What aspects of an informative speech are included? Is it effective? Why or why not?

As part of our discussion of informative speeches, you will provide a 2-3 page (double- spaced) summary, critique of, and reflection on a TED Talk of your choice (selection is available at https://www.ted.com/talks).

An effective way to outline this paper is to think of yourself as a theatre or movie critic. You can briefly summarize the “who” and “what,” but your main objective is the analysis of their performance for both content and delivery.

Thinking about the texts we have read thus far and our class lectures, discuss a Ted Talk in terms of content and delivery. Some questions to consider addressing:

-What aspects of an informative speech are included? Is it effective? Why or why not?

-How are sources being used as evidence? Is this effective? Why or why not?

-How was their use of space, energy, focus?

-What were their strengths in terms of physicality? Were they natural? Presentational? Casual?

-How would you critique their speech? Vocal patterns? Inflection? Use of pauses? Did this help make their point or detract from their speech? Why or why not?

-What would have made their speech better/ more effective? Why?

-What was already effective and compelling? Why?

Use at least 4 sources from the texts I give you. (Public Speaking the Virtual Text chapters, The Inner Game of Tennis, The Creative Habit) Each chapter from Public Speaking the Virtual Text counts as a separate source. Citing the same chapter multiple times does not count as separate sources. Use either MLA or APA citation rules and include a bibliography. Cite each Public Speaking the Virtual Text chapter as a separate source.

Requirements: 2-3 pages

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Donna Painter Graphics. Public Speaking: The Virtual Text supporting your ideas chapter 7 By Sarah Stone Watt, Ph.D. Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA I take what I see work. I’m a strict believer in the scientific principle of believing nothing, only taking the best evidence available at the present time, interpreting it as best you can, and leaving your mind open to the fact that new evidence will appear tomorrow. ~ Adam Osborne introduction In 2010 celebrity chef Jamie Oliver won the Technology Entertainment Design (TED) Prize for his “One Wish to Change the World.” In addition to a monetary award, he was given 18 minutes at the prestigious TED Conference in Long Beach, CA to discuss his wish: “Teach every child about food” (Oliver, 2010). This chef from Essex, England, had only a short window of time to convince an American audience to change their most basic eating habits. To get them to listen he had to catch their attention and demonstrate his credibility. He managed to do both using compelling research. He began by saying, “Sadly, in the next 18 minutes . . . four Americans that are alive will be dead from the food that they eat” (Oliver, 2010). He magnified the problem with a chart showing that many more Americans die from diet related diseases each year than die from other diseases, or even from accidents and murder. Along with the statistics, he offered testimony from people living in the “most unhealthy state in America” (Oliver, 2010). By weaving together multiple forms of research over the course of his brief talk, Oliver crafted a compelling case for a massive shift in the way that Americans teach their children about food. Like Oliver, in order to give an effective speech, you will need to offer support for the ideas you present. Finding support necessitates research. Librarians have found that professors and students tend to have very different ideas regarding what it means to conduct research (Sjoberg & Ahlfeldt, 2010). Professors, who regularly conduct scholarly research as part of their occupation, tend to envision a process filled with late nights in the stacks of a library (Leckie, 1996). Students, who regularly conduct research on where to eat or what to do as part of their weekend activities, tend to envision a less formal process that involves consulting the most popular web search results. The reality is that in order to properly support your ideas and craft a compelling speech, you will need a little of each approach, possibly combined with additional investigative tools with which you may be less-familiar. The wide variety of resources available for conducting research can be overwhelming. However, if you www.publicspeakingproject.org chapter objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1. Combine multiple forms of evidence to support your ideas. 2. Differentiate between the three types of testimony, and know when to use each one. 3. Navigate the library holdings and distinguish between the types of information found in each section. 4. Evaluate source credibility and appropriateness for your speech. 5. Explain plagiarism and implement strategies to avoid it. 6. Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities. chapter outline  Introduction  Personal and Professional Knowledge o Personal Testimony o Interviews  Library Resources o Books o Periodicals o Full Text Databases  Internet Resources o Search Engines o Defining Search Terms o Websites o Government Documents  Evaluating Information  Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism o Style Sheets o Plagiarism  Conclusion  Module Activities  Glossary  References  Introduction  Personal and Professional Knowledge o Personal Testimony o Interviews  Library Resources o Books o Periodicals o Full Text Databases  Internet Resources o Search Engines o Websites o Government Documents  Evaluating Information  Citing Sources and Avoiding Plaigiarism o Style Sheets o Plagiarism  Conclusion  Module Activities  Glossary  References

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-2 have a clear topic, recognize the purpose of your speech, and understand the audience you will be speaking to, you can limit the number of sources you will need to consult by focusing on the most relevant information. Once you know the topic of the speech, you can create the specific purpose statement. This is a one sentence summary of the goal of your speech, that may begin with the phrase, “At the end of my speech, the audience will be able to..”. This statement guides your research as you piece together the supporting evidence to fill out the remainder of your speech. As you work through the types of support in this chapter, continually ask yourself, “Does this evidence support the goal of my speech?” If the source offers information that contradicts your specific purpose statement, hold on to it so that you can address the contradiction with evidence for your own idea. If it does appear to support your specific purpose statement, the next question you will ask is “Is this evidence appropriate for my audience?” Different types of appeals and evidence are better for different audiences. The best speeches will combine multiple forms of evidence to make the most convincing case possible. This chapter will help you research your speech by combining personal and professional knowledge, library resources, and Internet searches. It will help you to evaluate the sources you find and cite them to avoid plagiarism. personal and professional knowledge Professional public speakers are generally called upon to address a topic on which they are considered an expert. You may not feel like an expert in the area of your speech at this time, but you should consider whether you have any preexisting knowledge of the topic that might assist in crafting your speech. Do not be afraid to draw on your own experience to enhance the message. Do you know the difference between education and experience? Education is when you read the fine print; experience is what you get when you don’t. ~ Pete Seeger personal testimony Walter Fisher argues that humans are natural storytellers. Through stories people make sense of their experiences, and they invite others to understand their lived reality as part of a community (Fisher, 1984). One compelling story that you can offer is your personal testimony. Although you are not a recognized authority on the topic, you can invite the audience to understand your firsthand experience. Offering your testimony within a speech provides an example of your point, and it enhances your credibility by demonstrating that you have experience regarding the topic. Additionally, personal testimony can enhance your speech by conveying your insight and emotion regarding the topic, making your speech more memorable (Beebe & Beebe, 2003; Parse, 2008). For example, if you are giving a speech on the importance of hunting to the local culture, you might explain how the last buck you shot fed your family for an entire season. Since personal testimony refers to your experience, it is easy to assume that you can offer it with little preparation. However, psychologists have found that as people tell their stories they relive the experience (Gladding & Drake Wallace, 2010). As you relive the experience, your tendency will be to enrich the story with detail and emotion, which is part of what makes it memorable, but this practice may also make the story too long and distract from your point. If you plan to use personal testimony in your speech, practice the story to make sure that it makes the appropriate point in the time you have. If you do not have personal experience with the topic, you may seek out other forms of lay testimony to support your point. Lay testimony is any testimony based on witnesses’ opinions or perceptions in a given case (“Federal Rules,” 2012). For example, if you are giving a speech about Occupy Wall Street, but you have not experienced one of their protests, you may choose to include statements from a protestor or someone who identifies with the goals of the movement. interviews Lay testimony can offer insight into the past and into areas where individual sentiments are relevant, but if you are called upon to make predictions regarding the future or speak to an issue where you have little relevant experience, expert testimony may provide more convincing support (Beebe & Beebe, 2003). Expert testimony comes from a recognized

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-3 authority who has conducted extensive research on an issue. Experts regularly publish their research findings in books and journals, which we will discuss later in this chapter, but you may need more information from the expert in order to substantiate your point. For example, if you were giving a speech about how to prepare for a natural disaster, you might interview someone from the Red Cross. They could tell you what supplies might be necessary for the specific types of disasters that are likely in your region. Interviews give people the chance to expand on their published research and offer their informed perspective on the specific point you are trying to make. My basic approach to interviewing is to ask the basic questions that might even sound naive, or not intellectual. Sometimes when you ask the simple questions like “Who are you?” or “What do you do?” you learn the most. ~ Brian Lamb If you are seeking an interview with an expert, it is best to arrange a time and place that works for them. Begin the process with a respectful phone call or email explaining who you are and why you are contacting them. Be forthcoming regarding the information you are seeking and the timeline in which you are working. Also be flexible about the format for your interview. If you can meet in person, that is often ideal because it gives you the chance to get to know the person and to ask follow up questions if necessary. A good alternative to an in person interview is a video call using a service such as Skype. These services are often free to both callers and allow you to see and hear the person that you are interviewing. If neither of these options will work, a phone call or email will do. Keep in mind that while an email may seem convenient to you, it will likely require much more time from the expert as they have to type every answer, and they may not be as forthcoming with information in that format. Before the interview, write down your questions. When you talk to someone, it is easy to get caught up in what they are saying and forget to focus on the information you need. Once you begin the interview work to establish rapport with the person you are interviewing. You can foster rapport by demonstrating that you respect their viewpoint, by taking turns in your interactions, by allowing them to finish their thought without interrupting, and by giving them the freedom to use their preferred forms of expression (Lindolf & Taylor, 2002). As you ask each question, take note of their response and ask for clarification or to follow up on information you did not anticipate. If you plan to record the interview, ask for permission in advance. Even if you are given permission to record, take paper and a writing utensil along to make back-up notes in case your recording device fails. When the interview is complete, thank the person and check to see whether they would welcome further contact to follow up if necessary. After the interview, review your notes for insight that substantiates your specific purpose statement. Look for quotes that bring together the person’s expertise with their reflections on the topic you are addressing. It is likely that you will gain more knowledge from the interview than you can possibly include in a short speech. Work to synthesize the main points from the interview into a coherent statement supporting your topic. Remember to be careful about properly quoting exact phrases that the person used. Even if you paraphrase, properly cite the interview and credit the expert for all of the ideas they shared with you. library resources The most well established way of finding research to support your ideas is to use the library. However, many students see the “library and its resources as imposing and intimidating, and are anxious about how they will manage in such an environment” (Leckie, 1996, p. 204). Don’t let any twinge of anxiety keep you from exploring all that the library has to offer! When conducting research, one of your best resources is the librarian. It is their job to know all about the resources available to you, and to help you succeed in locating the material that is most relevant to your assignment. Additionally, many

