNCs,maintainingwork–lifeboundariesforthosewhoworkindomesticworkplacesbecomesincreasinglydifficult.Butthisprob-lemofmanagingwork–lifeboundariesandhowdoingsoaffectschoicehasnotbeeninvestigatedthoroughlyintheliterature.Therefore,oursecondresearchquestionconcerninghowtaskrequirementsandwork–lifebound-ariesinfluencemediachoiceisanimportantonetoexplore.MethodToinvestigatehowmembersofaglobalvirtualteammanagetheirwork–lifeboundariesandhowdoingsoaffectstheirmediachoices,weconductedanin-depthcasestudyofahigh-performingvirtualglobalteaminamulti-nationalserviceorganization.Weconsideredthisteamtobehighlyvirtualbecausepriortothemeetingweobserved,theteammembershadnevermetfacetofaceduetobudgetconstraintseventhoughtheirprojectwasintheprocessofclosingdown.Theyweregeographically,temporally,andcultur-allydispersedandhadusedtechnologytocommunicate(Kirkman&Mathieu,2005;Zigurs,2003).ThisteamincludedfiveU.S.-basedmanagers(oneexecutive-levelmanager,twosenior-levelmanagers,andtwomid-levelmanagers)whoworkedfromthedomesticworkplaceandhadbeenwiththeorganizationforaminimumof11yearsandamaximumof23years.Theteamalsoincludedfourhigh-levelknowledgeworkerswhoworkedfromcorporateofficesinIndiaprimarilyduetothelackof442JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
technologyinfrastructuretosupportextensiveworkattheirhomes,whicharefrequentlysharedwithmultiplefamilymembers.ThefiveU.S.telewor-kerswerethevirtualmanagersoftheseIndianteammemberswhoworkedformultipleprojectmanagersbecauseofthematrixstructureoftheMNC.Alocalcareermanagercollectedinputfromthevariousprojectmanagers.Thisteam,consistingoftheU.S.managersandIndianknowledgework-ers,hadwonmultipleawardsfortheirproject,andsomeoftheIndianteammembershadbeencalledtotheU.S.sitetohelplaunchaglobalinitiativebasedonthisproject.Theprojectinvolvedamajoroverhaulofthecustomer-facingdivisionoftheMNC.Itincludedrealigningtasks,whichresultedinsignificantchangesinjobresponsibilities.Nolongerwouldthesalesforcemerelymeetthecustomer,gatherinformation,andreturnthatinformationtoasecondperson,whowouldthendesignasolution.Thisrealignmentmeantthatthepersonwhowasclosesttothecustomerandtheirsituationwasalsotheonewhodesignedthesolution.Thus,thepeoplewhoprovidedthesolutionsweretrainedinsalestechniques,andthesalespeopleweretrainedindesigningthesolutions.Thegoalofthisprojectwastodesignandsupportthenewstructurewhiletransitioningemployeestothisnewreorganization.TheIndianteammemberswerehighlyskilledandedu-catedsolutiondesignerswhoprovidedsupporttothesalesforce,particu-larlyforcomplexproblems.Thisprojectwasultimatelyimplementedthroughouttheentireorganization.Thisteamprovidedanexcellentunitofstudyinorderforustobetterunderstandthedomesticworkplaceasitexiststodayandtheimpactthatthisworkplacehasonthecommunicationprocess.Wewereprovidedwiththeopportunitytostudythisglobalteambythesenior-levelprojectmanager,whofrequentlylecturedatourbusinessschool.Manyofthelecturescenteredongrapplingwiththenewrealitiesofwork,includingmanagingglobalvirtualteamswhileworkingfromvariouslocationsandtheblendingofworkandpersonallife.TheselecturesmotivatedustobetterdefinehowcommunicationtakesplaceinglobalvirtualteamswhentheU.S.managersareexpectedtoworkanytimeandanyplace.Furthermore,wewantedtoexplorein-depththenatureoftheexperienceofworkingandlivinginthedomesticworkplacewhilemanagingagloballydispersedteam.Usingqualitativemethodstodelveintotheexperiencesofthosemanagingaswellasthosebeingmanagedcouldprovideuswithrichinsightsintotheglobalcommunicationprocess.Weobservedandinterviewedteammembersduringandaftertheirfirstface-to-facemeeting.Duringour2-dayvisittothecorporateofficeoftheMNC,weinterviewedandobservedfourofthemanagersandallfourRuppeletal.443
knowledgeworkers.Subsequently,atanotherlocation,weinterviewedtheexecutive-levelmanagerwhooversawthisprojectandwasresponsibleformorethan$2.5billionofbusinessfortheMNCandformanaging16,000teammembers.HewasleavingtheMNCafterhavingworkedthereformanyyears,sohefeltthathecouldbemoreforthcomingabouttheMNCandthesubjectofthisresearch;thus,heprovidedvaluableinsights.Priortothisface-to-facemeeting,theteammemberscommunicatedwitheachotherbyusingtechnology-aidedtools.TheMNCprovidedacompre-hensivelistofcommunicationtoolsthatwereavailableforthemanagersandteammemberstochoosefrom,includingbasictoolssuchasthephone,e-mail,andinstantmessagingtogroupwaretoolssuchasvideoconferen-cing.TheMNCalsomaintainedacomprehensivecorporateintranetwithsocialnetworkingcapabilities.DataCollectionAfterobtainingInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB)approval,wegatheredourdatabyusingmultipledata-collectiontechniques.Ourfirstdatasourcecamefromourin-depthindividualinterviewswiththefivemanagers.WefollowedthefieldproceduresthatMilesandHuberman(1994)recom-mended,whichincludedinformingtheparticipantsofourresearchintentandprocessesandseekingpermissiontorecordthesessions.Theinterviewswereopen-ended,semistructured,andguidedbydiscussionquestions(seeAppendixA).Oneofusactedastheprimaryinterviewerwhiletherestofustooknotesandaskedanyadditionalquestionspriortotheconclusionoftheinterview.Wesoughtepoche´(suspensionofjudgment)byactivelylisteningandseekingclarificationofthemeaningofresponses.Oncethesessionswereconcluded,wecheckedourfactsandcomparedourimpressionsandnotes.OursecondsourceofdatawasthefocusgroupthatweconductedwiththeknowledgeworkersfromIndia.AfteratrustedmanagerclearlyexplainedtothemthattheMNChadapprovedparticipationintheresearch,wefollowedsimilarfieldprocedures,includingseekingpermissiontorecordthesession.Oneofusfacilitatedthediscussionwhiletherestofusobservedthesession,tooknotes,andaskedfollow-upquestions(seeAppendixB).Wedidnotlimitourquestionstothoseconcerningtheteam’saward-winningproject;however,duetotherecencyeffect,manyoftheparticipants’commentsreflectedtheirexperiencesduringthisproject.Ourthirdsourceofdatastemmedfromouropportunitytoobserveandnotethelessformalinteractionsoftheteamduringour2-dayvisitatthe444JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
corporateoffice.Weparticipatedinaneveningsocialdinner.Duringthedinner,theteammembersconspiredtoplayapracticaljokeononeofthemanagerswholeftthemeetingearlyandforgothissuitcase.Thefollowingday,theseremainingteammemberscarriedoutthispracticaljokebyaddingitemstothemanager’ssuitcasebeforehavingitsenttohim.Welaterdiscussedtheseinformalinteractionsduringthefocusgroup.Afterthese2daysofobservingteamactivitiesandinterviewingteammembers,webegantorealizethesignificanceoftheirface-to-facemeeting.Byobservingthisfirstface-to-faceencounteroftheU.S.managersandtheIndianknowl-edgeworkers,wecaughtthemomentintimewhenperceptionmetreality.Finally,wecollectedsecondarydatafrommaterialsthatwefoundonthecompany’sWebsiteaswellasinnewspaperandbusinesspublicationsabouttheMNC.Weusedthismaterialtoverifyourimpressionsandtosub-stantiatethethemesthatweusedinourdataanalysis.DataAnalysisWetranscribedverbatimtherecordingsofourinterviewsandfocusgroupandcheckedthemforaccuracy.Fromthesetranscriptions,wegeneratedasummaryofeachparticipant’sexperiencesandviews,whichwethenforwardedtotherespectiveparticipantsfortheireditingandcommentaryandtovalidateourunderstandingoftheresponses(Priest,2002).WeemployedmethodsforanalyzingdatabasedoncommonanalyticpracticessuggestedbyMilesandHuberman(1994)andCreswell(2007).Fromtheinterviewtranscripts,wecreatedacodingschemausingkeywordresponsesandthemes.Welookedfortrendsandpatternsinthedataandthenindependentlydevel-opedthemesbynotingoccurrencesofresponses(Ghauri,2004).Thethreeofus,withourdisparatebackgroundsandresearchinterests(leadership,organi-zationalbehavior,informationsystems,anddecisionsciences),thenagreedonthecodingschema,whichincludedeightthemes:communication,culturalcomparisons,lifestyle,organizationalidentityorcommitment,workperfor-mance,personalresponsibility,teamprocess,andtrust.Wetrainedmaleandfemalecoders,whorepresentedavarietyofethnicbackgrounds,ages,andnativenationalcultures,toindependentlyanalyzethetextaccordingtothethemes.Theystudiedthetranscriptslinebylineinordertoextractpassagesassociatedwitheachtheme.Theydiscussedanyinconsistenciesthattheyfoundandthenbroughttheunresolvedinconsis-tenciestousforfurtherdiscussionandresolution.Theynotedthefrequencyofresponsespertheme,whichenabledustogaugethesupportforeachtheme(seeTable1).Ruppeletal.445
Tovalidatethesefindings,weusedmultipledatasources,includingthetranscriptsofthemanagerinterviewsandthefocusgroupwiththeIndianknowledgeworkers,notesfromourtwodaysofobservations,andpublica-tionsabouttheMNC.Inourdiscussions,wewerecarefultoavoidmakingearlygeneralizationsandtoencouragehealthyskepticism(Miles&Huber-man,1994).Afterrepeatedlyandmeaningfullyreviewingthedata,asPriest(2002)suggested,andafterhavingfrequentlengthyargumentsabouttheirmeaning(Miles&Huberman,1994),webegantoachieveconsensusinourinterpretations.Recognizingtheinherentdifficultiesconcerningtheinter-nalvalidityofqualityresearch,wesentaversionofthisarticletoatopman-agerwithmorethan20yearsoftenureattheMNC.ThemanagerfeltthatourresearchalignedwithhisperceptionsabouttheMNC.Wealsosentanearlierversionofthearticletotwosenior-levelmanagersattheMNC—onewasaparticipantinthisresearchprojectandtheotherwasnot.Wesoughttheirfeedbackinordertovalidateourunderstandingofthedataandtogainadditionalinsights.ResultsTheresultsofourstudyshowedhowthecommunicationofmanagers,whowereworkinginthedomesticworkplaceandleadingglobalvirtualteams,isconstrainedbyvariousboundaries.Thus,theseworkersneededtoemployboundary-managementstrategies.Inthefollowingsubsections,weprovideexcerptsfromourtranscriptsthatillustratetheseboundaries,thechallengesthatworkinginthedomesticworkplaceposestoteleworkers’work–lifebal-ance,andtheboundary-managementstrategiesthattheseworkersemploy.Table1.FrequencyofKeyThemesintheResponsesoftheU.S.ManagersandIndianKnowledgeWorkers.KeyThemesU.S.ManagersIndianKnowledgeWorkersCommunication12175Culturalcomparisons2446Lifestyle15941Organizationalidentityorcommitment2437Workperformance14022Personalresponsibility1029Teamprocess2256Trust817446JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
BoundariesThatConstrainCommunicationonGlobalVirtualTeamsThevirtualityofaglobalvirtualteamimposesvariousboundarypressuresonteammembers.Theseboundariesarecreatedbytime-zone,language,andculturaldifferences.Time-ZoneBoundaries.ThefollowingexcerptsillustratehowtheU.S.man-agersinourstudyfeltpressuredbytheboundariesimposedbythediffer-encesintimezonesbetweenvariousteammembers:Ineedtobeginat7:00a.m.tohelpmecoordinatewiththeIndiatimezoneandthenagainat6:00p.m.tohelpwiththeeastcoasttimezone.BecauseImanageteamsinIndia,Istartcallsat4a.m.So,manytimesI’vegotmeetingsat5a.m.andtill9p.m.,becauseI’vegotfolksinKorea,inAustralia,andIndiathat,inordertomeetthatreasonabletimeforthem,you’readjustingyourschedule.ThefirstthingIdoeverymorningisIturnmycomputeron,andIdomye-mail—anythingthatcameover—overnightbecausewe’reglobal—soIcangetstuff—Icangetquiteabit,believeitornot,frommidnighttofivefromIndiaorChinaorevenfromtheWestCoast.Andso,Ijumponandhitmymailfirstandcleanthatup.UsuallyIdothataround—youknow,six—takemydaughtertothebus—comehome—youknow,byseven,knockoutafewthings….IhavenocluewhenI’mgoingtotakeashowerduringtheday.That’salwaysthequestion.Iwakeupat7a.m.,andthere’s35e-mailsbecauseIndia’sup,andtheUKisup,andsothey’reshoutingoute-mailsthatyouhavetotakeaction,andyouhavetoread,beawareof,takeaction,whatever—andsometimesittakesmeanhour—thatseventoeightisreallythehourtojustcatchuponwhathap-penedwhileIwasasleep—whatactionsdoIhavetotake.LanguageBoundaries.AstheseU.S.managersexplained,languagediffer-encesbetweenteammembersalsocreatedcommunicationboundaries:Thereareissuesfromalanguageperspective.Idon’talwaysgetinwritingwhatsomeIndiateammembersaretryingtocommunicate,andI’llsay,‘‘letmecallyou.’’Whenwearetalking,Icanaskquestionsbettersothat‘‘Igetit,’’butwiththewrittenandinstantmessaging,sometimesIhaveaproblemunderstandingIndiateammembers….Youfeelbadthoughwhenyouhavetoaskthemtokeeprepeatingwhattheyaresaying.Ruppeletal.447