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-4 libraries have librarians who specialize in particular areas of research and they will be able to help you find the best resources for your specific speech topic. Ideally, you should seek some information on your topic alone before asking for their assistance. Doing some initial research independently demonstrates to the librarian that you have taken ownership of the assignment and recognize that the research is ultimately your responsibility, not theirs. They will be better equipped to help you find new information if they know where you have already looked and what you have found. Most libraries contain at least three primary resources for information: books, periodicals, and full text databases. books Books are an excellent place to gain general knowledge. They contain comprehensive investigations of a subject in which authors can convey substantial amounts of information because they are not constrained by a strict page count. Some books are written by a single author while other books bring several scholars together in an edited collection. In both cases, you are likely to get a rich investigation of a single topic. For example, if you were giving a speech about stereotypes of black women in America, you might check out Melissa Harris-Perry’s (2011) book Sister Citizen, because she brings together literature, theory, and political science, to offer a detailed discussion of the development of four prominent stereotypes. In the book she has enough space to offer compelling images, narratives, and social scientific evidence for the impact those stereotypes have on contemporary society. A library is not a luxury, but one of the necessities of life. ~ Henry Ward Beecher Most libraries make finding books easy by indexing them in an online catalog. You should be able to go to the library’s website and simply search for your topic. The index will provide the titles, authors, and other publication information for each book. It will also provide a call number. The call number is like an address for the book that indicates where it can be found on the stacks in the library. Before going to the stacks, take note of the title, author, and call number. The call number is the most important element, and the title and author will serve as backup for your search if you find that the books are out of order. If you find a book that is helpful, be sure to check the shelf nearby to see if there are other promising titles on that topic. If you cannot find the book that you are looking for, consider asking the librarian to help you borrow it from another library using a process called interlibrary loan. The length of a book can make it seem overwhelming to someone researching a brief speech. In order to streamline your research, determine what you are looking for in advance. Are you seeking general background knowledge or support for a specific idea? Use the table of contents, headings, and index to guide you to the portion of the book that is likely to have what you are looking for. You do not need to read, or even skim, the entirety of every book. It is appropriate to skim for key words and phrases that pertain to your topic. Just be sure that once you find what you are looking for, you read enough of the section around it to understand the context of the statement and ensure that the book is making the point you think it is. Take note of the point that the book is making. Careful notes will help you remember the information that you gained from each source when you get home. In addition to the traditional stacks of books present in your library, you will also find a reference section. This section contains books that do not delve deep into any subject, but provide basic summary knowledge on a variety of topics. The reference section contains books like dictionaries, which help define unfamiliar terms; encyclopedias, which provide overviews of various subjects; abstracts, which summarize books and articles; and biographical references, which describe people and their accomplishments. Since these resources do not require extensive time to process, and they are likely to be used briefly but regularly by many visitors, the library generally will not allow you to check out reference material. Take great care in drafting notes on the information that you find, and writing down the page numbers and authors according to the style preferred in your field of study. For more information on what you will need to record see the “style guides” section of this chapter.

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-6 Figure 7.1 Sponsored Websites internet resources search engines A search engine can be your most important resource when attempting to locate information on the Internet. Search engines allow you to type in the topic you are interested in and narrow the possible results. Some of the most popular search engines include Google, bing, Yahoo!, and Ask (eBizMBA, 2012). These sites provide a box for you to type a topic, phrase, or question, and they use software to scan their index of existing Internet content to find the sites most relevant to your search. Each search engine uses different algorithms and techniques to locate and rank information, which may mean that the same search will yield different results depending on the search engine. Based on the algorithms it is using, the search engine will sort the results with those it determines to be most relevant appearing first. Since each site is different, you should use the one that seems most intuitive to you. However, since their ranking systems will also be different, you cannot assume that the first few sites listed in your chosen search engine are the most relevant. Always scan the first few pages of search results to find the best resource for your topic. Skimming the content of the pages returned in your search will also give you an idea of whether you have chosen the most appropriate search terms. If your search has returned results that are not relevant to your speech, you may need to adjust your search terms and try a new search. We want Google to be the third half of your brain. ~ Sergey Brin Pay close attention to the first few sites listed in search results. Some databases allow “sponsored links” to appear before the rest of the results. If you are giving a speech about the dangers of rental cars, and you search rental car in Google, links to companies like Hotwire.com, Orbitz.com, or National Rental Car are likely to appear first in your results. These sites may or may not be relevant to your search, but they have also paid for the top spot on the list and therefore may not be the most relevant. When search engines display sponsored sites first, they typically distinguish these from the others by outlining or highlighting them in a different color. For example, while Google lists advertisements related to your search on the right-hand side of the screen, they sometimes also put a limited number of sponsored links at the top of your search results list. The only distinction between these sponsored links and the rest of the list is a subtly shaded box with a small label in the upper right indicating they are “Ads” (see Figure 7.1). defining search terms In the early stages of research it may be helpful to simply search by topic. For example, if you are interested in giving a speech about revolutions in the Middle East, you might type that topic into the database and scan the sites that come up. As you are scanning, watch for other useful terms that arise in relation to the topic and jot them down for possible use in later searches. Since people may write about the topic in different terms than you tend to think about it, paying close attention to their language will help you refine your search. Another way to approach this is to consider synonyms for your search terms before you even begin. Once you have a concrete topic and have begun to outline the arguments you want to make, you are likely to need more specific terms to find what you are looking for. In order to help with the search, you may use Boolean operators, words and symbols that illustrate the relationship between your search terms and help the search engine expand or limit your results (see Table 7.2 on the next page for examples). Although search engines regularly adjust their Boolean rules to avoid people rigging the site to show their own pages first, a few basic terms tend

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-7 Figure 7.2 A Search Result with a Library Link to be used by most search engines (BBC, 2012). When you have a well-defined area of research, it is best to start as specific as possible and then broaden your search as needed. If there is something on exactly what you want to say, you don’t want to miss it wading through a sea of articles on your general topic area. To make the best use of your search engine take some time to read the help section on the site and learn how their Boolean operators work. The help section will offer additional tips to assist you in navigating the nuances of that site and executing the best possible search. Google You may be at least somewhat familiar with Google, the name that has become synonymous with “internet search,” and called “the most used and most popular search engine” (Tajane, 2011). You may already be adept at searching Google for a wide variety of information, but you may be less familiar with some of its specialized search engines. Three of these search engines can be particularly helpful to someone seeking to support their ideas in a speech: Google Scholar, Google Books, and Google Images. Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. ~ Zora Neale Hurston Google Scholar The search engines listed earlier in this chapter will help you explore a diversity of sites to find the information you are looking for. However, certain topics and certain types of speeches call for more rigorous research. This research is typically best found in the library, but Google has an added feature that makes finding scholarly sources easier. On Google Scholar you can find research that has been published in scholarly journal articles, books, theses, conference proceedings, and court opinions. Google Scholar is not only helpful for focusing on academic research; it has a host of features that will help to refine your search to the most helpful articles. You can search generally in Google Scholar and find citations of useful articles that will help support your ideas, but you may not always find the full text of the article. You can ask Google Scholar to help you find the full text articles available in your library’s databases by telling it which library you want to search. To do this, click the “scholar preferences” link next to the search button on scholar.google.com. Then scroll down to the section titled “library links,” and type the name of your school or library, then click “find library.” When the search is complete, check the box next Table 7.2 Boolean Operators OR The word “OR” is one way to expand your search by looking for a variety of terms that may help you support your topic. For example, in a speech about higher education, you might be interested in sources discussing either colleges or universities. In this case using the term “OR” helps expand your search to include both terms, even when they appear separately. AND/ + Using the word “AND” or the “+” symbol between terms limits your search by indicating to the search engine that you are interested in the relationship between the terms and want to see pages which offer both terms together. If you are giving a speech about Hillary Rodham Clinton’s work in the Senate, you might search Hillary Rodham Clinton AND Senate. This search would help you find information pertaining to her senate career rather than sites that focus on her as First Lady or Secretary of State. NOT/- Using the word “NOT” or the “-” symbol can also limit your search by indicating that you are not interested in a term that may often appear with your desired term. For example, if you are interested in hyenas, but want to limit out sites focused on their interactions with lions, you might search hyena –lion to eliminate all of the lion pages from your search. “ ” Quotation marks around a group of words limit the search by indicating you are looking for a specific phrase. For example, if you are looking for evidence that human behavior contributes to global warming, you might search “humans contribute to global warming,” which would limit the search far beyond the simple human + global warming by specifying the point you seek to make.

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-8 Figure 7.3 Search Inside the Book to the name of your library so that Google knows to include it in the search. Once you have included your library, the search results you get will have links that lead you to the articles available in your library’s databases (see Figure 7.2). Clicking the links will lead you to your library databases and prompt you to log into the system as you would if you were searching on the library site itself. I find I use the Internet more and more. It’s just an invaluable tool. I do most of my research on the Net now… ~ Nora Roberts Even when you are linked to your library’s databases, there may be articles in your search results that you do not have electronic access to. In that case, search your library catalog for the title of the journal in which your desired article appears to see if they carry the journal in hard copy form. If you still cannot find it, copy the citation information and use your interlibrary loan system to request a copy of the article from another library. In addition to enhancing your database searches, Google Scholar can also help you broaden your search in two strategic ways. First, underneath the citation for each search result, you will see a link to “related articles.” If you found a particular article helpful, clicking “related articles” is one way to help you find resources that are similar. Second, as you know, researchers often look through the bibliography of a helpful source to find the articles that author used. However, when you are dealing with an older article, searching backwards in the bibliography may lead you to more outdated research. To search for more recent research, look again under the search result for the link called “cited by.” Clicking the “cited by” link will give you all of the articles that have been published since, and have referred to, the article that you found. For example, if you are giving a speech on male body image you might find Paul Rozin and April Fallon’s 1988 article in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology comparing opposite sex perceptions of weight helpful. However, it would be good to have more recent research. Clicking the “related articles” and “cited by” links would lead you to similar research published within the past few years. Google Books Just as Google Scholar can be used to enhance your research in scholarly periodicals, Google Books can be used to make your search for, and within, books more efficient. Some library catalogs offer you the ability to search for all books on a topic, whether that library has the book or not. Other libraries confine you to searching their holdings. One way to enhance your research is to search for books on Google Books and then use your library site to see if they currently have the book, or if you will need to order it through interlibrary loan. The other way that you can use Google Books is to make your skimming more effective. Earlier in this chapter you learned that you should strategically skim books for the information that you need. You can do that with Google Books by looking up the book, and then using the search bar on the left side of the screen (see Figure 7.4) to search for key words within the book. This search engine can help you identify the pages in a book where your terms appear and, with many books, give you a sample of that page to allow you to see whether the terms appear in the context you are searching for. Keep in mind that Google Books is a search engine; it is not a replacement for checking out the book in the library or buying your own copy. Google Books does not print books in their entirety, and often will omit pages surrounding a search result, so relying on the site to allow you to read enough of the book to make your argument is risky at best. Instead, use this site to help you determine which books to obtain, and which parts of those books will be most relevant to your research. Google Images Google Images may be useful as you seek visual aids to illustrate your point. You can search Google Images for photographs, charts, illustrations, clip art and more. For example, if you are giving a speech on the Nineteenth Amendment, you could add interest by offering a picture of the Silent Sentinel’s picketing the White House. Alternatively, if you wanted to demonstrate the statistical probability of electing a woman to Congress, you could use Google Images to locate a chart displaying that information. Since search engines match the terms you put in, it is possible that your topic could yield images containing adult content. To prevent receiving adult content, you can use the “safe search” settings (located in the option wheel in the far upper right hand corner of the menu bar) to limit your exposure to

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-9 explicit images. The setting has three options: 1. Strict filtering: filters sexually explicit video and images from Google Search result pages, as well as results that might link to explicit content. 2. Moderate filtering: excludes sexually explicit video and images from Google Search result pages, but does not filter results that might link to explicit content. This is the default SafeSearch setting. 3. No filtering: as you’ve probably figured out, turns off SafeSearch filtering completely (Google, 2012). Remember that, as with other outside sources, you will need to offer proper source citations for every image that you use. Additionally, if you plan to post your speech to the internet or publish it more widely than your class, consider using only images that appear in the public domain so that you do not risk infringing on an artist’s copyright privileges. It is not ignorance but knowledge which is the mother of wonder. ~ Joseph Wood Krutch websites When you use a more general search engine, such as Google or bing, you are looking for websites. Websites may be maintained by individuals, organizations, companies, or governments. These sites generally consist of a homepage, that gives an overview of the site and its purpose. From the homepage there are links to various types of information on the original site and elsewhere on the Internet. These sets of links arrange information “in an unconstrained web-like way” (Berners-Lee, 2000, p.3), which opens up the possibility of making new connections between ideas and research. It also opens up the possibility of getting lost among all of the available sources. To keep your research on track, be sure to continue asking yourself if the sources you have found support your specific purpose statement. Most websites are created to promote the interests of their owner, so it is very important that you check to see whose website you are looking at. Generally the author or owner of the site is named near the top of the homepage, or in the copyright notice at the bottom. Knowing who the site belongs to will help you determine the quality of the information it offers. If you find the site through a search engine and are not directed to its homepage, look for a link called “home” or “about” to navigate to the page containing more information about the site itself. In addition to knowing the owner, it is important to look for the author of the material you are using. For example, an article on a reputable news site like CNN.com may come from a respected journalist, or it may be the opinion of a blogger whose post is not necessarily vetted by the company itself. Use the section of the chapter on evaluating information to determine whether the site you have found is a credible source. When you find websites that are both useful and credible, be sure to bookmark them in your Web browser so that you can refer to them again later. Your browser may call these bookmarks “favorites” instead. To bookmark a site, you can click on the bookmarking link in your browser or, if your browser uses tabs, you can drag the tab into a toolbar near the top of the window. If you are struggling with the bookmarking process, try the command CTRL+D on your keyboard or consult the help link for your Web browser. Don’t leave inferences to be drawn when evidence can be presented. ~ Richard Wright government documents Governments regularly publish large quantities of information regarding their citizens, such as census data, health reports, and crime statistics. They also compile transcripts of legislative proceedings, hearings, and speeches. Most college and university libraries maintain substantial collections of government documents. Additionally, these documents are increasingly available online. Government documents can be helpful for finding up-to-date statistics on an issue that affects the larger population. They can also be helpful in identifying strong viewpoints concerning government policies. For example, looking at the Congressional testimony regarding nuclear safety after an earthquake destroyed the Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan in 2011 could help you make a compelling case for safety upgrades at U.S. nuclear power facilities. Now, whenever you read any historical document, you always evaluate it in light of the historical context. ~ Josh McDowell One of the most helpful resources for searching government documents is www.fedworld.gov. This site allows

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-10 I used to sleep nude – until the earthquake. ~ Alyssa Milano you to search Supreme Court decisions, government scientific reports, research and development reports, and other databases filled with cutting edge research. It also lists all major government agencies and their websites. Another excellent way to locate government documents is to use the Monthly Catalog of U.S. Government Publications. This index is issued every month and lists all of the documents published by the federal government, except those that are restricted or confidential. You can use the index to locate documents from Congress, the courts, or even the president. The index arranges reports alphabetically by the name of the issuing agency. The easiest way to search will be on the Government Printing Office website at catalog.gpo.gov. If you would prefer to work with hard copies of the reports, head to your library and search the subject index to find subjects related to your speech topic. Each subject will have a list of documents and their entry number. Use the entry numbers to find the title, agency, and call number of each document listed in the front of the index (Zarefsky, 2005). evaluating information The large amount of information available in your library and on the Internet can seem overwhelming. Narrow your support by evaluating the quality and credibility of each source. To determine the quality of a source, look to see whether the information provided seems comprehensive. To determine whether or not the information is comprehensive, check to see that it thoroughly covers the issue, considers competing perspectives, and cites the sources where supporting material came from. The popular online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is a great resource for general information. It is a good place to start in order to determine search terms and potentially relevant strains of thought on a given topic. However, it is not the most credible source to cite in your speech. Since anyone can update the site at any time, information may be entirely inaccurate. When using Wikipedia, look for source citations and follow the links to original source material. First, check to see that your source not only discusses issues that pertain to your topic, but thoroughly explains the reasoning behind the claims it offers. Often you will already be familiar with the topic, but you will require the addition of strong reasoning to properly support your ideas. If your source cannot provide strong reasoning, it is not the best quality source. Second, determine whether the source considers competing perspectives. Debate strategists know that evidence can be found for multiple perspectives on any issue. If your source does not also recognize and consider opposing arguments, it is not the best quality source. Third, check to see that your source offers supporting data and citations for its arguments. If the source lacks relevant data to support its claims, does not include other citations, or if it includes non-credible citations, it is not the best quality source. It is fine to use a source that is weak in one of these areas if you still find it compelling, but know that you may need to back it up with additional credible information. If the source is weak in multiple areas, do your best to avoid using it so that it does not weaken your speech. In addition to the quality, you should examine source credibility. When evaluating credibility, focus on the sources’ qualifications, the parity of their message with similar sources, and their biases. One of the most important elements of credibility is qualification. Sometimes qualifications will be linked to a person’s profession. For example, if you are talking about earthquakes, you might want the expertise of a seismologist who studies earthquake waves and their effects. However, professional expertise is not the only type of credibility. If you want to discuss the feeling of experiencing a major earthquake, testimony from a survivor may be more credible than testimony from a scientist who studied the event but did not experience it. When examining credibility, check to see that the person has the training or experience appropriate to the type of information they offer. Next, check to see whether the information in your chosen source aligns with information in other sources on the issue. If your

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-12 themselves, yet they took credit for it. Most instances of blatant cheating, such as these, are quickly caught by instructors who maintain files of work turned in previously, or who are adept at searching the Internet for content that does not appear original to the student. Consequences for this type of plagiarism are severe, and may range from failure of the course to expulsion from the school. More often, plagiarism occurs by mistake when people are not aware of how to properly summarize and cite the sources from which they took information. This happens when someone incorporates words or ideas from a source and fails to properly cite the source. Even if you have handed your professor a written outline of the speech with source citations, you must also offer oral attribution for ideas that are not your own (see Table 7.3 for examples of ways to cite sources while you are speaking). Omitting the oral attribution from the speech leads the audience, who is not holding a written version, to believe that the words are your own. Be sure to offer citations and oral attributions for all material that you have taken from someone else, including paraphrases or summaries of their ideas. When in doubt, remember to “always provide oral citations for direct quotations, paraphrased material, or especially striking language, letting listeners know who said the words, where, and when” (Osborn & Osborn, 2007, p.23). Whether plagiarism is intentional or not, it is unethical and someone committing plagiarism will often be sanctioned based on their institution’s code of conduct. conclusion Remember that in order to convince an audience and appear credible, you will need to offer support for each of your ideas. Gathering testimony from experienced and expert individuals will lend excitement and credibility to your speech. Combining testimony with resources from the library, such as books, periodicals, and reference material, will help you back up your ideas. Examining credible Internet resources can also enhance your speech by yielding the most up-to-date evidence for the points you hope to make. With so much information available it is possible to support almost any idea. However, you will need to take care to ensure that you offer the highest quality and most credible support. Do this by gathering a variety of sources and comparing the information to make sure the support is consistent across sources, and that you have accounted for any possible contradictory information. As you integrate the sources into your speech, remember to ask: “Does this evidence support my specific purpose statement?” and “Is this evidence appropriate for my audience?” Also, don’t forget to offer written and oral attribution for each idea. Using the various resources available you will likely find more evidence than you can possibly incorporate into one speech. These questions will assist you as you refine your support and craft the most compelling speech possible. Accuracy is the twin brother of honesty; inaccuracy, of dishonesty. ~ Nathaniel Hawthorne Table 7.3 Verbal Source Citations Proper Written Source Citation Proper Oral Attribution “Your time is limited, so don’t waste it living someone else’s life” (Jobs, 2005). In his 2005 commencement address at Stanford University Steve Jobs said, “Your time is limited, so don’t waste it living someone else’s life.” “Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants” (Pollan, 2009, p.1). Michael Pollan offers three basics guidelines for healthy eating in his book, In Defense of Food. He advises readers to, “Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants.” “The Assad regime’s escalating violence in Syria is an affront to the international community, a threat to regional security, and a grave violation of human rights. . . . this group should take concrete action along three lines: provide emergency humanitarian relief, ratchet up pressure on the regime, and prepare for a democratic transition” (Clinton, 2012). In her February 24 speech to the Friends of Syria People meeting, U.S. Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, warned that Assad was increasing violence against the Syrian people and violating human rights. She called for international action to help the Syrian people through humanitarian assistance, political pressure, and support for a future democratic government. “Maybe you could be a mayor or a Senator or a Supreme Court Justice, but you might not know that until you join student government or the debate team” (Obama, 2009). In his 2009 “Back to School” speech President Obama encouraged students to participate in school activities like student government and debate in order to try out the skills necessary for a leadership position in the government.