ThecommunicationproblemsIseeareprobablymorecultural…andprob-ablymorewiththeIndiateamthanjustwithmyteam.Sometimesthephoneconversationscanbecomealittlebitchallenging,again,withIndia,fromastandpointofbeingabletohearthemorjustbeingabletounderstandthem.CulturalBoundaries.Finally,theU.S.managersdescribedhowculturaldif-ferencesbetweenteammemberscausedcommunicationboundaries:Wewerepreviouslyoff-shoringtosavemoney,butnowweareoff-shoringtogetapresenceandtohavegrowthopportunitiesinRussia,India,China—theareasoftheglobethataregrowing.Sincetheseareourgrowthmarkets,thereareculturalissuesindevelopingthosemarkets.WhenyougaveapersoninIndiaadirectionandtheysay,‘‘Yes.’’Thatdoesnotmeantheyagree.Wedidn’tknowthatforalongtime.Sowhatwashappeningiswewereworkingonclientengagements,andwewouldhaveadeliverableoramilestonethatwasdueonFriday,andI’dsay,‘‘Sangi,Friday—thatdeliver-ablehastobetotheclient.’’‘‘Yes.’’Thatmeans,Iagree.Itdoesn’tmeanit’sgoingtohappen.TheDomesticWorkplace:AChallengetoWork–LifeBalanceInthedomesticworkplace,thework–lifeboundariesoftheU.S.managersblurred,astheymadeevidentinthesecomments:Whenyourofficeis12stepsaway,itishardtosetboundaries,andyoucanbecomeaworkaholicveryeasily.Ihavehadperiodswhereit’sThursday,andIrealizeIhaven’tbeenoutsidesinceMonday.Itcanbeunhealthy….Ontheweekends,Iwilljumponinthemorningswhenthechildrenareinbed…justtoseewhatisgoingonandclearsomestuffout.Weworkfromanywhereandeverywhere….I’lltypicallyboardtheplane,takemy10-minutepowernap,andthen,assoonastheysayit’sokayforyoutowork,thePCcomesout,andIdomye-mail.I’llqueueupallmye-mailandthingswhenIgettowhereverI’mgoing.I’llgototherentalcarplace.I’llstartthee-mailsending.WhileI’mdriving,it’sthePC’ssittingtherenexttomeintheseatsendingalltheworkthatIdidontheplane.Youcanwork24–7andnevershutdown,soyouhavetohavethedisciplinetodoboth….TounwindIworkoutalmosteveryday.Ihavetoblocktimeto448JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
exercise,andifImissthekidswillnoticeandsendmeouttojog….Ihaveevenbeenjoggingwhileonacall.Talkaboutdoingtoomanythingsatonce.Asthemanagersexplained,thedemandsoftheirheavyworkloadand24-hourworkcycleintrudedontheirtimewiththeirfamilyandtheirpersonallife:[Theconcernis]not[caused]bythetechnology—it’sprobablymorebythedemandsofthetime—onyourtime….Yougettheworkload.Sometimesyouwonder,isn’tthisworkloadalotmorethanonepersonshouldbedoing?BecauseI’mlookingatan11-hourday….Whendidwegofrom8-hourworkdaystoan11-hourday?Wejustdid.Sixo’clockcomes,seveno’clockcomes,eighto’clockcomes,nineo’clockp.m.comes,andthere’sstillpeopleoutthereallovertheworldworkingthatstillwanttotalkandstillwanttomovetheballforward,andyouhavetonowbeabletosay,well,I’vegivenyoua16-hourday….Wouldn’tyousay,youhavetocloseitalldownandsay,NowI’mgoingtofocusonfamilytime?InformationontheMNC’sWebsiteconfirmedthattheorganizationhadclearexpectationsonhowitsemployeesshouldwork.Itframedemployees’needtoworkanytime,anywhereasatrade-offfortheirbenefitofhavingtheflexibilitythatworkinginadomesticworkplaceaffords.ItalsosuggeststhattheMNCcommonlyusesbothvirtualteamsandamatrixorganiza-tionalstructure,inwhichemployeesmightworkformultiplebossesandonmultipleprojectsatagiventime(Gottlieb,2007).Boundary-ManagementStrategiesintheDomesticWorkplaceTomanagetheirwork–lifeboundaries,managersactivelyemployedvariousstrategies.Forexample,theyestablishedtemporalboundariesbyschedulingtheirworkattimeswhentheirfamilydidnotneedtheirattentionorbysettingasidespecifictimesforfamilyactivities.Inthefollowingexcerpts,theman-agersexplainhowtheyattemptedtosegmenttheirworkandfamilytimes:OntheweekendsIwilljump[online]inthemorningswhenthechildrenareinbed…justtoseewhatisgoingonandclearsomestuffout.Numberoneisprotectyourpersonaltime.IactuallygottothepointwhereIputtimeonmycalendar,sowhenyoulookatmycalendar,itsays,threetofiveonFridayisblocked.Youmakeappointmentswithyourself.Getaprior-itization,includingfamilyandallthat,ofwhathastobedone—inaday,inaweek—whatevertimeperiodthatyouchoosetomake.CheckpointyourselfRuppeletal.449
multipletimesadayandmakesurethatyou’redoingthatstuff(whatever’simportant)becausewhathappensisyoulookate-mail,andallofasuddenyoulookup,andyou’vespenttwohours,andyouhaven’tdoneanythingonyourimportantprioritylist—you’vejustanswerede-mail.Themanagersalsoattemptedtoestablishlocationboundariessothattheycouldfocusontheirwork;however,theyhaddifficultiesmaintaininglocationboundariesinthedomesticworkplace:Ihavemadephonecallsfromtheclosetbecauseofconstructionatmyhouse.Otherfactorscangetinthewaysoyouhavetoprovideforthem:cryingchildren,petnoises,andstormsthatknockoutconnectionsarejustsomeofthethingsyouhavetothinkaboutwhenworkingfromhome.She[wife]usedtohavethehousetoherselfwhenIwenttoanoffice,butnowIjokethatitis‘‘practiceforretirement,’’andshewillsay,‘‘CanyoumoveyourcomputeroffthetablesoIcanpourmyselfacupoftea?’’Youbegintolearnthatnoteverythingiscritical.Whilesettingprofessionalboundaries,youalsoneedfamilyboundariessothattheyknowwhenIamworking.IshutthedoortothebasementwhenIamonacall.Ifinditalittlehardbecausemywife’samobileworker,andsheworksfromhomeaswell.Wehaveanofficeinourhouse—sosheworksoutofthere.Iusuallyworkatthekitchentable,orsometimesIworkoutbythepool.SummertimeisinterestingbecausewewereliketheKool-Aidhouse.Every-bodyhastheirkidsover,andthey’replaying,soI’musuallysomewhereinsomepartofthehousebecauseIdon’twanttochangetheirlifestyle—youknow,Iwanttoberespectfultosummertime—iftheywanttocomeinandplayavideogamewiththeirfriend,or—ortheywanttodoadanceroutineinthebasement.Sotheygrewupwithit—sothey’reusedtoit.Umm,youknow,itisinteresting—so,youhavethatboundary—youknow,youhavetomasterthat.Youhaveto,kindof,insertthatintothefamily.Finally,whentheboundariesthatthesemanagersestablishednolongerallowedthemtoperformtheirroles—eitheratworkorintheirpersonallife—atahighlevel,thentheywouldcrosstheseboundariesinordertointe-gratethetworoles:ButIdonoticethatevenseniorexecutivesandmymentorsmaketimetoworkout.Iusedtowaituntilmyworkwasdonetoworkout,butIhaverealizedthatmyworkwillneverbefinished,soIjusthavetofititin.450JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
LastyearIboughtanellipticalmachine,andwhenIamonaconferencecall,Isometimesjumponthere.Icangooutmydoor,andIcanbeinmyrunningclotheswhileI’moncon-ferencecallsandrunoutmydoorandruninmydooraminutebeforethenextcallstarts.Becausenobody’stheretoseeme,youknow,sweating,andIcanbeonthecall,andsoI’mmanagingeverythingin.Mydaughtergoestoschool…andit’saboutanhourandahalfaway….Soeveryday(andIworkathome),Ileaveatquarteroftwotopickherupatthree.Thatwindshieldtime—werefertoitasconferencecalls—Iwill,manytimes,ifshehasahalfday,Idropher—ifIhavetodrivehertoschool,Idropheroffateight.Ijustsitinmycar—mycarismyoffice.I’vegotmycom-puterwithmySprintcard.I’mdoingallmywork;youknow,I’mtakingmyconferencecalls.Peoplearestill(likeespeciallythenunsatschoolandstuff)comeoutandgo,‘‘Wow,whatareyoudoinginthere?’’AndI’m,like,‘‘It’sjusthowweworktoday.’’Youcanvirtuallyworkanywhere,anytime,any-place.That’swherethedisciplinecomesin,andyouputtheboundariesup.Attheendofourquestionsconcerningworkingasaglobalteammemberinthedomesticworkplace,onemanagersummeditupthisway:Imean,it’skindoffascinatinglookingatalltheboundarieswe’recrossingandhowmanydifferentwaysyouhavetoreallychangeyourapproach.MediaChoice:ABoundary-ManagementStrategyThevirtualteammembershadawidevarietyofcommunicationmediaavailabletouse.Theonesthattheymostfrequentlymentionedweree-mail,instantmessaging,telephone,videoconferencing,andface-to-facemeetings,listedinorderofincreasingrichnessandsynchronicity.AfterreviewingthedatafromboththemanagersandtheIndianknowl-edgeworkers,wedeterminedthattheteammanagersmadethedecisionsconcerningmediachoiceandcommunicationstyle;hence,thesedecisionsreflectedtheirtaskorientation.Theteammembersappearedtohaverespondedin-kind.Oneteammanager’sresponsetoourquestionconcern-inghowmediaischosenindicatedthatmediachoicewasguidedbythenatureofthetasks,whichisconsistentwiththeliterature:Wechooseourcommunicationtoolsbasedonthesize,subjectmatter,andmakeupoftheaudience.Ruppeletal.451
Hierarchiesexistedamongvariousgroupsoftheaudience.Forthehigh-levelmanagers,infrequentface-to-facemeetingswerearrangedtofulfilltheneedforconceptualizationandcontextualizationintheirdecision-makingtasks:Tome[ahigherlevelmanager,beingvirtualis]thechallengebecause…it’sveryhardtobeapersonalperson.SoItry…toget,especiallymylead-ershipteam,together.Andwetrytodo,onceaquarter…face-to-facemeetings.Incontrast,clientsreceivedthemanager’sfullattention:Therearedifferentunwrittenprotocolsfordifferentaudiences.Ifitisaclientweareworkingwithvirtually,althoughmostofourworkisdonewiththemface-to-face,weareverybuttonedupandeverythingisperfectandwewillwalkthemthroughourpresentation.Inchoosingbetweenusinge-mail,instantmessaging,orthetelephone,teammanagersseemedtobesensitivetothecomplexityofthetaskandwantedtoadoptrichermediainordertoaccommodatethetask:Weusemanytoolstocommunicate,butIthinkwearetoodependentone-mailorinstantmessaging,whichismoreinteractive.Itwasneverintendedforcomplexissues,soItellmyteamtopickupthephone.Oneofthethingsthatgoesawayinthisvirtualworldistheeffortlesssharingofideas.Iendupsaying,‘‘Youknowwhat,letmecallyou.’’…And,intalkingwiththem,I’llgetit,butthewritten[form],sometimesIhaveaproblemwithunderstanding.Bygoingfrome-mailtophone,youcanpickupsomeofthenuanceasyoucanpickupvoiceintonation.Finally,forthemembersoftheglobalvirtualteam,themanagerssuggested,richandsynchronousmediaseemedunnecessary,andpersonalfeelingsseemedunimportantwhenattemptingtogetataskaccomplished:Idon’tthinkvideoconferencingwouldchangethings[fortheteammembers].Seeingpeoplephysicallyimprovesthepersonalaspectbuttogetthejobdone—thejobcangetdone.Itmightbeamorepleasantexperiencetoseepeople,andcommunicationsmightbemorepersonalinadditiontowork,but452JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
Idon’tthinkithindersgettingtheworkdone.Idon’tthinkface-to-faceismoreproductiveorefficient.WhenthecompanyaskedustoputourpicturesonaninternalWebsite,Ithought,justbecauseIknowwhatapersonlookslike—it’sgoingtoenhancemycommunicationwiththem?NOT!Idon’tseeushavingacommunicationproblem(otherthangettingtimelyinformation—butthatisn’trelatedtoworkathome.Yeah,it’slikeSkype.Idon’tusethepicturepieceofit.Idon’tthinkit’sthatimportant.Therearetimeswhen—yeah,Idon’tthinkit’sthatimportantforme,personally,toseetheperson.IstillthinkithelpsifI’vealreadymetthemonce,andthenIseetheirpicture.Tome,itdoesn’t—tome,personally,itdoesn’tmatterasmuchifIhaven’tmetthemwhethertheirpictureisthereornot.I’dsay,atthispointnow,evenifwedidit[videoconferencing]justforapar-ticular,formalpresentationsandmeetings—unlessthetechnologywereasifyouwereintheroom,Idon’tseethebenefitofit—maybebecausewe’resoaccustomed—fromtheseniorexec-leveldown—we’resoaccustomedtobeingabletoworkoverthephonethatyou’reeitherintheroomoryou’renot,andwehavepeoplewhoareintheroomandonthephoneatthesametimeparticipating.Butthemanagers’tendencytoprimarilyuselean(asopposedtorich)andasynchronousmediaincommunicatingwiththeirglobalteammemberscanalsobeexplainedbytheireffortstosegmentworkfromtheirpersonallives.Specifically,teammanagersseemedtoprefermediathatblockedvisualcommunicationoranyclueofwhatothertaskstheymaybedoingsimultaneously.Thus,theyusee-mail,instantmessaging,andthetelephonemuchmoreoftenthanvideoconferencing:Idon’twantvideoconferencingwhileIamworkingathomebecauseIdon’twantpeopletoseewhatIlooklikeduringwork—thejoggingsuit,etc.Videoconferencingwouldbehorrible….IfIhadthecameraonmyPC,andpeoplehadtoseemewhileI’mworkingfromhome,thatwouldnotbeokay.ThosearethecallswhenI’mjoggingonthecall—Ihavedonethat,whenIhavetolistenonly.AndIsay,thisisridiculous—talkaboutdoingtoomanythingsatonce,whenyou’reonthespeakerphonegoingdownthestreet.Ruppeletal.453