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-13 module review questions and activities review questions 1. For each of the claims below, identify the most compelling form of evidence that the speaker might offer. List as many as you can think of. a. Photo-retouching alters our perspective on beauty. b. The Internet is an effective protest tool. c. Body scanners in airports are detrimental to our health. 2. You are giving a speech about the importance of legislation banning text messaging while driving. You want to offer diverse support for your argument that the legislation is necessary. What research tools would you use to find the following forms of evidence? a. A personal narrative concerning the effects of texting while driving. b. An academic study concerning the effects of texting while driving. c. Existing legislation regarding cell phone use in automobiles. d. A visual aid for your speech. 3. Checking the quality of your evidence is an important step in refining support for your argument. What are three elements that you should look for when determining source quality? Why is each element necessary? 4. You are giving a speech about bed bugs. You point out that bed bugs are a common pest that can be found almost anywhere. You have found a variety of sources for your speech including a bed bug registry website where people can report seeing bed bugs in hotels, an encyclopedia entry on bed bugs, a blog containing pictures and personal testimony about an experience with bed bugs, a scientific study on the conditions under which bed bugs thrive, and a psychological study concerning the way that people are conditioned to respond to the sight of bugs in their bed. Which of these is the most credible source to support your point? Why? 5. The following is an excerpt from John F. Kennedy’s 1963 Civil Rights Address. Read the excerpt, and offer your own paraphrase of his ideas without incorporating any direct quotations from the text: I hope that every American, regardless of where he lives, will stop and examine his conscience about this and other related incidents. This Nation was founded by men of many nations and backgrounds. It was founded on the principle that all men are created equal, and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened (Kennedy, 1963). 6. Imagine you are giving a speech on ______________ [fill in the blank]. Write a potential specific purpose statement. Then identify three types of research that you would integrate in order to offer balanced and compelling support for your statement.

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-14 activities 1. Get to know your library. Use your library website to determine the name of the librarian who works with your major, or in the area of your speech topic. This activity is not designed for you to get the librarian to do your work for you, but rather for you to get to know the librarian better and make them a partner in your research process. Make an appointment with that person and interview them concerning the best way to conduct research for your speech. Take a summary of the assignment, your specific purpose statement, and at least one source that you have already found for your speech. Be sure to ask the following questions: a. What types of sources would you advise me to focus on in my search for supporting materials? b. What search terms are likely to yield results that are relevant to my specific purpose statement? c. Can you offer any tips that will make searching this particular library easier? 2. Using the topics below, or your own speech topic, practice developing productive search terms. Begin by brainstorming synonyms for the topic. Then, consider other concepts that are closely related to the topic. Using those terms, conduct a preliminary search in the search engine of your choice. Skim the content on the 3-5 most promising results and highlight common terms and phrases that appear on each page. Those common terms and phrases should help you narrow your searches as you move forward with your research. a. National Security b. Alternative Energy c. Economic Stability d. Media Piracy e. Privacy f. Local Events 3. Using one of the topics listed in the previous activity, conduct a search on the topic using identical search terms in Google Images, Google Scholar, and Google Books. For each search, identify the source that you think would best support a speech on the topic. Cite each source using a consistent style guide (MLA, APA, or Chicago), and offer your evaluation of the sources’ relevance, quality, and credibility. 4. Watch Stephen Colbert’s report concerning Wikipedia or search “wikiality” if the link does not work (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=20PlHx_JjEo). Using research that you have found on your speech topic, update the Wikipedia page for your topic. Be careful not to replicate the errors that Colbert discusses. Offer only accurate information, and cite the source where support for your entry can be found.

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-15 glossary Bias The predisposition toward a particular viewpoint. Boolean Operators Words and symbols that illustrate the relationship between search terms and help the search engine expand or limit results. Expert Testimony Testimony that comes from a recognized authority who has conducted extensive research on an issue. Interlibrary Loan The process of borrowing materials through one library that belong to another library. Lay Testimony Any testimony based on witnesses’ opinions or perceptions in a given case Parity Similarity of information across sources. Personal Testimony An individual’s story concerning his or her lived experience, which can be used to illustrate the existence of a particular event or phenomenon. Rapport A cordial relationship between two or more people in which both parties convey respect and understanding for one another. Search Engine Software which uses algorithms to scan an index of existing Internet content for particular terms, and then ranks the results based on their relevance. Source Credibility Signs that a person is offering trustworthy information. Specific Purpose Statement A sentence summarizing the main idea, or claim, which the speech will support. It should be stated clearly toward the beginning of the speech. Style Guide An established set of standards for formatting written documents and citing sources for information within the document.

Chapter 7 Supporting Your Ideas www.publicspeakingproject.org 7-16 references American Society of Magazine Editors. (2011). 2011 National Magazine Awards, Winners, and Finalists. Retrieved from: http://www.magazine.org/asme/magazine_awards/nma_winners/ BBC. (2012). What are “Boolean operators?” WebWise: A Beginner’s Guide to Using the Internet. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/webwise/guides/boolean-operators Beebe, S.A. & Beebe, S.J. (2003). Public speaking: An audience centered approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Berners-Lee, T. & Fischeti, M. (2000). Weaving the web: The original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web. New York, NY.: Harper Collins. Clinton, H. (2012, February 4). [Address]. Clinton’s remarks at the Friends of Syrian People meeting, February 2012. [Transcript]. Retrieved from: http://www.cfr.org/syria/clintons-remarks-friends-syrian-people-meeting-february-2012/p27482 eBizMBA. (2012). Top 15 Most Popular Search Engines: January 2012. Retrieved from: http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/ search-engines Federal Rules of Evidence. (2012). Federal Evidence Review. Retrieved from: http://federalevidence.com/rules-of-evidence#Rule701. Fisher, W. R. (1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. Communication Monographs, 51, pp.1-22. Gladding, S.T. & Drake Wallace, M.J. (2010). The potency and power of counseling stories. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 5, pp. 15-24. Google. (2012). SafeSearch: filter objectionable content. Google Inside Search. Retrieved from: http://support.google.com/websearch/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=510 Harris-Perry, M.V. (2011). Sister Citizen: Shame, Stereotypes, and Black Women in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Jobs, S. (2005, 14 June). “You’ve gotta find what you love,” Jobs says. Stanford Report. Retrieved from: http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/june15/jobs-061505.html Kennedy, J.F. (1963, 11 June). Civil Rights Address. Retrieved from: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcivilrights.htm Leckie, G.J. (1996). Desperately seeking citations: Uncovering faculty assumptions about the undergraduate research process. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 22(3), p. 201-208. Lindolf, T.R. & Taylor, B.C. (2002). Qualitative communication research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Miller-Cochran, S.K. & Rodrigo, R.L. (2011). The Wadsworth guide to research. Boston, MA: Wadsworth. National Sleep Foundation. (2011). School start time and sleep. Retrieved from: http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/sleep-topics/school-start-time-and-sleep Obama, B. (2009, September 8). [Address]. Prepared remarks of President Barack Obama: Back to school event, Arlington, Virginia. Retrieved from: http://www.whitehouse.gov/MediaResources/PreparedSchoolRemarks Oliver, J. (2010, February). Jamie Oliver’s TED Prize wish: Teach every child about food. TED Ideas Worth Spreading. Speech retrieved from: http://www.ted.com/talks/jamie_oliver.html Osborn, M. & Osborn, S. (2007). Public speaking (custom edition for Pepperdine University). Boston, MA: Pearson. Parse, R. R. (2008). Truth for the moment: Personal testimony as evidence. Nursing Science Quarterly, 21(1), pp. 45-48. Pollan, M. (2009). In defense of food: An eater’s manifesto. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Rozin, P. & Fallon, A. (1988). Body image, attitudes to weight, and misperceptions of figure preferences of the opposite sex: A comparison of men and women in two generations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), pp. 342-345. Sjoberg, L.M. & Ahlfeldt, S.L. (2010). Bridging the gap: Integrating information literacy into communication courses. Communication Teacher, 24(3), pp. 131-135. Tajane, T. (2011). Most used search engines and total market share trend as of March 2011. TechZoom.org. Retrieved from: http://techzoom.org/most-used-search-engines-and-total-market-share-trend-as-of-march-2011/ Zarefsky, D. (2005). Public Speaking: Strategies for Success (Special Ed. for The Pennsylvania State University). Boston, MA: Pearson. photo credits p. 1 Richard Rouse III http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Richard_Rouse_III_-_Game_Developers_Conference_2010_-_Day_5.jpg By Game Developers Conference 2010 p. 12 Tracey Price-Thompson http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tracy_Price-Thompson_%C2%B7_DF-SD-07-44583.JPEG By Angela Elbern

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Lisa Schreiber and Donna Painter Graphics. Chaos is inherent in all compounded things. Strive on with diligence. ~ Buddha introduction Meg jaunted to the front of the classroom—her trusty index cards in one hand and her water bottle in the other. It was the mid-term presentation in her entomology class, a course she enjoyed more than her other classes. The night before, Meg had spent hours scouring the web for information on the Woody Adelgid, an insect that has ravaged hemlock tree populations in the United States in recent years. But when she made it to the podium and finished her well-written and captivating introduction, her speech began to fall apart. Her index cards were a jumble of unorganized information, not linked together by any unifying theme or purpose. As she stumbled through lists of facts, Meg—along with her peers and instructor—quickly realized that her presentation had all the necessary parts to be compelling, but that those parts were not organized into a coherent and convincing speech. Giving a speech or presentation can be a daunting task for anyone, especially inexperienced public speakers or students in introductory speech courses. Speaking to an audience can also be a rewarding experience for speakers who are willing to put in the extra effort needed to craft rhetorical masterpieces. Indeed, speeches and presentations must be crafted. Such a design requires that speakers do a great deal of preparatory work, like selecting a specific topic and deciding on a particular purpose for their speech. Once the topic and purpose have been decided on, a thesis statement can be prepared. After these things are established, speakers must select the main points of their speech, which should be organized in a way that illuminates the speaker’s perspective, research agenda, or solution to a problem. In a nutshell, effective public speeches are focused on particular topics and contain one or more main points that are relevant to both the topic and the audience. For all of these components to come together convincingly, organizing and outlining must be done prior to giving a speech. This chapter addresses a variety of strategies needed to craft the body of public speeches. The chapter begins at the initial stages of speechwriting—selecting an important and relevant topic for your audience. The more difficult task of formulating a purpose statement is discussed next. A purpose organizing and outlining chapter 8 By Joshua Trey Barnett University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN www.publicspeakingproject.org chapter objectives: After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Select a topic appropriate to the audience and occasion. 2. Formulate a specific purpose statement that identifies precisely what you will do in your speech. 3. Craft a thesis statement that clearly and succinctly summarizes the argument you will make in your speech. 4. Identify and arrange the main points of your speech according to one of many organizational styles discussed in this chapter. 5. Connect the points of your speech to one another. 6. Create a preparation and speaking outline for your speech. chapter outline:  Introduction  The Topic, Purpose and Thesis o Selecting a Topic o Formulating a Purpose Statement o Writing a Thesis Statement  Writing the body of your speech o Selecting Main Points o Selecting Sub-points  Organizational Styles o Chronological o Topical o Spatial o Comparative o Problem – Solution o Causal  Connecting Your Main Points o Transitional Statements o Internal Previews o Summaries  Outlining Your Speech o Outline Types o Outline Structure o Preparation Outline o Speaking Outline o Using the Outline  Conclusion  Module Activities  Glossary  References  Appendix A  Appendix B

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-2 statement drives the organization of the speech since different purposes (e.g., informational or persuasive) necessitate different types of evidence and presentation styles. Next, the chapter offers a variety of organizational strategies for the body of your speech. Not every strategy will be appropriate for every speech, so the strengths and weaknesses of the organizational styles are also addressed. The chapter then discusses ways to connect your main points and to draw links between your main points and the purpose you have chosen. In the final section of this chapter, one of the most important steps in speechwriting, outlining your speech, is discussed. The chapter provides the correct format for outlines as well as information on how to write a preparation outline and a speaking outline. the topic, purpose statement and thesis Before any work can be done on crafting the body of your speech or presentation, you must first do some prep work—selecting a topic, formulating a purpose statement, and crafting a thesis statement. In doing so, you lay the foundation for your speech by making important decisions about what you will speak about and for what purpose you will speak. These decisions will influence and guide the entire speechwriting process, so it is wise to think carefully and critically during these beginning stages. I think reading is important in any form. I think a person who’s trying to learn to like reading should start off reading about a topic they are interested in, or a person they are interested in. ~ Ice Cube selecting a topic Generally, speakers focus on one or more interrelated topics—relatively broad concepts, ideas, or problems that are relevant for particular audiences. The most common way that speakers discover topics is by simply observing what is happening around them—at their school, in their local government, or around the world. This is because all speeches are brought into existence as a result of circumstances, the multiplicity of activities going on at any one given moment in a particular place. For instance, presidential candidates craft short policy speeches that can be employed during debates, interviews, or town hall meetings during campaign seasons. When one of the candidates realizes he or she will not be successful, the particular circumstances change and the person must craft different kinds of speeches—a concession speech, for example. In other words, their campaign for presidency, and its many related events, necessitates the creation of various speeches. Rhetorical theorist Lloyd Bitzer (1968) describes this as the rhetorical situation. Put simply, the rhetorical situation is the combination of factors that make speeches and other discourse meaningful and a useful way to change the way something is. Student government leaders, for example, speak or write to other students when their campus is facing tuition or fee increases, or when students have achieved something spectacular, like lobbying campus administrators for lower student fees and succeeding. In either case, it is the situation that makes their speeches appropriate and useful for their audience of students and university employees. More importantly, they speak when there is an opportunity to change a university policy or to alter the way students think or behave in relation to a particular event on campus. But you need not run for president or student government in order to give a meaningful speech. On the contrary, opportunities abound for those interested in engaging speech as a tool for change. Perhaps the simplest way to find a topic is to ask yourself a few questions. See the textbox entitled “Questions for Selecting a Topic” for a few questions that will help you choose a topic. There are other questions you might ask yourself, too, but these should lead you to at least a few topical choices. The most important work that these questions do is to locate topics within your pre-existing sphere of knowledge and interest. David Zarefsky (2010) also identifies brainstorming as a way to develop speech topics, a strategy that can be helpful if the questions listed in the textbox did not yield an appropriate or interesting topic. Starting with a topic you are already interested in will likely make writing and presenting your speech a more enjoyable and meaningful experience. It means that your entire speechwriting process will focus on something you find important and that you can present Questions for Selecting a Topic  What important events are occurring locally, nationally and internationally?  What do I care about most?  Is there someone or something I can advocate for?  What makes me angry/happy?  What beliefs/attitudes do I want to share?  Is there some information the audience needs to know?

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-3 this information to people who stand to benefit from your speech. Once you have answered these questions and narrowed your responses, you are still not done selecting your topic. For instance, you might have decided that you really care about conserving habitat for bog turtles. This is a very broad topic and could easily lead to a dozen different speeches. To resolve this problem, speakers must also consider the audience to whom they will speak, the scope of their presentation, and the outcome they wish to achieve. If the bog turtle enthusiast knows that she will be talking to a local zoning board and that she hopes to stop them from allowing businesses to locate on important bog turtle habitat, her topic can easily morph into something more specific. Now, her speech topic is two-pronged: bog turtle habitat and zoning rules. formulating the purpose statements By honing in on a very specific topic, you begin the work of formulating your purpose statement. In short, a purpose statement clearly states what it is you would like to achieve. Purpose statements are especially helpful for guiding you as you prepare your speech. When deciding which main points, facts, and examples to include, you should simply ask yourself whether they are relevant not only to the topic you have selected, but also whether they support the goal you outlined in your purpose statement. The general purpose statement of a speech may be to inform, to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to entertain. Thus, it is common to frame a specific purpose statement around one of these goals. According to O’Hair, Stewart, and Rubenstein (2004), a specific purpose statement “expresses both the topic and the general speech purpose in action form and in terms of the specific objectives you hope to achieve” (p. 111). For instance, the bog turtle habitat activist might write the following specific purpose statement: At the end of my speech, the Clarke County Zoning Commission will understand that locating businesses in bog turtle habitat is a poor choice with a range of negative consequences. In short, the general purpose statement lays out the broader goal of the speech while the specific purpose statement describes precisely what the speech is intended to do. Success demands singleness of purpose. ~ Vince Lombardi writing the thesis statement The specific purpose statement is a tool that you will use as you write your talk, but it is unlikely that it will appear verbatim in your speech. Instead, you will want to convert the specific purpose statement into a thesis statement that you will share with your audience. A thesis statement encapsulates the main points of a speech in just a sentence or two, and it is designed to give audiences a quick preview of what the entire speech will be about. The thesis statement for a speech, like the thesis of a research-based essay, should be easily identifiable and ought to very succinctly sum up the main points you will present. Moreover, the thesis statement should reflect the general purpose of your speech; if your purpose is to persuade or educate, for instance, the thesis should alert audience members to this goal. The bog turtle enthusiast might prepare the following thesis statement based on her specific purpose statement: Bog turtle habitats are sensitive to a variety of activities, but land development is particularly harmful to unstable habitats. The Clarke County Zoning Commission should protect bog turtle habitats by choosing to prohibit business from locating in these habitats. In this example, the thesis statement outlines the main points and implies that the speaker will be arguing for certain zoning practices. writing the body of your speech Once you have finished the important work of deciding what your speech will be about, as well as formulating the purpose statement and crafting the thesis, you should turn your attention to writing the body of your speech. All of your main points are contained in the body, and normally this section is prepared well before you ever write the introduction or conclusion. The body of your speech will consume the largest amount of time to present; and it is the opportunity for you to elaborate on facts, evidence, examples, and opinions that support your thesis statement and do the work you have outlined in the specific purpose statement. Combining these various elements into a cohesive and compelling speech, however, is not without its difficulties, the first of which is deciding which elements to include and how they ought to be organized to best suit your purpose. Good design is making something intelligible and memorable. Great design is making something memorable and meaningful. ~ Dieter Rams