CommunicationSatisfactionandRelationshipBuilding:MissedOpportunitiesIndianteammemberstendedtobepassiveabouttheirmediachoice,usingwhatevermediathattheirmanagersinitiated.Theyseemedtoperceivetheirmanagersastask-driven,remoteindividualswhodidnotwanttobecon-tactedbythemunlessabsolutelynecessary:[Theseniormanager]hadjustsentoutane-mailsayingyoucanapproachmeatanytimeforourissues.We’veneverwrittenamailto[themanager].If[mymanager]messagesme,justgivehimacallataconvenienttimeorpinghim.Youneedtotakeextracarewhenyouarenotcollocatedwithyourmanager.Sometimesyoudon’twanttoheartoomuchfromyourmanager,andtheydon’twanttohearfromyouallthetimeeither.ButtheIndianteammembers’commentsdemonstratedtheirdesireforrichermediaandparticularlyforface-to-faceinteractionandtherelation-shipsthatsuchinteractioncanhelp.Whenaskedtodescribeaneffectivevirtualmanager,theyappreciatedthosemanagerswhocoulddevelopapersonalconnectionwiththem:Ilovepictures.Ilovepeoplesendingtheirpicturesoversowecouldgettheirhobbies.Whenyouarefacingsomethingunknown,whenyouarefacingsomebodyunknown,youhaveamentalpictureoftheperson—ofthetalker—youhaveamentalpictureandyouhavepresetassumptions….Thepersonislikethis.Thefaceismissing,sothemoreofhumantouchhastocomeintheformoftheapproachability[of]theperson.VideoconferencingIthinkonceaweek.Thatwouldreallyhelp.Werecommend[having]theteameither…visitoverhereoroverthere…anddosomekindofeducationsession.Visithere—andpeoplefromherecanvisitoverthere—haveakindofafaceandhaveadiscussionand[have]somekindofadinner—likewhatwedidyesterday…spendsometime[together]….That’swhatwerecommend.454JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
Thus,theIndianteammembersclearlywouldpreferusingrichandsyn-chronousmedia,andtheirdesireforrelationshipswiththeirmanagersandfellowteammemberswasnotsatisfiedbythemediathatthemanagerschose.Theseteammemberswerealsoclearaboutwhattheyexpectedfromtherelationship-buildingprocess:Apersonaltouchhasalwaysworkedwondersforus.Youtendtoworkmoreforaperson;youtendtogivemorethan100%toaleaderwhomyouhavefaithinstalledin….Theteamshouldbereadytobelievewhattheleaderhastosay,andthatcomeswhentheleaderhassomeamountofyourhearthere—somespaceinyourheart,someperspective.TheMagicofFace-to-FaceInteractionTravelingforface-to-facecommunication,especiallyglobally,placespressureonwork–lifeboundaries,asthefollowingcommentsbytheU.S.managersillustrate:Irememberrunningfromtheairportsometimesbecausetheflightwaslatetotrytomakeittothesecondhalfofsomefootballgameorsomething,andthenwatchingthefootballgame,andatfouro’clockthenextmorning,I’mupsoIcanbeonasixa.m.flighttogetbacksomewheresoIdidn’tmissthefootballgame.I’mgoingtoIndiainthreeweeks.I’verearrangedtheentireagendatogetona1:30a.m.flightbecausemydaughter’sgoingtobeinashowatherhighschoolthatFridaynight.Butface-to-faceinteractionfacilitatescommunicationinseveralways.First,ithelpsbridgetheculturalboundary:WhenIactuallywenttoIndiathefirsttimeandmettheteam[adifferentteamthantheonestudiedhere]—thisiswhereIcanbeonacall;Ican…visualizethedifferentfacesandthedifferentpeople….Itisnoissueformewhatso-evertogetworkdoneonthephonenowwithIndia.Aftertheteammembers’initialface-to-faceinteractionthatweobservedforthisstudy,theIndianteammembersweremorewillingtoinitiatetask-appropriatecommunication:Ruppeletal.455
Shejustsentoutane-mailsayingyoucanapproachmeatanytime….Wehaveneverwrittenane-mailtoher.But…sincethatface-to-face,it’sdiffer-ent—IknowIcancallhernow.Themanagerswerealsomorewillingtomakeallowancesforthoseteammemberswhomtheyhadmetface-to-faceandweremorelikelytoallowthemtoencroachontheirboundaries:Afteryou’vemetsomeoneandcreatedaface-to-facerelationship,[whenthispersonwantstotalktome]…Imightnotbeabletotalkforthatminute,butI’llmaketime.I’llsqueezeitinbeforethenextcall,andI’llbeafewminuteslatetothenextcall.NowthattheIndianteammembershadmetface-to-facewiththeirman-agersforthefirsttime,theyconfirmedthebenefitsofface-to-faceinterac-tionwithnoreservation.Theybelievedthattheexperiencehaddramaticallyenhancedtheirconfidenceinfuturevirtualcommunication.Moreover,theysingledoutface-to-faceinteractionfromotherrichmedia,suchasvideo-conferencing.Theysuggestedthatface-to-faceinteractingallowedthemtoestablishteamprotocolsandrepresentedthebestwayforthemtoobtainacontextfortheirrelationshipwiththeirteammanagers.Whenweaskedthemwhetherhavingoccasionalface-to-faceinteractionswiththeirteammemberswouldcontributetotheirproductivity,theyanswered,‘‘Absolutely’’:Youknow,peoplehavegotthatdosanddon’tson-ground,right.Whenyoutaketoavirtualteam,theywillalsovirtuallyknowthat—okay,thesearedosanddon’ts,soIshouldfollowthis.Themomentyoucomeface-to-face,itchangesalotinthatperson,itbecomesmorelikereality.Sowhenyougoback,youareactuallytalkingtoapersoninreality—youcanfeeltheminreality,soyouarenotscared.Evenwithvideoteleconferencing,Inevermet[theseniormanager]before,andthekindofpersonIheardof,ahardtaskmaster,agoodleader,someonewhoisnotsoapproachable,youknow,someoneveryhighupinhierarchy.ButwhenImetheryesterdayoreventoday,oh,sheisveryapproachable.Sheissolikeable,andsheissuchfuntoworkwith.Suchface-to-facemeetingscanbecostlyandinvolveglobaltravelforthemanagers,thusplacingpressureontheirwork–lifeboundaries.Butthepressurethattheymighttemporarilyexperiencemaybeoutweighedbythe456JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
benefitstheygainfromtherelationshipsandcommonunderstandingsthatareestablished.Theserelationshipsandunderstandingsfacilitatetheuseofleaner,lessintrusivecommunicationinthefuture.ThisfindingisconsistentwiththatofRobey,Khoo,andPowers(2000)concerningthevalueofface-to-facemeetingsinfacilitatingvirtualworkcommunication.Buttheirstudyinvolvedavirtualteamwhosememberswerelocatedwithinasinglecoun-tryanddidnothavetheadditionalcomplexityaddedbyglobalvirtuality.DiscussionInexploringtheanswerstoourresearchquestions,weobservedaninterest-ingphenomenonregardingglobalmanagers’mediachoices.Ourfirstresearchquestiondealswithhowmanagerswhoworkfromthedomesticworkplaceonahigh-performingglobalvirtualteamcopewiththeresultingadditionalencroachmentontheirwork–lifeboundaries.Wefoundthatteammanagersstruggledwithnegotiatingtheirvariouscommunicationandwork–lifeboundarieswhileworkingfromthedomesticworkplace.Theymanagedtomaintainahighlevelofperformanceandbalancedtheirworkandpersonallivesbymultitasking.Moreover,duetothemyriadofcompet-ingdemandsonthesemanagers’time,thecommunicationsatisfactionoftheIndianteammemberswassacrificed.Oursecondresearchquestionaskshowtaskrequirementsandwork–lifeboundariesinfluencemediachoice.Ourdataindicatethatthemanagersusedmediachoiceasastrategyformanagingtheirwork–lifeboundaries.Theychosecommunicationtoolsbasedontheirpersonalsituationandthetechnologicalresourcesavailabletothematthattime.Whiletheirmediachoicesresultedinalessthanoptimalcommunicationexperiencefortheteamoverall,thetaskswerestillaccomplishedwellenoughfortheteamtowinmultipleawardsandfortheprojecttobereplicatedthroughouttheorganization.Byplacingemployeesindomesticworkplacesinordertoencouragethemtoworkanytimeandanyplace,theMNCremovedthetraditionalloca-tionandtemporalboundariesbetweenworkandpersonallife.TheMNCprovidedawiderangeofsophisticatedcommunicationtoolsthatfacilitatedsuchanytime,anywhereworkandfurtherencroachedonthemanagers’work–lifeboundaries,addingtothefeelingsofstress(Thomas&King,2006).Moreover,theMNC’sexpectationsforahighlevelofworkperfor-manceandthe24–7demandsofglobalworkcontributedheavilytotheobscurationofemployeework–lifeboundaries.WhiletheMNCmayhavepositivelyframeditseffortstoblurtheseboundariesasremovingtheRuppeletal.457
barrierstosuccessandprovidingflexibility,themanagerswhowestudieddidnotalwayswelcomethisencroachmentontheirwork–lifeboundaries.Whileanyglobalteammemberwillexperiencesomeofthesepressures,workingfromthedomesticworkplaceexacerbatesthem.LalandDwivedi(2010)foundthatsuchboundaryobscurationenabledbytechnologyandcausedbyworkingfromhomeforcedemployeestoactivelyengageinboundary-managementstrategies.Theirstrategiesincludederecting‘‘time,space,andpeopleboundaries’’inordertoprotecttheirwork–lifeboundariesandtoimpedefurtherboundaryblurring(p.769).Ourfindingssuggestthatpeopledonotrepresentaboundary;rather,theyarepartoftheboundary-managementstrategies.Forexample,inourstudy,onemanageremployedastringenttime-segmentationruleinordertoprotectherwork–lifeboundary,butshemadeanexceptiontothisrulewhenherimmediatesupervisorcalledduringanotherwiseoff-limitsperiod.Thatis,shedecidedtoadjustherpersonal-lifeboundaryforthisper-soninthisposition.Thefrequencyofthethemesthatwefoundintheman-agers’responsesrepresentstheimportancethatthemanagersplacedonmaintainingboththeirlifestyleandtheirworkperformance,withthosetwothemesoccurringmoreoftenthananyoftheotherthemes(159and140,respectively;seeTable1).Therationalityfordecisionmakinginorganizationsisboundedbyincompleteknowledgeonthesubjectmatter,competinggoals,andthecom-plexityanddynamicsoftheorganizationitself(Simon,2000).Foremploy-eesworkingforanorganizationwhilelocatedinthedomesticworkplace,thecomplexityofindividualdecisionmakingincreases.Forexample,theirdecisionmakingismademorecomplexbytheincreaseddemandsofglobalcoordinationandtheencroachmentofthiscoordinationontheirwork–lifeboundaries.Oneproposedmodeltoguidethisindividualdecisionmakingisthepersonalresourceallocation(PRA)framework.Itviewsthetotalityofindividuallifedemandsasdecisionsregardinghowtoallocatetheirpersonalresourcesinordertomeetthosedemands(Grawitch,Barber,&Justice,2010).Thisframeworkdefinespersonalresourcesastime,energy,andfinances—bothactualandperceived.Perceivedresourcesareincludedbecauseinmakingdecisions,individualsusuallyconsidertheirperceptionoftheirpersonalresources.Thisframeworkseemstoviewdecisionsregard-ingtheallocationofresourcesasbeingquicklyandnotconsciouslymade,definedbyindividualsandtheirpersonalsituation,andboundedbyration-ality(Grawitchetal.,2010).Resourcesareallocatedtomeetdemands,whicharedefinedas‘‘anythingthatcompetesforpersonalresources’’(p.134).Althoughtheallocationofresourcesisanindividualchoice,‘‘for458JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
some,resourceallocationisaveryactiveprocessofprioritizingandreor-ganizingdemands’’(p.137).Thisallocationcanbedoneproactivelyorreactively.Whenindividualsallocateproactively,theyprioritizetheappraiseddemandsbasedontheirappraisaloftheirpersonalresources.Butwhentheyallocateresourcesreactively,theyriskrunningoutoftheneces-saryresourcestomeetthedemandsaswellassuboptimalusageofresourcesduetotheirlackofplanning.Becausethemanagershadallbeenworkinginthedomesticworkplaceforsometime,wedidnotdirectlyquestionhowtheychosemediawhentheyfirstbegantoworkinadomesticsetting.Butitseemedevidentfromtheirresponsestootherquestionsthattheirworkrolehadplaced,andstillcontinuestoplace,pressureontheirwork–lifeboundaries.Asaresultofprotectingtheseboundaries,themanagerslearnedthattheywereabletoaccomplishcomplextaskssuccessfullyusingmediathatareleanerthanthosethatmediarichnesstheorysuggestsasoptimalforthetask(Daft&Lengel,1986).Becausethemanagershadperformedatahighlevelusingleanermediaforcomplextasks,theycontinuedonthispathratherthanstrainingtheirwork–lifeboundariesbychoosingrichermediasuchasaface-to-facemeetingorvideoconferencing.Intheirjudgment,theydidnotneedtouserichermediatoachieveexcellentoutcomes.Thisfindingissup-portedbycompensatoryadaptationtheory,whichDeLuca,Gasson,andKock(2006)usedtoexplainhowteammembersadaptedtheircommunica-tiontoovercometheobstaclesinherentinleanercommunicationmediainordertomaintainahighlevelofperformance.Althoughwedidnotdirectlyexaminethespecificsofthecommunicationitself,analternateexplanationfortheteammembers’excellentperformancemightbethattheyweremoti-vatedbythestrongperformanceculturewithintheorganization.Furtherresearchshouldbeconductedonhowmediachoicesdevelopovertimeandwhetherworkersadapttheircommunicationtojuggleboundarieswhileworkingfromthedomesticworkplace.Usingcompensatoryadaptationthe-oryasaframeworkforsuchresearchinahigh-performanceorganizationalculturemightproveparticularlyinsightful.Themanagersusedrichercommunicationmediaonlywhentheyfeltitwasnecessaryfortheirtaskperformance.Becausetheteamperformedatahighlevelwithoutusingsuchrichmedia,themanagersadaptedtheirmediaselectionsaccordinglytoincludethefrequentuseofleanmedia.Eventhoughtheteam’sperformanceremainedhigh,welearnedduringtheresearchstudythatthisuseofleanmediaprovidedalessthansatisfactorycommunicationexperiencefortheIndianteammembers.ThisfindingappearstobeinconsistentwithMaznevskiandChudoba’s(2000)Ruppeletal.459