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-4 The main points of any speech are the key pieces of information or arguments contained within the talk or presentation. In other words, the main points are what your audience should remember from your talk. Unlike facts or examples, main points are broad and can be encapsulated in just a sentence or two and represent the big ideas you want to convey to your audience. In general, speeches contain two to seven main points (Bower, 1990) that collectively lead to some understanding by the end of the speech. For informative speeches, main points might include historical details that advance a particular understanding of an event. For a persuasive speech, however, your main points may be your separate arguments that, when combined, help to make your case. When writing your main points, you may want to do so in parallel structure. Parallel structure refers to main points that are worded using the same structure, perhaps by starting with a common introductory clause (Verderber, Verderber, & Sellnow, 2008). Main points do not stand alone; instead, speakers must substantiate their main points by offering up examples, statistics, facts, anecdotes, or other information that contribute to the audience’s understanding of the main points. All of these things make up the sub-points, which are used to help prove the main points. This is where all of your research and supporting information comes into play. organizational styles After deciding which main points and sub-points you must include, you can get to work writing up the speech. Before you do so, however, it is helpful to consider how you will organize the ideas. From presenting historical information in chronological order as part of an informative speech to drawing a comparison between two ideas in a persuasive speech to offering up problems and solutions, there are many ways in which speakers can craft effective speeches. These are referred to as organizational styles, or templates for organizing the main points of a speech. chronological When you speak about events that are linked together by time, it is sensible to engage the chronological organization style. In a chronological speech, main points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced on a calendar or clock. Arranging main points in chronological order can be helpful when describing historical events to an audience as well as when the order of events is necessary to understand what you wish to convey. Informative speeches about a series of events most commonly engage the chronological style, as do many demonstrative speeches (e.g., how to bake a cake or build an airplane). Another time when the chronological style makes sense is when you tell the story of someone’s life or career. For instance, a speech about Oprah Winfrey might be arranged chronologically (see textbox). In this case, the main points are arranged by following Winfrey’s life from birth to the present time. Life events (e.g., birth, her early career, her life after ending the Oprah Winfrey Show) are connected together according to when they happened and highlight the progression of Winfrey’s career. Organizing the speech in this way illustrates the interconnectedness of life events. Doing the best at this moment puts you in the best place for the next moment. ~ Oprah Winfrey topical When the main points of your speech center on ideas that are more distinct from one another, a topical organization style may be engaged. In a topical speech, main points are developed separately and are generally connected together within the introduction and conclusion. In other words, the topical style is crafted around main points and sub-points that are mutually exclusive but related to one another by virtue of the thesis. It makes sense to use the topical style when elements are connected to one another because of their relationship to the whole. A topical speech about the composition of a newspaper company can be seen in the following textbox. The main points are linked together by the fact that they are all a part of the same business. Although they are related in that way, the topical style illustrates the ways in which the four different departments function apart from one another. In this example, the Oprah Winfrey (Chronological Arrangement) Thesis: Oprah’s career can be understood by four key, interconnected life stages. I. Oprah’s childhood was spent in rural Mississippi, where she endured sexual abuse from family members. II. Oprah’s early career was characterized by stints on local radio and television networks in Nashville and Chicago. III. Oprah’s tenure as host of the Oprah Winfrey Show began in 1986 and lasted until 2011, a period of time marked by much success. IV. Oprah’s most recent media venture is OWN: The Oprah Winfrey Network, which plays host to a variety of television shows including Oprah’s Next Chapter.

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-5 topical style is a good fit because the four departments are equally important to the function of the newspaper company. spatial Another way to organize the points of a speech is through a spatial speech, which arranges main points according to their physical and geographic relationships. The spatial style is an especially useful organization style when the main point’s importance is derived from its location or directional focus. In other words, when the scene or the composition is a central aspect of the main points, the spatial style is an appropriate way to deliver key ideas. Things can be described from top to bottom, inside to outside, left to right, north to south, and so on. Importantly, speakers using a spatial style should offer commentary about the placement of the main points as they move through the speech, alerting audience members to the location changes. For instance, a speech about The University of Georgia might be arranged spatially; in this example, the spatial organization frames the discussion in terms of the campus layout. The spatial style is fitting since the differences in architecture and uses of space are related to particular geographic areas, making location a central organizing factor. As such, the spatial style highlights these location differences. comparative When you need to discuss the similarities and differences between two or more things, a comparative organizational pattern can be employed. In comparative speeches, speakers may choose to compare things a couple different ways. First, you could compare two or more things as whole (e.g., discuss all traits of an apple and then all traits of an orange). Second, you could compare these things element by element (e.g., color of each, smell of each, AND taste of each). Some topics that are routinely spoken about comparatively include different cultures, different types of transportation, and even different types of coffee. A comparative speech outline about eastern and western cultures could look like this. Composition of a Newspaper Company (Topical Arrangement) Thesis: The newspaper has four primary departments. I. The advertising department sells display advertisements to local and national businesses. II. The editorial department produces the written content of the newspaper, including feature stories. III. The production department lays out the pages and manages pre-press work such as distilling the pages and processing colors. IV. The business department processes payments from advertisers, employee paperwork, and the bi-weekly payroll. University of Georgia (Spatial Arrangement) Thesis: The University of Georgia is arranged into four distinct sections, which are characterized by architectural and disciplinary differences. I. In North Campus, one will find the University’s oldest building, a sprawling tree-lined quad, and the famous Arches, all of which are nestled against Athens’ downtown district. II. In West Campus, dozens of dormitories provide housing for the University’s large undergraduate population and students can regularly be found lounging outside or at one of the dining halls. III. In East Campus, students delight in newly constructed, modern buildings and enjoy the benefits of the University’s health center, recreational facilities, and science research buildings. IV. In South Campus, pharmacy, veterinary, and biomedical science students traverse newly constructed parts of campus featuring well-kept landscaping and modern architecture. Eastern vs. Western Culture (Comparison Arrangement) Thesis: There are a variety of differences between Eastern and Western cultures. I. Eastern cultures tend to be more collectivistic. II. Western cultures tend to be more individualistic. III. Eastern cultures tend to treat health issues holistically. IV. Western cultures tend to treat health issues more acutely.

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-6 In this type of speech, the list of comparisons, which should be substantiated with further evidence, could go on for any number of main points. The speech could also compare how two or more things are more alike than one might think. For instance, a speaker could discuss how singers Madonna and Lady Gaga share many similarities both in aesthetic style and in their music. problem-solution Sometimes it is necessary to share a problem and a solution with an audience. In cases like these, the problem-solution speech is an appropriate way to arrange the main points of a speech. One familiar example of speeches organized in this way is the political speeches that presidential hopefuls give in the United States. Often, candidates will begin their speech by describing a problem created by or, at the very least, left unresolved by the incumbent. Once they have established their view of the problem, they then go on to flesh out their proposed solution. The problem-solution style is especially useful when the speaker wants to convince the audience that they should take action in solving some problem. A political candidate seeking office might frame a speech using the problem-solution style (sse texbox). The difference between what we do and what we are capable of doing would suffice to solve most of the world’s problems. ~ Mahatma Gandhi This example illustrates the way in which a problem-solution oriented speech can be used to identify both a general problem (energy crisis) and a specific problem (incumbent’s lack of action). Moreover, this example highlights two kinds of solutions: a general solution and a solution that is dependent on the speaker’s involvement. The problem-solution speech is especially appropriate when the speaker desires to promote a particular solution as this offers audience members a way to become involved. Whether you are able to offer a specific solution or not, key to the problem-solution speech is a clear description of both the problem and the solution with clear links drawn between the two. In other words, the speech should make specific connections between the problem and how the solution can be engaged to solve it. causal Similar to a problem-solution speech, a causal speech informs audience members about causes and effects that have already happened. In other words, a causal organization style first addresses some cause and then shares what effects resulted. A causal speech can be particularly effective when the speaker wants to share the relationship between two things, like the creation of a vaccine to help deter disease. An example of how a causal speech about a shingles vaccine might be designed follows: Presidential Candidate’s Speech (Problem-Solution Arrangement) Thesis: The US energy crisis can be solved by electing me as president since I will devote resources to the production of renewable forms of energy. I. The United States is facing an energy crisis because we cannot produce enough energy ourselves to sustain the levels of activity needed to run the country. (problem) II. The current administration has failed to invest enough resources in renewable energy practices. (problem) III. We can help create a more stable situation if we work to produce renewable forms of energy within the United States. (solution) IV. If you vote for me, I will ensure that renewable energy creation is a priority. (solution) Shingles Speech (Cause-Effect Arrangement) Thesis: The prevalence of the disease shingles led to the invention of a vaccine. I. Shingles is a disease that causes painful, blistering rashes in up to one million Americans every year. (cause) II. In 2006, a vaccine for shingles was licensed in the United States and has been shown to reduce the likelihood that people over 60 years old will get shingles. (effect)

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-7 As the example illustrates, the basic components of the causal speech are the cause and the effect. Such an organizational style is useful when a speaker needs to share the results of a new program, discuss how one act led to another, or discuss the positive/negative outcomes of taking some action. Every choice you make has an end result. ~ Zig Ziglar Choosing an organizational style is an important step in the speechwriting process. As you formulate the purpose of your speech and generate the main points that you will need to include, selecting an appropriate organizational style will likely become easier. The topical, spatial, causal, comparative and chronological methods of arrangement may be better suited to informative speeches, whereas the refutation pattern may work well for a persuasive speech. Additionally, Chapter 16 offers additional organization styles suited for persuasive speeches, such as the refutation speech and Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (Monroe, 1949). Next, we will look at statements that help tie all of your points together and the formal mode of organizing a speech by using outlines. connecting your main points Since main points are discrete and interconnected ideas, and since every speech contains more than one main point, it is necessary to strategically make connections between one point and another. To link the ideas of your speech, you will need to develop signposts, “words and gestures that allow you to move smoothly from one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationships between ideas and emphasizing important points” (Beebe & Beebe, 2005, p. 204). There are several ways to incorporate signposts into your speech, and it is important to do so since these small signals keep listeners engaged and informed about where you are in the speech. Transitional statements, internal previews, and summaries are all signposts that can help keep your speech moving along. If you cry ‘forward’, you must without fail make plain in what direction to go. ~ Anton Chekhov One way to connect points is to include transitional statements. Transitional statements are phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but-connected idea to another. They are used to alert audiences to the fact that you are getting ready to discuss something else. When moving from one point to another, your transition may just be a word or short phrase. For instance, you might say “next,” “also,” or “moreover.” You can also enumerate your speech points and signal transitions by starting each point with “First,” “Second,” “Third,” et cetera. The textbox above offers a short list of transitional statements that are helpful when you need to show similarity or difference between the points. You might also incorporate non-verbal transitions, such as brief pauses or a movement across the stage. Pausing to look at your audience, stepping out from behind a podium, or even raising or lowering the rate of your voice can signal to audience members that you are transitioning. Another way to incorporate signposts into your speech is by offering internal previews within your speech. Internal previews, like the name implies, lay out what will occur during your speech. They tell the audience what to expect. Because audience members cannot flip back and forth between pages, internal previews help keep them on track and aware of what to be listening for and what to remember. Internal previews are similar to the preview statements you will learn about in the chapter on introductions and conclusions (Chapter 9), except that they appear within the Transitional Statements to Show Similarity and Difference To Show Similarity Between Points:  “Similarly”  “In the same way”  “Also”  “Likewise”  “In other words” To Show Difference Between Points:  “However”  “Unlike the last point”  “On the other hand”  “Conversely”  “In opposition”  “Another view is that”

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-8 body of your speech and are more small-scale than the broad preview you should provide at the beginning of your speech. In general, internal previews are longer than transitional statements. If you were giving a problem-solution speech, you might include a variation of this internal preview: “Now that I have described the problems, let’s now discuss some ways that we can solve these issues.” The internal preview offers a natural segue from problems to solutions and makes audience members aware that another point is about to be made. When speeches are longer than a few minutes and include complex ideas and information, speakers often include summaries within the body of their speech. Summaries provide a recap of what has already been said, making it more likely that audiences will remember the points that they hear again. Additionally, summaries can be combined with internal previews to alert audience members that the next point builds on those that they have already heard. The speaker below has just finished discussing several reasons trout habitats need federal protection, and next he will discuss some ways that audience members can agitate for government action on these issues. His combined internal preview and summary would look something like this: So, in review, trout habitats need federal protection because they bear a large pollution burden, they mostly exist on private property, and they are indicators of other environmental health issues. Next, I will discuss some ways that you can encourage the federal government to protect these habitats In this example, the speaker first reminds audience members of what he has already addressed and then tells them what he will talk about next. By repeating the main points in summary fashion, the speaker gives audience members another opportunity to consider his main ideas. Good communication does not mean that you have to speak in perfectly formed sentences and paragraphs. It isn’t about slickness. Simple and clear go a long way. ~ John Kotter outlining your speech Most speakers and audience members would agree that an organized speech is both easier to present as well as more persuasive. Public speaking teachers especially believe in the power of organizing your speech, which is why they encourage (and often require) that you create an outline for your speech. Outlines, or textual arrangements of all the various elements of a speech, are a very common way of organizing a speech before it is delivered. Most extemporaneous speakers keep their outlines with them during the speech as a way to ensure that they do not leave out any important elements and to keep them on track. Writing an outline is also important to the speechwriting process since doing so forces the speakers to think about the main points and sub-points, the examples they wish to include, and the ways in which these elements correspond to one another. In short, the outline functions both as an organization tool and as a reference for delivering a speech. outline types There are two types of outlines. The first outline you will write is called the preparation outline. Also called a working, practice, or rough outline, the preparation outline is used to work through the various components of your speech in an inventive format. Stephen E. Lucas (2004) put it simply: “The preparation outline is just what its name implies—an outline that helps you prepare the speech” (p. 248). When writing the preparation outline, you should focus on finalizing the purpose and thesis statements, logically ordering your main points, deciding where supporting material should be included, and refining the overall organizational pattern of your speech. As you write the preparation outline, you may find it necessary to rearrange your points or to add or subtract supporting material. You may also realize that some of your main points are sufficiently supported while others are lacking. The final draft of your preparation outline should include full sentences, making up a complete script of your entire speech. In most cases, however, the preparation outline is reserved for planning purposes only and is translated into a speaking outline before you deliver the speech. A speaking outline is the outline you will prepare for use when delivering the speech. The speaking outline is much more succinct than the preparation outline and includes brief phrases or words that remind the speakers of the points they need to make, plus supporting material and signposts (Beebe & Beebe, 2005). The words or phrases used on the speaking outline should briefly encapsulate all of the information needed to prompt the speaker to accurately deliver the speech. Although some cases call for reading a speech verbatim from the full-sentence outline, in most cases speakers will simply refer to their

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-9 speaking outline for quick reminders and to ensure that they do not omit any important information. Because it uses just words or short phrases, and not full sentences, the speaking outline can easily be transferred to index cards that can be referenced during a speech. outline structure Because an outline is used to arrange all of the elements of your speech, it makes sense that the outline itself has an organizational hierarchy and a common format. Although there are a variety of outline styles, generally they follow the same pattern. Main ideas are preceded by Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.). Sub-points are preceded by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.), then Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), and finally lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). Each level of subordination is also differentiated from its predecessor by indenting a few spaces. Indenting makes it easy to find your main points, sub-points, and the supporting points and examples below them. Since there are three sections to your speech—introduction, body, and conclusion—your outline needs to include all of them. Each of these sections is titled and the main points start with Roman numeral I. In addition to these formatting suggestions, there are some additional elements that should be included at the beginning of your outline: the title, topic, specific purpose statement, and thesis statement. These elements are helpful to you, the speechwriter, since they remind you what, specifically, you are trying to accomplish in your speech. They are also helpful to anyone reading and assessing your outline since knowing what you want to accomplish will determine how they perceive the elements included in your outline. Additionally, you should write out the transitional statements that you will use to alert audiences that you are moving from one point to another. These are included in parentheses between main points. At the end of the outlines, you should include bibliographic information for any outside resources you mention during the speech. These should be cited using whatever citations style your professor requires. The textbox entitled “Outline Formatting Guide” provides an example of the appropriate outline format. If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading. ~ Lao Tzu preparation outline This chapter contains the preparation and speaking outlines for a short speech the author of this chapter gave about how small organizations can work on issues related to climate change (see appendices). In this example, the title, specific purpose, thesis, and list of visual aids precedes the speech. Depending on your instructor’s requirements, you may need to include these details plus additional information. It is also a good idea to keep these details at the top of your document as you write the speech since they will help keep you on track to developing an organized speech that is in line with your specific purpose and helps prove your thesis. At the end of the chapter, in Appendix A, you can find a full length example of a Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline Outline Formatting Guide Title: Organizing Your Public Speech Topic: Organizing public speeches Specific Purpose Statement: To inform listeners about the various ways in which they can organize their public speeches. Thesis Statement: A variety of organizational styles can used to organize public speeches. Introduction Paragraph that gets the attention of the audience, establishes goodwill with the audience, states the purpose of the speech, and previews the speech and its structure. (Transition) Body I. Main point A. Sub-point B. Sub-point C. Sub-point 1. Supporting point 2. Supporting point (Transition) II. Main point A. Sub-point 1. Supporting point a. Example b. Example 2. Supporting point B. Sub-point (Transition) Conclusion Paragraph that prepares the audience for the end of the speech, presents any final appeals, and summarizes and wraps up the speech. Bibliography

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-10 speaking outline In Appendix B, the Preparation Outline is condensed into just a few short key words or phrases that will remind speakers to include all of their main points and supporting information. The introduction and conclusion are not included since they will simply be inserted from the Preparation Outline. It is easy to forget your catchy attention-getter or final thoughts you have prepared for your audience, so it is best to include the full sentence versions even in your speaking outline. using the speaking outline Once you have prepared the outline and are almost ready to give your speech, you should decide how you want to format your outline for presentation. Many speakers like to carry a stack of papers with them when they speak, but others are more comfortable with a smaller stack of index cards with the outline copied onto them. Moreover, speaking instructors often have requirements for how you should format the speaking outline. Whether you decide to use index cards or the printed outline, here are a few tips. First, write large enough so that you do not have to bring the cards or pages close to your eyes to read them. Second, make sure you have the cards/pages in the correct order and bound together in some way so that they do not get out of order. Third, just in case the cards/pages do get out of order (this happens too often!), be sure that you number each in the top right corner so you can quickly and easily get things organized. Fourth, try not to fiddle with the cards/pages when you are speaking. It is best to lay them down if you have a podium or table in front of you. If not, practice reading from them in front of a mirror. You should be able to look down quickly, read the text, and then return to your gaze to the audience. Any intelligent fool can make things bigger and more complex… It takes a touch of genius – and a lot of courage to move in the opposite direction. ~ Albert Einstein conclusion If you have been using this chapter to guide you through the organizational stages of writing your speech, you have likely discovered that getting organized is very challenging but also very rewarding. Like cleaning up a messy kitchen or organizing your closet, doing the more tedious work of organizing your speech is an activity you will appreciate most once it is done. From the very beginning stages of organization, like choosing a topic and writing a thesis statement, to deciding how best to arrange the main points of your speech and outlining, getting organized is one step toward an effective and engaging speech or presentation. Had Meg, the student mentioned in the opening anecdote, taken some time to work through the organizational process, it is likely her speech would have gone much more smoothly when she finished her introduction. It is very common for beginning speakers to spend a great deal of their time preparing catchy introductions, fancy PowerPoint presentations, and nice conclusions, which are all very important. However, the body of any speech is where the speaker must make effective arguments, provide helpful information, entertain, and the like, so it makes sense that speakers should devote a proportionate amount of time to these areas as well. By following this chapter, as well as studying the other chapters in this text, you should be prepared to craft interesting, compelling, and organized speeches.