propositionthat‘‘otherthingsbeingequal,ineffectiveglobalvirtualteamsthereceivingmember’spreferencesandcontextdeterminesanincident’smedium’’(p.486).Inthiscase,the‘‘otherthings’’werenotequal,success-fultaskcompletionandwork–lifebalancewereperceivedasmoreimpor-tantthanteammembers’‘‘preferencesandcontext.’’Thatis,themanagers,whodeterminedthecommunicationprotocols,apparentlychosetoaddresstheteam’sperformanceandtheirownwork–lifebalanceandforgotheteammembers’communicationpreferencesandsatisfaction.TheseU.S.managerswerecomfortablewithusinglanguageandmediatoolsthatwerelowerincontextor‘‘speechthatisdirect,clearandexplicit’’(House,Hanges,Javidan,Dorfman,&Gupta,2004,pp.403–404).Incontrast,theIndianteammembers,inkeepingwiththeir‘‘highcontextculture,’’favoredface-to-facecontactandtechnologiesthatenableafeelingofsocialpresence,especiallywhenthecommunicationinvolvespeoplethattheyhavenotmet(Massey,Montoya-Weiss,Hung,&Ramesh,2001).Sinceourstudyinvolvedonlytwocultures,thoseoftheUnitedStatesandIndia,futureresearchcoulddeterminewhetherourfindingsregardingusers’communicationsatisfactionapplytoothercultures.Sinceworkandlifecoexist,managers’mediachoicesmaybetheresultoflimitationsthatlifehasplacedontheirwork.Forexample,iftheyaresittinginaparkinglotoutsideoftheirchild’sschooloratanairportorrentalcaragency,theyarelimitedtothosetechnologiesthatareavailableattheirlocation.Iftheyareatasportseventoraconcert,thentheymustusealea-ner,asynchronous,quiettechnologyinordertonotdisturbtheotheratten-dees.Buttheirmediachoicesarealsoaffectedbythewaysinwhichworkintrudesontheirlife.UnlikemanyofthemanagersinDenstadlietal.’s(2012)study,themanagersinourstudydidnotworkincorporateofficesandchoseleanerratherthanrichermedia(e.g.,videoconferencing)inanefforttobalancetheirworkandpersonallives.Theydidnotnecessarilymakeapurelyrationalchoice;rather,theymadeachoicethatsufficedbasedonsituationalfactors.Managingandprioritizingthesesometimesconflictingboundariesisacomplexprocessthatdeservesfurtherstudy.Forexample,themanagersinourstudyfrequentlyneededtoreturnphonecallsatinconvenienthours,whichinterferedwiththeirpersonaltimeandfamilyharmony.Andtheknowledge-basedactivitiesthattheyengagedinrequiredaquietspaceandundividedattention.Moreover,attemptsatsettingboundariesbetweenworkandlifecanbecomplicatedbytechnologiessuchasinstantmessagingthatfacilitatemultitasking.Whilemultitaskingtechnologieshavemanybenefitsthatcanbeusedtomanagetheseboundaries,somepeoplefindthem460JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
intrusive.Quan-Haase(2010)suggestedasetof‘‘self-regulation’’strategiestoavoidtheoveruseofinstantmessagingand‘‘provideabalancetothepotentialnegativeimpactonproductivity’’(p.22).Amongtheseself-regulationstrategiesistheprioritizationofexchangesthatourrespondentsemployed.Ourstudycontributestotheliteratureontheadoptionofmediabyindi-vidualusers(Rogers,2003).Organizationsprovidevariousmediaandassumethatuserswillchoosemediaalignedwiththetaskthattheyarewantingtoaccomplishandthatprovidethemwithcommunicationsatisfac-tion.Whenobservingthemanagersinourstudy,whoaretheendusersofthemedia,wesawamorenuancedviewofhowmediadecisionsaremadebythosewholiveandworkinadomesticworkplace.Thesemanagersseldomusedtherichestmediaavailable,face-to-faceandvideoteleconfer-encing,butinsteadpreferredleanerformsofmedia.Theymovedtorichermediaonlywhendoingsowasnecessarytoaccomplishtheirgoals.Boththemanagersandtheteammemberswerepartofahigh-performanceworkculturethatexpectedtheirdevotiontowork.InthecaseoftheIndianteammembers,theirwork–lifeboundarywasprotectedbyworkinginanofficesetting.Meanwhile,theirmanagerswerechargedwithmaintainingandexpectinghighperformancesfromboththemselvesandtheirteammemberswhileprotectingtheirwork–lifeboundaries.Priorresearchonmediachoiceappearstoassumethatemployeesareworkingfromtraditionalworkplaceofficesandthatifrichermediaareavailable,theywillbeusedaccordingtothecomplexityofthetaskandwhatwillprovidethemostcommunicationsatisfaction.Butanewfindingthatemergesfromthisstudyisthatemployees’choiceofmediawhenworkingfromthedomesticworkplaceisaffectedbytheirlifestyle.Thatis,theman-agersselectedleaner,asynchronousmediatohelpmaintaintheirwork–lifebalance,givinglittleconsiderationtotheIndianteammembers’preferencesforrichermedia.TheIndianteammembersdiscussedtheirdesireforrichermediasuchasvideoconferencingandface-to-faceinteraction.Theyweredelightedwiththeface-to-facemeetingweobservedanddiscussedhowitgreatlyenhancedtheircommunicationsatisfaction.Theelementsinface-to-faceinteractionsthatenhancecommunicationsatisfactionratherthanefficiencyneedfurtherexplorationinordertobemoreclearlyidentified.Perhapscollocationfacilitatessensemaking(Weick&Roberts,1993),whichincreasestheaccuracyofexpectationsincommunication.Ontheotherhand,perhapssuchsocialinteractionsreducepsychologicaldistance,therebyenhancingconfidenceandtrustduringthecommunicationprocess.Futurestudiesareneededtobetterunderstandthisprocess.Ruppeletal.461
Thisin-depthcasestudyaboutasingleprojectwithinanMNCbringsnewperspectivestoresearchonglobalvirtualteams.ThestudycombinedtheperspectivesofU.S.-basedmanagers,oneexecutive-level,twosenior-level,andtwomid-levelmanagers,whoworkedfromthedomesticwork-placeandtheirvirtualteammemberswhoworkedprimarilyfromofficesinIndia.Byprovidingtheadditionalcontextofthedomesticworksettingandbyusingtheperspectivesofboththemanagerswhoworkfromthatdomesticsettingandtheirteammemberswhoworkfromthetraditionalworkplace,wewereabletoviewthecomplexinterplaybetweenthemandgleaninsightsonthisdynamicprocess.ImplicationstoPracticeTheconceptofaworkplacehasevolvedfromthatofmerelyaphysicalset-tingintomoreofamind-set.Asaresultofthisevolution,organizationsthathaveemployeeswhoworkfromthedomesticworkplaceshouldprovideawarenesstrainingfortheiremployeesconcerningappropriateboundary-managementstrategies.Thesestrategiesmusttakeintoconsiderationthemind-setofthedomesticworkplace.Theorganizationanditsmanagersmustbeawareofthedynamicnatureoftheprocessofpersonal-resourceallocation.Atrade-offtotheflexibilityallowedbyallocatingresourcesfromthedomesticworkplaceisthatdoingsointroducesincreasedcomplexityintothedecision-makingprocess.Grawitch,Barber,andJustice(2010)statedthatanorganizationcanaiditsemployeesinmakingoptimalresource-allocationdecisionsbyincreasingtheirpoolofavailableresources,changingorlimitingthedemandsthatitplacesonthem,ortrainingthemtobemoreeffectiveinallocatingtheirindi-vidualresources.Suchaidisparticularlyimportantbothwhenemployeesareexpectedtoparticipategloballyandwhentheyareworkingfromthedomesticworkplace.Forexample,theparticipantsinourstudyreportedhavingtoactastheirowntechnicalsupportwhereasintraditionalofficeset-tings,thistechnicalsupportwouldbeprovided.Havingtofigureoutthetechnologyontheirownplacesanadditionaldemandonthesehome-basedworkers’time—timethatcouldbeusedmoreproductivelyforcom-pletingwork-relatedtasks.Anothertrade-offisthatsomebenefitsthataremeanttoextendanemployee’spersonalresourcesaremoredifficulttoaccessiftheyarelocatedonthecompanyworksite,suchason-sitechildcare.Alsotheorganizationmustbesurethatitallocatessufficientresources,includinghumanresources,toprojectsandthatitallowsappropriatetime462JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
fortheinherentdifficultiesinvolvedinworkingacrossculturesandtimezones.Trainingemployeestominimizetheimpactofglobalboundaries,evenifmoremoneyisspentonface-to-facemeetings,mightbebeneficialwhenlaunchingaproject.Inthisstudy,theU.S.managerswerefromalow-contextculture,andtheIndianteammemberswerefromahigh-contextcul-ture,whichledtotheirreducedcommunicationsatisfaction.Futureresearchshouldinvestigatetherelationshipbetweencommunicationsatisfactionandthenationalculturesofteammembers.Forexample,iftheglobalteammem-bershadbeenfromalowercontextculture,theircommunicationsatisfactionmighthavebeenhigher.Likewise,iftheglobalteammembershadbeenfromanevenhighercontextculture,theymighthavebeenevenmoredissatisfied.Toincreaseteammembers’communicationsatisfaction,managersmustbeawareof,andadaptto,culturalissuesthataffectcommunication.Duringthecourseoftheseinterviews,theU.S.managersmentionedhavingdifficultieswithdiscerningaccentsaswellaslearningthehardwaythattotheIndianteammembers,yesdidnotmeanthesamethingasitdidtothem.Conse-quently,miscommunicationsoccurred,leadingtomisseddeadlinesandlostproductivitythatcouldhavepossiblybeenavoidediftheteammembershadinitiallymetface-to-faceinordertoestablishteamprotocolsandbuildrela-tionshipsandmutualunderstanding.Withrespecttothedemandsplacedonemployeesinthedomesticwork-place,suchemployeesbasetheirpersonal-resourceallocationontheirownperceptionsofthesedemands.Thus,theorganizationmustbecertainthataccurateinformationisdisseminated.Thepervasiveperformance-basedcultureoftheorganizationthatwestudiedcontributedtotheemployeeper-ceptionofthehighlevelofworkdemands.Theglobalreachoftheorgani-zation,thenatureofvirtualwork,andtheresultingrealignmentoforganizationalresponsibilitiesallledtotheirconcernsovertheirpotentialjobloss.Theseemployeesperceivedthattoretaintheirpositions,theyneededtoplayapivotalroleinachievingtheorganizationalgoals.Theybelievedthattheyneededtoallocatesignificantpersonalresourcestoworkdemandsinordertosurviveandsucceed.Despitetheorganizationespous-ingthevalueofwork–lifebalance,theseemployeesreceivedmixedmessages,suchasinthefollowingcommentbyaU.S.manager:SoIsatdownwitheachofthegeneralmanagersandsaid,‘‘Look,Idraftedupanote…youneedtosenditout,’’whichis,‘‘Hey,folks,work–lifebalance.’’…SoIsatdownwitheachofthegeneralmanagers.Theyallgotit;theyallunder-stoodit.Twoofthegeneralmanagerssenttheirnotesout.Onesenthisoutat2o’clockinthemorning;anotheronesentouttheirsatthreeo’clockintheRuppeletal.463
morning.Andyou’resittingtheregoing,‘‘Guys,didyouhearwhatIsaid?Imean,don’tyouunderstandthat’sthemodelyoujustset—youjustsetanexample.’’Thus,duetosuchmixedmessagesmakingitdifficultforthemtoformaccurateperceptions,theemployeesfeltthattheirworkdemandswerealmostinfinite.Becausetheyhadalimitedamountofresourcestoallocatetotheirwork,thesedemandsplacedpressureontheirwork–lifeboundaries.Onemanagerreportedthateventakingtimeforashowerortogooutsidewasdifficult.Organizationsshouldlookcarefullyatthemessages,spokenandunspoken,thattheysend,todeterminehowtheymightaffectemploy-ees’abilitytoaccuratelyassessworkdemands.Organizationsshouldrecognizetheimpactofthedomesticworkplaceoncommunicationprotocolsinglobalvirtualteams.EventhoughtheMNCmadericherformsofmedia(suchasvideoconferencing)availabletothem,themanagersactivelychosenottousethesericherformsofmedia.Wefoundthattheyfeltthattheydidnotneedtousetheserichermediainordertoachieveahighworkperformance,andtheywantedtowardoff‘‘boundarycreep’’inthedomesticworkplace.Thisfindinghasimplicationsfortheadoptionanddiffusionofcommunicationtechnolo-gies.Organizationsshouldconsiderestablishingprotocolsandpracticesregardingtheuseofvarioustechnologieswhencommunicatinginthecomplexglobalvirtualenvironment(St.Amant,2002).Ifmanagers,astheendusers,donotadoptandusetheserichermedia,thebenefitswillnotmaterialize,butthecostswillremain.Therefore,companiesshouldnotincurthecostsofprovidingmediathatmaybeoflimiteduseornotevenbeusedatall.ConclusionAsmorecompanieshaveemployeesworkfromhometosaveoncosts,aswellastofunctioninamoredistributedandglobalmanner,theyneedtounderstandtheimpactthishome-baseddeploymenthasontheseemploy-ees’mediachoices.Theirmediachoicesappeartohaveramificationsontheircommunicationsatisfactionandproductivity,particularlyinthelongterm.Therefore,werecommendthatorganizationsarrangeface-to-faceinteractionsintheearlyworkstagesofaglobalvirtualteam.Eventhoughtheteammembersthatwestudiedhadnotmetface-to-faceuntiltheendoftheirproject,someteammembersclearlyexpressedthattheywouldliketohavehadface-to-facemeetingsatthebeginningandpossiblyduringthe464JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
project.Theircommentssuggestthatthecostofsuchinteractionscanbeoutweighedbytheincreaseinteammembers’communicationsatisfactionandefficiencyafterward(Siebdratetal.,2009).Asresearchers,wefre-quentlyaskedourselvesandeachotherwhatcouldhavebeenaccomplishedifthisaward-winningteamhadmetface-to-faceearlier.AppendixAQuestionsforU.S.Managers1.Howdidyoubecomeavirtualworker?a.Doyoubelievethatworkingfromhomeismoresuitedtomenortowomen?Why?b.Doyoubelievethatyourdecisiontoworkfromhomewasinfluencedbyyourlifesituation?Why?c.Howdothepeopleinyourhouseholdfeelaboutyourworkingfromhome?d.Doyoubelievethatyourdecisiontoworkfromhomewasinfluencedbyyourmanagementorworkstyle?Howandwhy?2.Aretherebenefitsofworkingfromhome?3.Whataretheshortcomingsofworkingfromhome?4.Inyouropinion,inwhatwaydoestheMNCculturesupportthosechoosingtoworkfromhome?5.Inyouropinion,inwhatwaydoestheMNCculturesupportthosechoosingtoworkintheoffice?6.Inyouropinion,inwhatwaydoestheMNC’sinformationtechnol-ogy(IT)servicessupportthosechoosingtoworkfromhome?7.Inyouropinion,inwhatwaydoestheMNC’sITservicessupportthosechoosingtoworkintheoffice?8.Whatdeterminesthemeansofcommunicationyouwoulduseforaspecificsituation(e.g.,face-to-face,videoconferencing,instantmessaging,phone)?9.Underwhatcircumstanceswouldyouwanttochangefromwork-ingathometoworkingintheoffice?10.Whatdoyouthinkarethekeydeterminantsofbeingasuccessfulvirtualmanager?11.WhatdoyoubelievetheMNClosesandgainsbyallowingmanag-erstoworkfromhome?12.Whatdoyoubelievemanagersloseandgainbyworkingfromhome?Ruppeletal.465
13.Whatarethetypesofcompaniesthatwillandwillnotbenefitfromallowingemployeestoworkfromhome?AppendixBQuestionsforFocusGroup—theIndianTeamMembers1.WhatisyourtenureattheMNC?2.Howlonghaveyoubeingworkingforavirtualmanager?3.Whenyoutookthejob,didyouexpecttobemanagedvirtually?4.HaveyoubeenabletobuildrelationshipswithyourIndianteammembers?Yourvirtualteammembers?Yourvirtualmanager?5.Whataretheimpactsofbeingmanagedvirtually?6.Whatarethekeythingsthatyoubelieveyourmanagerhastobeabletodoinordertomanageyouremotelyandbeeffective?7.Canyouthinkofanythingthatisproblematicaboutbeingmanagedvirtually?Howdoyoudealwithit?HowdoestheMNCdealwithit?8.Aretheremomentswhenyoufeelhelplessbecauseofthevirtualityofyourteam?Thevirtualityofyourmanager?9.Doyouthinkthatwouldincreaseyourproductivity?10.Youmentionedthatthere’satransitionfromworkinginanofficeinIndia,orworkinginIndia,toworkingintheUnitedStates.Whatdidyoumeanbythat?11.Now,let’sturnthetablesaroundforamomentandsay,I’msureyou’vehadcolleagueswho,likeyourself,havebeenmanagedremote-ly,andsomeofthemhaven’tmadeit,orjustdon’tgetit,ordon’tdowellatit.Whatistheresponsibilityonyoursidetobemanaged—tobeingmanagedvirtually—asopposedtobeingcolocatedwithyourmanagerinanoffice?12.WhatdoyouthinktheMNCcoulddotofacilitateyouraccom-plishingyourownpersonalgoalsandgettingajobdonemoreeffectively—quicker,better?WhatcouldtheMNCdotofacilitatethatandmakethathappenmoreeasily?Whatelsecouldtheydo?13.Doyouthinkthatwouldincreaseyourproductivity?14.WhatdoestheMNCdotofacilitateyourbeingmanagedvirtually?15.Arethereanyimpactsofculturedifferencesthataffecttherelation-shipbetweenyouandyourmanager,yourvirtualteammates,yourIndiancolleagues?466JournalofBusinessandTechnicalCommunication27(4)
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RESEARCHOpenAccessHowdowork-familybalancepracticesaffectwork-familyconflict?ThedifferentialrolesofworkstressXiaoxiChang1,YuZhou2*,ChenxiWang2andCarmendePablosHeredero1*Correspondence:[email protected]&HumanResources,SchoolofBusiness,RenminUniversityofChina,Beijing100872,ChinaFulllistofauthorinformationisavailableattheendofthearticleAbstractThispaperinvestigatestherelationshipbetweenemployees’perceptionofwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflicts.Itexaminestheroleofchallengestressandhindrancestressasmoderators.Basedonsurveydatacollectedfrom841civilservantsinBeijing,wefoundthatperceivedwork-familybalancepracticesmayreducework-familyconflict,whilechallengeandhindranceworkstresseswerepositivelyrelatedtowork-familyconflict.Inaddition,challengeandhindrancestressesdifferentiallymoderatedtherelationshipbetweenperceivedwork-familypracticesandwork-familyconflict.Whenchallengestressishighthenwork-familybalancepracticeswillreducework-familyconflict.However,underhighhindrancestress,work-familybalancepracticeswillservetoreducework-familyconflictless.Moredetailedanalysisoftheconfigurationaldimensionsofwork-familybalancepractices(workflexibility,andemployeeandfamilywellnesscare)arealsotested.Thisstudyprovidesadditionalinsightintothemanagementofwork-familyinterfacesandoffersideasforfutureresearch.Keywords:Work-familybalancepractices,Work-familyconflict,Challengestress,HindrancestressIntroductionInrecentdecadesindividualshaveexperiencedincreasinglevelsofjobdemandsandjobstressduetobroadenedjobscopes.Increasedjobresponsibilitiesandextendedworkhoursbecomemorecommonintheworkplace.Inthemeantime,changeshavealsooccurredinthefamily―therearemoredualcareerandsingleparentfamilies,aswellasmoreworkingadultswhoarecaringforboththeelderandyoungergenerations(NealandHammer,2007).Researchershaverespondedtothesetrendsbyinvestigatingwork-familyorwork-familyinterfacestounderstandthefactorsthatmayinfluenceorbeinfluencedbywork-familybalance.However,thislineofresearchhasemployeddifferentterminologies,levels,andapproaches(MaertzandBoyar,2011).Researchattheindividuallevel,ontheonehand,hasfocusedontheconstructsofwork-familyorfamily-workconflicts/enrichment/facilitationtoinvestigatetheirante-cedentsandoutcomes(Allenetal.2012;Byron,2005;Froneetal.1992;GreenhausandBeutell,1985;KinnunenandMauno,1998;Premeauxetal.2007).Ontheotherhand,researchattheorganizationallevelhasfocusedontheinfluenceofwork-familyFrontiers of BusinessResearch in China©TheAuthor(s).2017OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0InternationalLicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedyougiveappropriatecredittotheoriginalauthor(s)andthesource,providealinktotheCreativeCommonslicense,andindicateifchangesweremade.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 DOI10.1186/s11782-017-0008-4
practices/policiesonorganizations.Thesestudiesconsideraseriesofwork-familyprac-ticesasHRMbundles—usingdifferenttermssuchasfamily-friendlyworkplaceprac-tices(FFWP),work-familyprograms,andwork-familyhumanresourcebundles(e.g.Bloometal.2011;BeauregardandHenry,2009;KonradandMangel,2000;Perry-SmithandBlum,2000).Othersmainlyfocusonspecialpracticeareassuchasflextime,telework(e.g.LapierreandAllen,2006;Madsen,2003),dependentscare(e.g.,Berg,etal.,2003),andthepositiveinfluenceofthepracticesmentionedabovearemostlysupported.However,effortstointegratework-familypracticesandemployeework-familyconflicthavebeensparse.Acloserexaminationoftheempiricalliteraturerevealsthatwork-familybalancepracticesmaynotalwaysalleviateemployeework-familyconflict(Kellyetal.2008).Forexample,whilesomestudiesfoundsignificantnegativerelationshipsbetweenwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflict(O’Driscolletal.,2003;Thompsonetal.1999),othersfoundsignificantpositiverelationships(Broughetal.2005;Hammeretal.,2005)ornon-significantrelationships(Kosseketal.2006;LapierreandAllen,2006).Theseinconsistenciesinpreviousresearchfindingssug-gestthattheexistingconceptualizationsofhowwork-familybalancepracticesin-fluencework-familyconflictmaybedeficient.Someresearchershavefoundthatoneexplanationofthisinconsistencymightoriginatefromthe“agencyandcapabil-itiesgap”(Hobson,2014).Theyhavealsodiscoveredthattheextentofthisgapwassomehowdependentuponcertainnationalpolicyframeworks,organizational/managerialsupportandtheindividual’spreferences.Thus,aprimarygoalofthisresearchistoexplaintheinconsistentfindingsregardingtherelationshipbetweenwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflict.Intheirseminalreviewarticle,Kellyetal.(2008)suggestthatpreviousresearchtendedtovaryinthemeasurementofwork-familybalancepractices.Somefocusedononeortwospecificpracticessuchasflextime,telework(e.g.LapierreandAllen,2006;Madsen,2003),anddependentscare(e.g.Bergetal.,2003),whileothersexaminedmultiplepracticesaspredictors—suchasfamily-friendlyworkplacepractices(FFWP),work-familyprograms,andwork-familyhumanresourcebundles(e.g.Bloometal.2011;KonradandMangel,2000;Perry-SmithandBlum,2000).Inaddition,whilesomeprevi-ousstudieshavemeasuredtheadoptionofwork-familypractices,othersfocusedontheimplementationofsuchpracticesasperceivedbyemployees.Kellyetal.(2008)arguethatmeasuringtheperceiveduseofthesepracticesismoremeaningfulbecausework-familybalancepracticeswillexertaneffectonwork-familyconflictonlywhentheyareactuallyusedbyemployees.Anotherpossibleexplanationfortheinconsistentfindingsisthattheeffectivenessofwork-familybalancepracticesineasingwork-familyconflictdependsonthetypesofstressesthatareexperiencedbytheemployees.Researchersdistinguishbetweenstressthatindividualsperceiveasrewarding(challengestress)andstressthatisviewedasconstraining(hindrancestress).Thisisbecausethesetwotypesofstressaredifferentiallyassociatedwithjobattitudesandbehavioralintentions(Cavanaughetal.,2000).Despiteevidenceshowingtheeffectofthesetwotypesofstress,therehasbeennoattempttointegratethemwithwork-familyandwork-familyinterfacestoexplaintherelationshipsbetweenbestpracticesandperceivedwork-familyconflict.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page2of22
Buildingonconservationofresource(COR)theory(Hobfoll,1989,HobfollandFreedy1993),particularlyfromtheresourcebuildingperspective,thispaperintendstofillthesegapsandmakeseveralcontributionstotheliterature.First,weintroducework-familybalancepracticesasaseriesofmanagerialpolicyresources.Inaddition,basedontheliteratureandmanagerialpractices,weconstructandexaminetwospe-cificdimensionsofwork-familybalancepracticesthroughdataanalysis.Theseareworkplaceflexibility,whichfocusesonprovidingflexibilityatworkandenhancingjobautonomy,suchastelecommuting,workplaceflexibility,jobautonomy(Leslieetal.,2012;Kosseketal.2006;ShockleyandAllen,2007;Kahnetal.,1964,p.19),andem-ployeeandfamilywellnesscare,thatinvolvestheeconomicandmaterialresourcesofanemployeeandtheirfamily—suchasinsuranceandallowances—thatcompensateemployeesfortheirdevotiontotheirworkandthereducedtimetheyspendwiththeirfamily(Staines,1980;Rothbard,2001),thuspreventingresourcedepletion(Premeauxetal.2007).Basedonthesetwodimensions,weexaminedtheirdifferentialrelation-shipswithwork-familyconflict,whichcontributestoaconfigurationalperspectivetoelaboratethein-depthstructuresofwork-familybalancepractices.Secondly,insteadofmeasuringtheorganizations’adoptionsofwork-familyprac-tices,wemeasureemployeeperceptionsoftheactualuseofwork-familypractices.Inthepublicsector,workwelfarepracticesaccountforahigherproportionofHRMsystems(relatively)thanthatoffirms,sothebenefitpoliciesthemselvesarealmostequaltoemployeesinthepublicsector.Thisinturnallowsustocapturehowindividualperceptionsofthosepracticessubstantiallyvary.Infact,humanre-sourcemanagementresearchershavearguedandshownthathumanresourceman-agementpracticesneedtobeperceivedbyemployeestobetranslatedintodesirableoutcomes(Liaoetal.2009).Byintroducingthecontextofthepublicsec-torandinvestigatingindividualperceptionsofwork-familybalancepractices,thisstudyalsoopensupanopportunitytoexamineindividualmoderatorsthatmayex-plainthedifferentialeffectivenessofwork-familypracticesinreducingemployeework-familyconflict.Thirdly,previousstudiesaligningindividualdifferenceswithwork-familyconflictoftenfocusedonbiographicfactors,suchasgenderandmaritalstatus(i.e.Byron,2005).Incontrasttothis,ourstudycontributesbyintroducingworkstress—parti-cularlychallengeandhindrancestress—intothemodel,andexaminestheirmoder-ationeffectsontherelationshipsbetweenwork-familypracticesandwork-familyconflict.TheoryandhypothesesWork-familyconflictandresourcebuildingIndividualsplaymultiplerolesintheirlives;incompatibilitiesamongtherolescanren-derfullparticipationinoneormorerolesdifficult(Kahnetal.1964)andcreatework-familyconflict.Work-familyconflictisdefinedas“aformofinterroleconflictinwhichtherolepressurefromtheworkandfamilydomainsaremutuallyincompatibleinsomerespect”(GreenhausandBeutell,1985,p.77).Furthermore,roleconflictisduetothelimitedresourcesofindividuals(GreenhausandBeutell,1985).Indeed,theemergenceofwork-familyconflictreflectsthecompetitionforlimitedresourcesbetweenaworkChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page3of22
roleandafamilyrole(Guest,2002).Onlyafewstudies,however,haveinvestigatedwaysofdecreasingwork-familyconflictthroughthelensofresources(Kellyetal.,2008)—especiallythroughtheviewofconservingresources,knownasCOR.AsCORtheorysuggests,individualsmayownorfightforresourceslikeobjects,con-ditions,personalcharacteristicsandenergies;theystrivetoretain,protectandbuildthesevaluedresources.Whenfacedwithpotentialoractuallossofresources,theymayfeelworried(Hobfoll,1989,HobfollandFreedy1993).So,theessentialwaytodecreasework-familyconflictistoretainandprotectcurrentresources—aswellastobuildandinvestinfutureresources(Leslieetal.,2012;Hobfoll,2001).Thus,theaspectofre-sourcebuildingistakenintoconsideration.AsKellyetal.state(Kellyetal.2008;p.310),work-familypracticesaredeliberateorganizationalresources,targetingthework-familyinterface,whichmayplayanimportantroleinreducingwork-familyconflictand/orsupportemployees’livesoutsideofwork.Consequently,byintroducingwork-familybalancepracticesintoourmodelweareabletodecreasework-familyconflictbywayofresource-building.Work-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflictWork-familyconflictisassociatedwithnegativeworkoutcomesinorganizations,soitisimperativethatorganizationsshouldminimizetheiremployees’work-familycon-flicts.Manyinitiativeshavebeenemployedtodecreasework-familyconflict,includingjobautonomy,supportivework-familyculture,telecommuting,workflexibility(flextimeandflexplace)andsoon(e.g.Premeauxetal.2007;Kosseketal.2006;ShockleyandAllen,2007;Hobson,2014).Byprovidingemployeeswithvaluableresources,work-familybalancepracticesareintendedtoreducework-familyconflict.However,thesepracticesoftenhavemixedeffectsonwork-familyconflict,whichareofteninfluencedbyfamilycharacteristicsorindividualdifferences—suchasfamilysupport,thenumberorageofchildren(e.g.Premeauxetal.,2007;DrobničandLeόn,2014),andindividualdifferencessuchasextraversion(GrzywaczandMarks,2000).Existingstudiesofwork-familybalancepracticesaremostlyfocusedonworkplaceflexibility(e.g.telecommuting,flextimeandflexplace);however,inconsistentresultshavebeenreportedintheresearchenvironmentoftheimpactofworkinghours/timeautonomyonwork-familyconflict.Someresultsadmitthatworkflexibilitypracticesarenegativelyrelatedtowork-familyconflict(Byron,2005;GajendranandHarrison,2007;ShockleyandAllen,2007).However,thereisalsoevidencefromseveralpreviousstudiesthatsuggeststhatflexibilityinworkingtimesthatallowsforautonomyandcontroloverone’spaceofworkdoesnotnecessarilyenhancethequalityofone’spersonallife(LeeandMcCann,2006;Smithetal.,2008;HobsonandFahlen,2009;Hobson,2014).Similarly,theeffectoffamily-friendlybenefits(e.g.parentalleaveofabsence,dependentchildcare)onwork-familyconflictwerealsomixed.Forexample,KossekandOzeki(1998)didnotfindtheexpectedimpactthatdependentcarebenefitsexertonwork-familyconflict,whileGoffetal.(1990)foundthaton-sitechildcareloweredwork-familyconflictamongworkingparents(Andersonetal.2002).Exceptfortheabovestudiesfocusingonaspecificpractice,otherresearcherstreatwork-familybal-ancepracticesasabundlefortestingtheirimpactsonfirmproductivityorChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page4of22
organizationalperformance(deBloometal.,2010;KonradandMangel,2000;Perry-SmithandBlum,2000).Forexample,Family-SupportiveProgramswereadvancedandusedbymanyresearchers(e.g.Friedman,1990;FriedmanandGalinsiky,1992;Kraut,1990;Lewis,1992;Thompsonetal.1992)whichmainlyconsistofflextime,acom-pressedworkweek,jobsharing,childcareassistance,workathome,andreducedworkhours.Theseitemsarelargelyconsistentwithpreviousresearchondependentcarebenefitsandworkflexibility.Althoughthetwodimensionsofwork-familybalancepracticesaredifferentintheircontent,formatsandeffects,theyultimatelyactasessentialresourcesprovidedbyor-ganizations.Asmentionedabove,roleconflicttakesplacewhenonehasfullparticipa-tioninonerole,whileignoringanother(Kahnetal.1964).Indeed,theessenceofroleconflictisduetolimitedresources(Staines,1980;Rothbard,2001).Inlightofthis,work-familybalancepractices,suchasofferingcareforemployeesandfamily,canbeseenasakindofresourcethatcompensatesforalackoffamilyinvolvement.Work-familybalancepractices,likeworkflexibility,maypromoteflexibleworking,whichmaysaveone’stimeorenergyresources,andcompensateindividualsfortheirfamilyrole.Hypothesis1.Employees’perceptionofwork-familybalancepracticeswillreducework-familyconflict.Workstressandwork-familyconflictStressisdefinedas“anindividual’spsychologicalresponsetoasituationinwhichthereissomethingatstakefortheindividualandwherethesituationtaxesorex-ceedstheindividual’scapacityorresource”(LePineetal.2004,p.883).Individualsatworkperceivedifferenttypesofstress.Somemayderivefromjoboverload,timepressure,andaddedresponsibilitiesthatcouldprovidechallengesoropportunitiesforpersonaldevelopmentandachievements;thesearereferredtoaschallengestress(Cavanaughetal.,2000).Onthecontrary,somestressoriginatesfromexcessiveorundesirableconstraintsthatcanproduceobstaclestopersonalgrowthandaccomplishment;thesearedefinedashindrancestress(Cavanaughetal.,2000).AccordingtoRothbard(2001)andStaines(1980),ifonereceivesmorestressfromwork,thenonecannotinvestenoughresources(e.g.energyandtime)intoone’sfamily;thiscanleadtowork-familyconflict.Althoughchallengeandhindrancestresshavebeendifferentiallyrelatedtoworkattitudesandintentions—suchasjobsatisfaction,organizationalcommitment,jobsearch,andvoluntaryturnover(Cavanaughetal.,2000;Podsakoffetal.,2007)—theyarebothpositivelyrelatedtoexhaustionandhigherlevelsofwork-familyconflictbecauseofaddedworkdemand(e.g.Lepineetal.,2004;Voydanoff,2005a,b;SchererandSteiber,2009;Valcour,2007;Schiemanetal.,2009;Steiber,2009;BehamandDrobnič,2010;denDulketal.,2011).Podsakoffetal.(2007)alsofoundintheirmeta-analysisofpreviousresearchthatbothchallengeandhindrancestressorswerepositivelyassociatedwithstrain,whichmayrenderitverydifficultforindividualstoinvestresourcesinfamilysuccessfully.Thissuggeststhatthedir-ecteffectsofbothchallengeandhindrancestressonwork-familyconflictwouldbepositive.Hypothesis2.Challengeandhindrancestresswillaccentuatework-familyconflict.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page5of22
ChallengeandhindrancestressasmoderatorsAlthoughchallengeandhindrancestresshavebeenshowntoberelatedtocertainjobattitudesandintentionsindifferingways,noattempthasbeenmadetointegratethemwithrelationshipsbetweenwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflict.Whenfacedwithpotentialoractuallossofresourcesinwork,individualswithdifferentkindsofstressesmayexperienceoppositeemotions,aswellasdistinctevaluations;thismayinfluencehowtheyreacttothosesituationalcues.Asaresult,stressesmaymoder-atetheeffectsofhowindividualsreceiveandmakeuseofwork-familybalancepracticestoreducetheirwork-familyconflict.Challengestresshasacertainpositiveeffectonindividualattitudesandbehaviors.AsCavanaughetal.(2000)andSelye(1976)suggest,challengestressisfavorableforindi-vidualdevelopment,makingapersonmorewillingtopositivelyevaluateworkandtask-s―aswellasorganizationalpractices(LazarusandFolkman,1984).Moretothepoint,stressesthatcomefromtime,workloadandresponsibilitycanarousethedesireforchallengesandachievements,whichmayconveygoodspiritsandemotions(WeissandCropanzano,1996).Tosummarize,challengestressguidesindividualsintopositiveevaluationsandemotions;thusitispositivelyrelatedtomotivation(Lepineetal.,2004).Asweknow,individualsareafraidoflosingresources―theymaytrytheirbesttoavoidpotentialandactuallossofresources(Hobfoll,1989).Therefore,promotedbychallengestress,individualsaremorewillingtoinvestinresourcesandtoutilizeexist-ingwork-familybalancepracticesthatactivelyincreaseworkresourcesandfamilyresources.Withmoreresources,individualsmayfinditeasiertofulfilltheirdevelop-mentandtoreducework-familyconflict.Onthecontrary,hindrancestresspreventsindividualsfromworkinghardtoachievetheirgoalsbecause,duetovariousconstraints,thegoalsareconsideredunachievable(Lepineetal.,2004).Theymaybelievethateffortstochangethestatusquoarenotworthwhile―thustheymakefewerattemptstoutilizetheorganizationalresourcesprovidedbywork-familybalancepracticestoreducework-familyconflict.Inaddition,hindrancestressmayinspirenegativeemotions,makingthemrespondpassivelytoworkandlife.Theymightavoidchanges,andstayonalerttorisksfromoutside(Lepineetal.,2005),whichmayalsodecreasetheirutilizationoforganizationalresources.Thus,weproposethat:Hypothesis3.Challengestresswillstrengthentherelationshipbetweenemployees’perceptionofwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflictsothat,whenchallengestressishigh,work-familybalancepracticeswillreducework-familyconflictmorethanwhenchallengestressislow.Hypothesis4.Hindrancestresswillweakentherelationshipbetweenemployees’per-ceptionofwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflictsothat,whenhin-drancestressishigh,work-familybalancepracticeswillreducework-familyconflictlessthanwhenchallengestressislow(Fig.1).MethodsSampleanddatacollectionIn2014wesentsurveysto1,000publicsectorcivilservantsinBeijing,China.841respondentsfullyparticipatedinthiscurrentstudy,leadingtoaresponserateof84.1%.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page6of22
Civilservantsareanappropriatesampleforthisstudyforthefollowingreasons.Firstly,inChina,work-familybalancewelfarepracticesforcivilservantsareabundantwhencomparedwithemployeesintheindustrialsectors,whichmadetheresearchcovermoresufficientlywork-familybalancepractices.Secondly,governmentstendtoadoptrelativelyconsistentwork-familybenefitsacrossdifferentcategoriesofcivilservants.Therefore,variationsinemployeereportingofwork-familybalancepracticesmayre-flectindividualperceptionsoftheactualimplementationofthesepractices―ratherthanthedifferenceintheadoptionofpractices.58.3%oftherespondentsweremen,47.6%werebetween41and50yearsold,mosthadaBachelor’sdegree(78.4%),andalmostallweremarried(94.4%).Moreover,alargeproportionoftherespondentshadbeenacivilservantfor21–30years(45%)andhadbeenattheirsection-levelpositionforlessthan4years(62.2%).MeasuresPerceptionofwork-familybalancepracticesTomeasuretheperceptionofwork-familybalancepractices,weintegratedthemea-suresusedinseveralpriorstudies(Bloometal.2006;Kellyetal.,2008;KonradandMangel,2000;Perry-SmithandBlum,2000;Leslieetal.,2012),aswellasthebestprac-ticessuggestedbytheAllianceforWork-familyProgress.Wecameupwith10items.Theseincludepracticesrelatedtoimprovingworkflexibility,proactivehealthandwell-nessapproaches,aswellasbenefitsandsupportprovidedtofamilies.WemeasuredtheextenttowhicheachitemwasimplementedintheorganizationsusingaLikertscalerangingfrom1(toaverylittleextent)to5(toagreatextent).Weconductedexplora-toryfactoranalysis(EFA)toexplorethedimensionalstructuresoftheseitems;there-sultsareshowninTable1.TheEFAResultsshowthatperceivedwork-familybalancepracticesfallintotwofac-tors.Thefirstincludedsixitemswhichcouldbeinterpretedaswellnessandbenefitsforbothemployeesandtheirfamilies,suchasprovidingsupplementalinsuranceormedicalservicestobothemployeeandtheirdependents(childorelder).Theseprac-ticesfocusonthedirectandeconomicbenefitsofemployeesandtheirfamilymembers;wenamethisfactoremployeeandfamilywellnesscare.Thesecondfactorconsistsoffouritemsthatfocusontime-relatedorlocation-relatedbenefitsofflexibilitysuchasFig.1ConceptualmodelChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page7of22
responsiveworkshifts,flextime,paidholidaysandtelecommuting;wenamethisindir-ectandnon-economicwork-familybalancepracticeasworkflexibility.TheCronbach’salphasforfactor1andfactor2are.82and.79,respectively.Toconfirmtherationalityofthetwodimensionsmentionedabove,wecon-ductedaconfirmatoryfactoranalysis(asshowninTable2),whichshowsmodestsupportforourtwo-factormodel:χ2(34,N=841)=275.58,p<.001,comparativefitindex(CFI)=.96,andnon-normedfitindex(NNFI)=.95(BentlerandBonett,1980).Thefactor-loadingsofthetenitemsareallgreaterthan.5;thevalueoftheaveragevarianceextracted(AVE)are.57and.68respectivelyforthetwofactors.Wethereforeadoptedthesetwofactorsandformallynamedthemasemployeeandfamilywellnesscareandworkflexibilityinthefollowinganalyses.ChallengeandhindrancestressWeadapted10itemsdevelopedbyCavanaughetal.(2000)andLePineetal.(2004)tomeasurechallengeandhindrancestress.Thefivechallengestressitemsinclude“theTable2Resultsofconfirmatoryfactoranalysisofwork-familypractices,workstressandwork-familyconflictPerceptionofworklifebalanceWorkstressWorkfamilyconflictχ2275.58116.39239.43CFI0.960.920.98NNFI0.950.870.97RMSEA0.0970.1030.109AVEEmployeeandfamilycare0.57Challengestress0.57Time-based0.98Workflexibility0.68Hindrancestress0.36Strain-based0.96Behavior-based0.87Cronbach’salphasEmployeeandfamilycare0.82Challengestress0.78Time-based0.95Workflexibility0.79Hindrancestress0.55Strain-based0.94Behavior-based0.88Table1Resultsofexploratoryfactoranalysisofwork-familypracticesItemsFactor1Factor2EmployeeandfamilywellnesscareCaringdependents(insurance/medicalservice)0.760.13Financialsupport(loan,mortgageassistance)0.720.23Familytravelallowance0.710.05Householdexpensesreimbursement0.670.32Employeeassistanceprogram0.650.37Supplementalpersonalinsurance0.530.44WorkflexibilityTeleworkortelecommuting0.250.83Responsiveshift-workpolicies0.190.80Paidholidays0.120.72Flextime0.430.60Eigenvalue3.262.82Percentageofvarianceexplained0.300.26Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page8of22
amountoftimeIspendatwork”,“myworkischallenging”,“thenumberofprojectsandorassignmentsIhave”,“thevolumeofworkthatmustbeaccomplishedintheallottedtime”,“theamountofresponsibilityIhave”,and“timepressureIexperience”.Thefivehindrancestressitemsare“thedegreetowhichpoliticsratherthanperform-anceaffectsorganizationaldecisions”,“theamountofredtapeIneedtogothroughtogetmyjobdone”,“theinabilitytoclearlyunderstandwhatisexpectedofmeonthejob”,“thelackofjobsecurityIhave”,and“thedegreetowhichmycareerseems‘stalled’”.WeusedtheLikertscalewithresponseoptionsrangingfrom1(toaverylittleextent)to5(toagreatextent).TheCronbach’salphaforchallengeandhindrancestressare.78and.55.Wefurtherperformedconfirmatoryfactoranalysistovalidatethestressmeasures’convergentvalidityanddiscriminantvalidityandobtainedmodestfitindices(Table2),χ2(13,N=841)=116.39,p<.001,CFI=.92,NNFI=.87(BentlerandBonett,1980).Inaddition,thefactor-loadingofmostoftheitemsaregreaterthan.5;onlytwoofthemarejustbelow.5.IntermsofBagozziandYi(1988,1998)’ssuggestedcriteria(AVE≥.50),althoughtheAVEvalueofthehindrancestressis.36,whichisbelow.5,theAVEvalueofchallengestressis.57,whichisacceptable.Work-familyconflictTomeasureworkinterferencewithfamily(WIF),weadopted9itemsdevelopedbyCarlsonetal.(2000),whichdistinguishesbetweenthreedimensionsofWIF:time-based,strain-based,andbehavior-basedWIF.Weuseascalewithresponseoptionsrangingfrom1(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree).TheCronbach’salphais.95.Aconfirmatoryfactoranalysisofthemeasuresshow(Table2)thatallthethreefac-torshadgoodconvergentvalidityanddiscriminantvalidity:χ2(24,N=841)=239.43,p<0.001,CFI=.98,NNFI=.97(BentlerandBonett,1980),andthefactor-loadingsofthe10itemsareallgreaterthan5.Inaddition,theAVEofthethreefactorsareallgreaterthan.5(AVE=.98,.96,and.87,respectively).Thecorrelationcoefficientsbetweenla-tentvariablesarequitemoderate,andtheirsquaresaresmallerthantherelevantvalueofAVE.ControlvariablesBasedonpreviousresearchontheeffectsofwork-familyprogramsandtheantecedentsofwork-familyconflict,thereareotherexplanationsforthedifferencesinWIF.Conse-quently,weadoptedthefollowingdemographiccharacteristicsascontrolvariables.Gender.Thoughtherelationshipbetweengenderandwork-familyconflictisnotcon-sistentinpreviousmeta-analyses(Allenetal.2000;Byron,2005),gendermayplayaroleininfluencingtherelationshipbetweenperceivedwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflict.Aspreviousstudiessuggestthatfirmsemployingalargerper-centageofwomendevelopmoreextensivework-familyprograms(KonradandMangel,2000),femalesmaybenefitfromwork-familybalanceprogramsthatreducework-familyconflictmorethanmales.Education.Educationmayalsoinfluencehowindividualsreacttowork-familybalancepractices.Highlyeducatedindividualsmayexpecttobevaluedbytheorganization.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page9of22
Effectivework-familybalancepracticescanbeseenasasymbolicmeanstovalueem-ployees(Pfeffer1981).Thus,weincluded“education”asacontrolvariable.Maritalstatusandage.Marriedindividualsandmiddleageindividualsmayhavemorefamilyresponsibilitiesthanunmarriedones(e.g.caringforchildrenandelderly),soweincludedmaritalstatusandageascontrolvariables.Tenure.Itispossiblethatwork-familyconflictmayaccumulatethelongeranindivid-ualworks.Thus,wealsocontrolfor“tenure”.ResultsTable3reportsthedescriptivestatistics(includingmeansandstandarddeviationsofallthevariables)andcorrelationsbetweenvariables.Wefoundthatthethreedimensionsofwork-familyconflict―time-basedworkfamilyconflict,strain-basedworkfamilycon-flict,andbehavior-basedworkfamilyconflict―areallsignificantlyandnegativelyre-latedtotheperceptionofwork-familybalancepractices,“employeeandfamilycare”and“workflexibility”(p<.01).Moreover,bothchallengeandhindrancestressesarebasicallyandpositivelyrelatedtothreekindsofwork-familyconflict(p<.01).Tables4,5and6presenttheregressionresultspredictingtime-based,strain-based,andbehavior-basedwork-familyconflict,respectively.Weusedone-tailedteststoevaluatethesignificanceofthepredictedeffects,giventhatone-tailedtestsaresuitablefordirectionalhypotheses(Pelledetal.1999).AccordingtoHypothesis1,weexpectedthatwork-familybalancepracticeswouldbenegativelyassociatedwiththethreedi-mensionsofwork-familyconflict,whichreceivedpartialsupportasshowninModel2ofthetables.Thetwoconfigurationaldimensionsofwork-familybalancepracticespresentdifferentialeffects.Employeeandfamilywellnesscarehaveaslimandpositiveimpactonwork-familyconflict,whileworkflexibilityisconsistentlyandnegativelyre-latedtotime-based,strain-based,andbehavior-basedwork-familyconflict.Wealsohypothesizedthatbothchallengeandhindrancestresswouldbepositivelyassociatedwiththreetypesofwork-familyconflict(Hypothesis2),whichreceivedfullsupport:bothchallengeandhindrancestressareconsistentlyandpositivelyrelatedtoallthreetypesofwork-familyconflict.Totestthemoderationbetweenwork-familybalancepractices,andchallengestress(Hypothesis3)orhindrancestress(Hypothesis4),weenteredtheirinteractionsinModels3to5.Wecentralizedalltheindependentanddependentvariablesinthere-gressionmodelstoavoidmulticollinearitybetweeninteractiontermsandtheirindivid-ualcomponents(AikenandWest,1991).Weenteredtheinteractiontermsforeachdimensionofthework-familybalancepracticesinModel3andModel4.InModel5,weincludedalltheinteractionstermstogether.Theresultsshowthatworkstresshassignificantmoderationeffectsontherelationshipofwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflict;moreover,differentworkstresses(challengevs.hindrancestress)displaydifferentmoderatingeffectsontherelationship.Themoderationofeachworkstressondifferentconfigurationaldimensionsofwork-familybalancepractices(“employeeandfamilycare”and“workflexibility”)are,however,fairlyconsistent.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page10of22
Table3DescriptivestatisticsandcorrelationsaVariablesMeanS.D.12345678910111.Genderb0.420.491.002.Educationc3.080.460.17**1.003.Marriaged0.060.230.000.061.004.Ln(Age)e0.500.22−0.07*−0.28**−0.37**1.005.Ln(Worktimeperiod)f0.350.20−0.07*−0.30**−0.31**0.88**1.006.Employeeandfamilywellnesscare0.010.87−0.07*−0.020.08*0.010.001.007.Workflexibility−0.010.910.030.060.13**−0.13**−0.15**0.60**1.008.Challengestress−0.020.67−0.020.11**0.06−0.11**−0.08*0.16**0.12**1.009.Hindrancestress−0.010.78−0.03−0.07*−0.07*0.060.06−0.07*−0.020.22**1.0010.Time-basedWIF0.001.11−0.20**−0.07*−0.12**0.13**0.18**−0.10**−0.29**0.28**0.40**1.0011.Strain-basedWIF0.001.11−0.10**0.00−0.08*0.010.06−0.13**−0.25**0.31**0.42**0.79**1.0012.Behavior-basedWIF−0.031.01−0.14**−0.11**−0.11**−0.040.04−0.07*−0.19**0.21**0.43**0.62**0.70**aN=841civilservantsbGenderwascodedasfollows:“male,”0;“female,”1cEducationwascodedasfollows:“highschooldiploma,”1;“associatedegree,”2;“bachelordegree,”3;“masterdegreeandabove,”4dMarriagewascodedasfollows:“married,”0;“unmarried,”1eAgewascodedasfollows:“below30,”1;“31–35,”2;“36–40,”3;“41–45,”4;“46–50,”5;“above50,”6fWorktimeperiodwascodedasfollows:“1-10years,”1;“11–20years,”2;“21–30years,”3;“above30years,”4*p<0.05**p<0.01Two-tailedtestsChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page11of22
Table4Resultsofhierarchicalregressionfortime-basedworkinterferencewithfamilyaVariablesModel1Model2Model3Model4Model5ControlsGender−0.20***(0.08)−0.18***(0.07)−0.19***(0.06)−0.19***(0.07)−0.19***(0.06)Education0.01(0.09)0.02(0.07)0.02(0.07)0.01(0.07)0.02(0.07)Marriage−0.08*(0.17)−0.04+(0.15)−0.02(0.15)−0.03(0.15)−0.02(0.15)Ln(Age)−0.11+(0.35)−0.08+(0.30)−0.06(0.29)−0.08+(0.29)−0.07(0.29)Ln(Worktimeperiod)0.24***(0.39)0.18**(0.33)0.17**(0.32)0.18**(0.33)0.18**(0.33)IndependentsEmployeeandfamilywellnesscare0.05+(0.05)0.07*(0.05)0.07*(0.05)0.06*(0.05)Workflexibility−0.34***(0.04)−0.32***(0.04)−0.34***(0.04)−0.32***(0.04)Challengestress0.23***(0.05)0.22***(0.05)0.22***(0.05)0.21***(0.05)Hindrancestress0.32***(0.04)0.29***(0.04)0.30***(0.04)0.29***(0.04)InteractionsEmployeeandfamilywellnesscare*challengestress−0.13***(0.05)−0.12**(0.07)Workflexibility*challengestress−0.11***(0.05)−0.01(0.07)Employeeandfamilywellnesscare*hindrancestress0.11***(0.04)0.14**(0.05)Workflexibility*hindrancestress0.07*(0.04)−0.04(0.06)AdjustedR20.08***0.34***0.36***0.35**0.36***R20.08***0.35***0.37***0.36**0.37***ΔR2fromModel20.02***0.01**0.02***aN=841civilservants,thestandarderrorsareinparentheses+p<0.10;*p<0.05;**p<0.01;***p<0.001Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page12of22
Table5Resultsofhierarchicalregressionforstrain-basedworkinterferencewithfamilyaVariablesModel1Model2Model3Model4Model5ControlsGender−0.12***(0.08)−0.09**(0.07)−0.10***(0.07)−0.10***(0.07)−0.10***(0.07)Education0.04(0.09)0.04(0.07)0.04+(0.07)0.04(0.07)0.05+(0.08)Marriage−0.09**(0.18)−0.05+(0.15)−0.03(0.15)−0.04(0.15)−0.03(0.15)Ln(Age)−0.19**(0.36)−0.15**(0.30)−0.14**(0.30)−0.15**(0.30)−0.14*(0.30)Ln(Worktimeperiod)0.20**(0.40)0.15**(0.33)0.14*(0.33)0.15**(0.33)0.13*(0.33)IndependentsEmployeeandfamilywellnesscare0.01(0.05)0.02(0.05)0.02(0.05)0.02(0.05)Workflexibility−0.30***(0.05)−0.29***(0.05)−0.30***(0.05)−0.29***(0.05)Challengestress0.25***(0.05)0.24***(0.05)0.25***(0.05)0.25***(0.05)Hindrancestress0.35***(0.04)0.33***(0.04)0.34***(0.04)0.33***(0.04)InteractionsEmployeeandfamilywellnesscare*challengestress−0.10***(0.05)−0.14**(0.08)Workflexibility*challengestress−0.05*(0.05)0.06(0.07)Employeeandfamilywellnesscare*hindrancestress0.09**(0.04)0.09*(0.06)Workflexibility*hindrancestress0.07*(0.04)−0.002(0.06)AdjustedR20.02***0.32***0.33***0.32*0.33**R20.03***0.33***0.34***0.33*0.34**ΔR2fromModel20.01***0.00*0.01**aN=841civilservants,thestandarderrorsareinparentheses+p<0.10;*p<0.05;**p<0.01;***p<0.001Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page13of22
Table6ResultsofhierarchicalRegressionforbehavior-basedworkinterferencewithfamilyaVariablesModel1Model2Model3Model4Model5ControlsGender−0.13***(0.07)−0.11***(0.06)−0.12***(0.06)−0.12***(0.06)−0.12**(0.06)Education−0.09**(0.08)−0.08**(0.07)−0.08**(0.07)−0.08**(0.07)−0.08**(0.07)Marriage−0.15***(0.16)−0.11***(0.14)−0.09**(0.14)−0.10**(0.14)−0.09**(0.14)Ln(Age)−0.30***(0.32)−0.29***(0.28)−0.28***(0.28)−0.29***(0.28)−0.28***(0.28)Ln(Worktimeperiod)0.22**(0.35)0.18**(0.31)0.18**(0.31)0.18**(0.31)0.18**(0.31)IndependentsEmployeeandfamilywellnesscare0.05(0.04)0.06+(0.04)0.07*(0.04)0.06+(0.04)Workflexibility−0.24***(0.04)−0.22***(0.04)−0.24***(0.04)−0.23***(0.04)Challengestress0.14***(0.05)0.14***(0.05)0.14***(0.05)0.14***(0.05)Hindrancestress0.38***(0.04)0.35***(0.04)0.36***(0.04)0.35***(0.04)InteractionsEmployeeandfamilywellnesscare*challengestress−0.07*(0.05)−0.07+(0.07)Workflexibility*challengestress−0.06*(0.04)−0.01(0.06)Employeeandfamilywellnesscare*hindrancestress0.10***(0.03)0.07+(0.05)Workflexibility*hindrancestress0.10**(0.04)0.05(0.06)AdjustedR20.06***0.28***0.29**0.29**0.29**R20.06***0.29***0.30**0.29**0.30**ΔR2fromModel20.01**0.00**0.01**aN=841civilservants,thestandarderrorsareinparentheses+p<0.10;*p<0.05;**p<0.01;***p<0.001Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page14of22
Additionally,acrossTables4,5and6,themoderationmodelswiththesamepredic-torsandnumber(fromModel3toModel5)arealsoquietlyconsistentacrossdifferentdependentvariables(time-based,strain-basedandbehavior-basedwork-familycon-flicts).Asaresult,wedrewthefigures(Figs.2aandb,3aandb)torespectivelyillus-tratetheconvergingtrendofmoderatingeffectswiththesamepredictorsongeneralwork-familyconflict.InModel3ofeachregression(Tables4,5and6),theinteractionbetweenemployeeandfamilywellnesscare,andchallengestressaresignificantlyandpositivelyrelatedtowork-familyconflict(β=−.13,−.1,and-.07;p<.001,p<.001,p<.05;ΔR2=.02,.01,.01,respectively).Figure2aillustratesthenatureofinteractionbetweencareandchallengestressonwork-familyconflict.Individualswithhighchallengestressexperienceastrongerdecreaseofwork-familyconflictwhentheyperceivemorecareforthemselvesandtheirfamilythanindividualswithlowchallengestress.ThisprovidessupportforHypothesis3,whichexpectedthatchallengestresscanenhancetheattenuatingeffectofwork-familybalancepracticesonwork-familyconflict.TheinteractionsbetweenworkflexibilityandchallengestressareshowninModel4ofeachregression,whicharesignificantlyandnegativelyrelatedtowork-familyconflict(β=−.11,p<.001;β=−.05,p<.05;andβ=−.06;p<.05;ΔR2=.01,.00,and.00,respect-ively).Figure3ashowsthepositiveinteractionbetweenworkflexibilityandchallengestressonwork-familyconflict.Whenindividualsexperiencehighchallengestress,therelationbetweenworkflexibilityandwork-familyconflictismorenegativethanwhenindividualsperceivelowchallengestress.ThisagainprovidessupportforHypothesis3.Model3ofeachregression(Tables4,5and6)showstheinteractionsbetween“employeeandfamilycare”andhindrancestress.TheinteractionsarestronglyandabFig.2a.Themoderatingeffectofchallengestresson“employeeandfamilywellnesscare”andwork-familyconflict.b.Themoderatingeffectofhindrancestresson“employeeandfamilywellnesscare”andwork-familyconflictChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page15of22
negativelyrelatedtowork-familyconflict(β=.11,.09,and.1;p<.001;ΔR2=0.02,0.01,and0.01,respectively).Figure2bshowsthereversingnatureofinteractionbetween“employeeandfamilycare”andhindrancestressonwork-familyconflict.Itshowsthatwhenhindrancestressvariesfromlowtohigh,“employeeandfamilycare”willaccen-tuatework-familyconflict.Thisindicatesthemoresensitivemoderationeffectofhin-drancestressontherelationshipbetween“employeeandfamilycare”andwork-familyconflict.Withhighhindrancestress,highlevelsofemployeeandfamilywellnesscarewillincreasework-familyconflict.ThisfindingsupportsandgoesfurtherthanHypothesis4.Thispredictedthatthemoderationofhindrancestresswouldnolongerreducethenegativeimpactofemployeeandfamilywellnesscareonwork-familyconflict,butwouldaccelerateemployeeandfamilywellnesscaretoincreasework-familyconflict.Inaddition,theinteractionsbetweenworkflexibilityandhindrancestressonwork-familyconflictarealsosignificant(β=.07,.07,and.1;p<.05,p<.05,p<.01;ΔR2=.01,.00,and.00,respectively).Figure3billustratesthenegativeinteractionbetweenworkflexi-bilityandhindrancestressonwork-familyconflict.Comparedwithlowhindrancestress,workflexibilitycontributeslesstothereductionofwork-familyconflictwhenhindrancestressishigh.This,again,supportsHypothesis4,whichpredictedthathin-drancestresswouldreducethenegativerelationshipbetweenworkflexibilityandwork-familyconflict.DiscussionTheoreticalimplicationsTheresultsofthepresentresearchmakeafewcontributionstotheliterature.Firstly,theresultsdemonstratethelinkbetweenemployees’perceptionofwork-familyabFig.3a.Themoderatingeffectofchallengestresson“workflexibility”andworkfamilyconflict.b.Themoderatingeffectofhindrancestresson“workflexibility”andwork-familyconflictChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page16of22
practicesandwork-familyconflict.Previously,researchonwork-familyinterfacestendedtotaketwoapproaches:ontheonehand,humanresourcemanagementlitera-turefocusedontherelationshipbetweenwork-familypracticesandorganizationalper-formance;ontheotherhand,organizationalbehaviorresearchersstudiedmoreextensivelytheindividualantecedentsandconsequencesofwork-familyconflict.However,therehasbeenlittleresearchonthelinkagebetweenwork-familybal-ancepracticesandwork-familyconflict(Kellyetal.,2008).Unlikethegeneralper-spectiveofresourcelossinCOR,ourresearchisbasedupontheperspectiveofresourcebuilding.Bycombiningorganizationalmanagementresourceswithindivid-ualresources,ourstudyfocusesontheeffectoftheperceptionofwork-familypracticesinreinforcingindividualresourcessoastoreduceemployeework-familyconflict.ThisstudyachievestheintegrationoftheHRMfield,work-familyinter-faceandCORtheory.Secondly,basedonCOR,wefurtheranalyzedorganizationalresources,anddividedwork-familybalancepracticesintotwodimensionalfactors.Previousresearchhasei-thertreatedwork-familypracticesasabundle,orfocusedononlyoneortwospecificpractices.Forinstance,Perry-SmithandBlum(2000)studied“work-familyhumanre-sourcebundles”,andChristensenandStaines(1990)focusedonflextimeandexaminedwhetheritwasaviablesolutiontowork-familyconflict.Ourfactoranalysesidentifytwospecificdimensionsofwork-familybalancepractices:“employeeandfamilywell-nesscare(materialresources)”and“workflexibility(non-materialresources)”.Bothofthesedimensionshavegeneratedinformativeresultsregardingtheirrela-tionshipswithwork-familyconflict.Specifically,wefoundthatworkflexibilitydem-onstratedaconsistentandsignificanteffectinreducingemployeetime-based,strained-based,andbehavior-basedwork-familyconflict,whereastheeffectofem-ployeeanddependentcarewasnotsignificant.Flexibility-relatedwork-familybal-ancepracticesmaybemosteffectivebecausetheycanhelpreducethecompetitionofresourcesbetweenworkandfamilylife,andensureindividuals’resourcesareinvestedinfamilylife.Obviously,accordingtotheresults,differenttypesofresource-buildingmayvaryintheirreductionofwork-familyconflict,andnon-materialresourceshavebeendemonstratedtohaveamoreintrinsicandsignificantimpact.Thirdly,accordingtoCOR,losingresourcesiscloselyrelatedtoindividualstress.Therefore,weexaminedworkstressasmoderatorsbetweenwork-familybalanceprac-ticesandwork-familyconflict,uncoveringhowtheeffectivenessofwork-familybalancepracticesmaydependonthedegreetowhichindividualsexperiencechallengeorhin-drancestress.Previousstudiesthatinvestigatedthemoderationsbetweenwork-familypracticesandwork-familyconflicttendedtofocusonorganizationalcharacteristicsorindividualdemographics,whileeffortstoexamineindividualworkcontextshavebeensparse.Althoughpreviousresearchhassuggestedthatchallengestressandhindrancestressaredifferentiallyrelatedtoemployeeworkattitudesandintentions(Cavanaughetal.,2000;LePineetal.,2004),ourresultssuggestthat,asbothtypesofstressrequireindividualstoinvestmoreresourcesatwork,bothincreasedemployeework-familyconflict.Furthermore,challengeandhindrancestressdifferentiallyinfluencehowindividualsutilizework-familybalancepracticestoreducework-familyconflict.WhenindividualsChangetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page17of22
experiencehighchallengestress,theeffectsofwork-familybalancepracticesinredu-cingemployeetime-based,strain-basedandbehavior-basedwork-familyconflictweremoreprominentthanwhenindividualsexperiencedlowchallengestress.Onthecon-trary,whenindividualsexperiencedhighhindrancestresscomparingtolowhindrancestress,thepowerofwork-familybalancepracticesbecameweakerinreducingemployeework-familyconflict,orfurtherincreasedwork-familyconflictwhenitcametoem-ployeeandfamilycare.Thissuggeststhathighchallengestressmayenableindividualstoactivelyseekintervention(employerprovidedworkflexibilityandemployeeanddependentcare)tochangethestatusquo(reducework-familyconflict).However,highhindrancestressdevelopedbyperceivedconstraintsatworkmayculti-vatea“learnedhelplessness”inindividuals,whichpreventsthemfromeffectivelyutiliz-ingwork-familybalancepracticestoalleviatetheirwork-familyconflict.Theseresultsprovideadditionalinsightintounderstandingtherelationshipsamongstress,work-familypracticesandwork-familyconflict.ManagerialimplicationsExistingresearchonwork-familybalancepracticesandwork-familyconflicthasmainlyfocusedonWesterncountries.Formanyyears,therehavebeenwell-establishedpoliciesandpracticesinbothgovernmentandprivatesectororganiza-tionsaimedataddressingwork-familybalance.Moreover,employeesinthesenationsprioritizework-familybalancewhenconsideringtheirchoiceofjobandworkplace(Hobson,2014).However,itisonlyinrecentyearsthatChinesere-searchershavestartedtoworkinthisfield.Besidesthetheoreticalimplications,ourstudyresultsalsoofferseveralmanagerialimplicationsfororganizationsstriv-ingtominimizeemployeework-familyconflictthroughutilizingwork-familybalancepracticeseffectivelyandeconomically.Wefoundthatworkflexibilityhadamoresalienteffectonemployeework-familyconflictthanprovidingcaretobothemployeesandtheirfamily.Thisprovidesimplica-tionsformanagerscontemplatingthemosteffectiveinterventionstoreduceemployeework-familyconflict.Withlimitedresources,managersmaytrytoenhanceworkflexi-bility,sothattheroleconflictsbetweenemployeeworkandlifecouldbemosteffect-ivelyreduced.However,althoughemployeeandfamilywellnesscareprovidesadditionalfinancialresourcesforemployeestotakecareofdependents,itdoesnotfundamentallytackletheconflictbetweenanemployee’sworkandlife.Itcouldbebecauseemployeeswithfamily-friendlycaringbenefitsmaybelessconsiderateoftheirfamilieswhileputtingmoreeffortintotheirjobs,whichmightleadtoineffectivenessandeventhereverseef-fectof“employeeandfamilycare”practices.Inaddition,ourfindingsofthemoderationofstressontherelationshipbetweenperceivedwork-familypracticesandwork-familyconflictprovideanadditionalinsightformanagersstrivingtomaximizetheirreturnoninvestmentsinwork-familybalancepractices.Truthfully,thefindingsofthisresearcharesomewhatcounter-intuitive.Specifically,enhancingemployeechallengestressbyoptimizingjobdesignanddevelopmentopportunitiescancultivateasenseofconfidenceinemployees,whichwillaugmenttheirreceptivenesstowork-familybalancepractices.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page18of22
Likewise,reducinghindrancestressbyremovingconstraintsandobstaclesatworkalsohelpsemployeestoeffectivelyutilizework-familybalancepracticestomanagetheirwork-familyconflict.LimitationsandfutureextensionsThestudyresultsshouldbeinterpretedinthelightofseverallimitations.Oneofthelimitationsisthepotentialcommonmethodvarianceinthemeasurements.Althoughwemeasuredtheperceptionofwork-familypracticesandwork-familyconflictattheindividuallevel,asperceivedbyemployees,employeesareindeedthebestinformantsoftheactualwork-familypracticesinuse,andtheirownwork-familyconflict.Inaddition,tominimizethecommonvariance,wetestedthediscriminantvalidityoftheindependentanddependentvariablesinthesamemeasuremodel.Allthevariables’squareofcorrelationcoefficientswassmallerthanthecorrespondingAVE,whichprovidemodestsupportforthediscriminantvalidityofthevariables.Thus,commonvariancemaynothavecausedthedifferencesinthefinalresults(ConwayandLance,2010).Thatbeingsaid,wecallformorestudiesinthefuturetousecross-levelanalysisinordertounderstandthework-familyinterface.Inaddition,althoughwehaveattemptedtoclarifytheinternalstructureofwork-familypracticesandidentifiedthetwofactorsof“employeeandfamilywellnesscare”and“workflexibility”,thefieldofwork-familypracticeswillstillbenefitfromamoreconsistentconceptualizationoftheconstructs.Thetermsusedinthepreviousresearchhaveincluded“FFWP”and“work-familyprograms”(e.g.deBloometal.,2010;KonradandMangel,2000).Weurgefutureresearchtoformamoresyntheticandcleardefin-itionfor“work-familypractices”.Finally,testingthehypothesesintheChinesecontexthasbothitsmeritsanddrawbacks.Chinaisafastdevelopingcountryinwhichmanyindividualsarepressuredtoworklonghoursandsufferfromasubstantialamountofwork-familyconflict.Thus,itismostfruitfultounderstandtheimpactofwork-familypracticesonreducingwork-familyconflictinthiscontext.ThisstudyalsoprovidesacrossvalidationoftheconstructsthatwerepreviouslyusedintheWesterncontext.Nonetheless,thespecificcontextualdifferencesbetweenChinaandWesterncountriesmayrestrictthegeneralizabilityofthefindings.Thus,across-culturalcomparativestudyiscalledupon.ConclusionThiscurrentresearchinvestigatestherelationshipbetweenemployees’perceivedwork-familypractices(includingtwodimensionalconfigurationsof“employeeandfamilycare”and“workflexibility”)andemployeework-familyconflict.Italsoexaminestheroleofchallengestressandhindrancestressasmoderators.Bysurveying841civilser-vantsinBeijing,wefoundthatpracticesofworkflexibilityhaveamoresalienteffectinreducingwork-familyconflict,andthatbothtypesofworkstressincreasedwork-familyconflict.Inaddition,challengeandhindrancestressdifferentiallymoderatedtherela-tionshipbetweenperceivedwork-familypracticesandwork-familyconflict.Highchal-lengestressconsistentlyhelpedtostrengthentheeffectivenessofwork-familybalancepracticesinreducingwork-familyconflict,whilehighhindrancestressconstrainedtheeffectivenessofwork-familypracticesonwork-familyconflict.Thisprovidesadditionalinsightintothemanagementofwork-familyinterfaceandideasforfutureresearch.Changetal.FrontiersofBusinessResearchinChina (2017) 11:8 Page19of22
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