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-11 chapter review questions and activities review questions 1. Name three questions you should ask yourself when selecting a topic. 2. What is the difference between a general and specific purpose statement? Write examples of each for each of these topics: dog training, baking a cake, climate change. 3. How does the thesis statement differ from the specific purpose statement? 4. Which speech organization style arranges points by time? Which one arranges points by direction? Which one arranges points according to a five-step sequence? 5. Which speech organization styles are best suited for persuasive speeches? 6. Define signpost. What are three types of signposts? 7. What is the correct format for a speech outline? activities 1. Reverse outlining. During a classmate’s speech, pay special attention to the organization style that he or she employs. As they give their speech, try to construct an outline based on what you hear. If your classmate has followed many of the suggestions provided in this and other chapters, you should be able to identify and replicate the structure of the speech. Compare your “reverse” outline with the speaking outline. Discuss any areas of discrepancy. 2. Topic Proposal Workshop. Often, selecting a topic can be one of the most challenging steps in developing a speech for your class. Prior to class, review the textbox “Questions for selecting a topic” on page 8-2. Answer these questions and choose a tentative topic. Write up a short paragraph about your topic that describes its importance, why it interests you, and what you would like to convey to an audience about your proposed topic. In class, meet with two or three additional students to discuss and workshop each of your topics. As you discuss your topic with others, jot down what questions they had, what aspects they seemed to find most interesting, and any suggestions your peers might have. Once the workshop is complete, proceed with narrowing your topic to something manageable.

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-12 glossary Chronological Speech A speech in which the main points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced on a calendar or clock. Comparative Speech A speech in which two or more objects, ideas, beliefs, events, places, or things are compared or contrasted with one another. Causal Speech A speech that informs audience members about causes and effects that have already happened. General Purpose Statement The overarching goal of a speech; for instance, to inform, to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate, to mourn, or to entertain. Internal Previews Short descriptions of what a speaker will do and say during a speech; may be at the beginning and within the body of a speech. Main Points The key pieces of information or arguments contained within a talk or presentation. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence An organization style that is designed to motivate the audience to take a particular action and is characterized by a five-step sequence: (1) attention, (2) need, (3) satisfaction, (4), visualization, and (5) action appeal. Organizational Styles Templates for organizing the main points of a speech that are rooted in traditions of public discourse and can jumpstart the speechwriting process. Outline Hierarchal textual arrangement of all the various elements of a speech. Parallel Structure Main points that are worded using the same structure. Preparation Outline A full-sentence outline that is used during the planning stages to flesh out ideas, arrange main points, and to rehearse the speech; could be used as a script if presenting a manuscript style speech. Problem-Solution Speech A speech in which problems and solutions are presented alongside one another with a clear link between a problem and its solution. Refutation Speech A speech that anticipates the audience’s opposition, then brings attention to the tensions between the two sides, and finally refutes them using evidential support. Rhetorical Situation According to Lloyd Bitzer, “a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence” (1968, p. 6). Signposts According to Beebe and Beebe, “words and gestures that allow you to move smoothly from one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationships between ideas and emphasizing important points” (2005, p. 204). Spatial Speech A speech in which the main points are arranged according to their physical and geographic relationships. Speaking Outline A succinct outline that uses words or short phrases to represent the components of a speech and that is used during speech delivery. Specific Purpose Statement A sentence of two that describe precisely what the speech is intended to do. Sub-Points Information that is used to support the main points of a speech. Summaries Short recaps of what has already been said; used to remind the audience of the points already addressed. Thesis Statement A one- or two-sentence encapsulation of the main points of a speech, also called the central idea. Topical Speech A speech in which main points are developed separately and are generally connected together within the introduction and conclusion. Transitional Statements Phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but-connected idea to another.

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-13 references Beebe, S. A. & Beebe, S. J. (2003). The public speaking handbook (5th edition). Boston: Pearson. Bower, G. H. (1990). Organizational factors in memory. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 18-46. Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy & Rhetoric, 1(1), 1-14. Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The art of public speaking (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. Monroe, A. H. (1949). Principles and types of speech. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company. O’Hair, D., Stewart, R., Rubenstein, H. (2004). A speaker’s guidebook: Text and reference (2nd edition). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Verderber, R. F., Verderber, K. S., & Sellnow, D. D. (2008). The challenge of effective speaking (14th edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning. Zarefsky, D. (2010). Public speaking: Strategies for success (6th edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. photo credits p. 3 Bog Turtle by R.G. Tucker http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bog_turtle_sunning.jpg p. 4 Oscar Mayer Wienermobile byJalopnik http://jalopnik.com/5310348/ten+pack-of-dogs-history-of-the-wienermobile/gallery/1 p. 4 Mac vs PC http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2011/TECH/web/04/22/mac.pc.users/t1larg.mac.pc.2.jpg p. 5 Rio Nido Mudslide by Dave Gately http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FEMA_-_1337_-_Photograph_by_Dave_Gatley_taken_on_03-01-1998_in_California.jpg p. 8 Rainbow Trout by Jonathunder http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trout.jpg p. 8 Mayor Carol Shafto by Michigan Municipal League http://www.flickr.com/photos/michigancommunities/6228314099/ p. 10 Maj. Gen John Nichols by Texas Military Forces http://www.flickr.com/photos/texasmilitaryforces/5560449970/

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-14 Appendix A Example Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline Title: For the Fish: Climate Work By and For Fishers Specific Purpose: To persuade trout fishers that climate change is a threat to coldwater fisheries and that they should organize to create collective change to the environmental issues surrounding climate change. Thesis: Trout fisheries are endangered by climate change, but fishers can (and should) work to mitigate these issues. Visual Aids: PowerPoint presentation Introduction Most of you have heard about climate change and have wondered whether or how it might be affecting trout fisheries. Unfortunately, climate scientists’ predictions about climate change seem to indicate that trout fisheries may bear a number of consequences if climate change continues to go unbridled. However, we also know that many of the worst effects of climate change can be mitigated if we engage in collective action now. In this speech, I will begin by offering a brief history of climate science, then describe how these issues affect trout fisheries, and finally offer some examples of how we can personally and collectively work to mitigate these issues. Body I. Climate change is not a recent invention of a few liberal scientists. On the contrary, scientists have been talking about climate change since the mid-1800s (Weart, 2009). A. In 1859, Tyndall discovers some gases block infrared radiation. He believes this may cause a change in climate. B. In 1896, Arrhenius publishes the first calculation of global warming from human CO2 emissions. C. From 1870-1920, the Second Industrial Revolution takes place. D. In 1938, Callendar argues that CO2 greenhouse global warming is under way. [… history lesson proceeds …] (Summary: In short, this history lesson teaches us that Earth has been getting warmer.) (Preview: Next, let’s look at how climate change may be affecting trout fisheries.) II. Climate change appears to have some serious consequences for trout fisheries. I will discuss four ways in which climate change may be said to negatively influence trout fisheries. A. First, changing weather patterns brings more or less water to some parts of Earth. 1. Trout fisheries rely on a steady flow of clean, cold water. Too much or too little can quickly destroy trout habitats. 2. Some areas may experience severe droughts, another threat to trout fisheries. B. Second, warming land and aquatic temperatures lead to a reduction in available trout habitat. 1. Changing temperatures influence predator/prey patterns. 2. Habitat reduction due to warmer temperatures may increase competition between cold- and warm- water fishes. C. Third, stream flow patterns may change, affecting availability of aquatic insects. And fourth, brook trout may be especially vulnerable. 1. Previous brook trout decimation has been related to habitat loss. 2. Climate change could exacerbate this by causing further habitat destruction. (Summary: Although these challenges are large scale, there is some hope that we can mitigate these issues.)

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-15 (Preview: Next, I will discuss some ways that individuals and collectives can help reverse some of the issues caused by climate change.) III. There are two key areas in which we can mitigate climate change: personal actions and collective actions. A. Personally, individuals can make changes in their everyday lives (Sorenen, 2008). 1. Individuals can reduce CO2 emissions by driving less or not at all. Instead they could ride a bike or take public transit. 2. Individuals can also reduce energy consumption by changing usage patterns, like drying their clothes outside instead of using an electric dryer. 3. Individuals could help alleviate one of the largest contributors to climate change, overpopulation, by preventing unwanted births. B. Collectively, there are several actions we can take to mitigate climate change (Cuomo, 2010). 1. Collectives should lobby policy makers to make serious changes: a. Reduce fossil fuel consumption. b. Create caps on industrial emissions. c. Encourage and support renewable and sustainable energy. 2. U.S. should support Kyoto Treaty, which was passed in 2005. Conclusion It should be clear at this point that climate change is an issue that trout fishers will have to deal with in the future. Although the issues are large and daunting, I have provided some clear examples of how we can both personally and collectively mitigate these issues. I hope you will consider taking at least some of my advice today. I will leave you with something that Henrik Tikkanen once said: “Because we don’t think about future generations, they will never forget us.”

Chapter 8 Outlining and Organizing www.publicspeakingproject.org 8-16 Appendix B Example Speaking Outline (Excluding Introduction and Conclusion) I. Climate science is not new (Weart, 2009). A. 1859 – Tyndall B. 1896 – Arrhenius C. 1870-1920 – Second Industrial Revolution D. 1938 – Callendar [… history lesson proceeds …] (Summary: In short, this history lesson teaches us that Earth has been getting warmer.) (Preview: Next, let’s look at how climate change may be affecting trout fisheries.) II. Climate change is bad for trout in four ways. A. Weather patterns 1. Too much/little rain is bad 2. Droughts B. Warming leads to habitat reduction 1. Predator/prey patterns. 2. Competition between cold- and warm-water fishes. C. Stream flow patterns may change D. Brook trout vulnerable 1. Population decimated by habitat loss 2. Exacerbated by climate change (Summary: Although these challenges are large scale, there is some hope that we can mitigate these issues.) (Preview: Next, I will discuss some ways that individuals and collectives can help reverse some of the issues caused by climate change.) III. Personal and collective mitigation A. Personal (Sorenen, 2008) 1. Reduce CO2 emissions 2. Reduce energy consumption 3. Birth control B. Collective (Cuomo, 2010) 1. Lobby for: a. Reduce fossil fuel consumption b. Create caps on industrial emissions c. Encourage and support renewable and sustainable energy 2. Support Kyoto

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Donna Painter Graphics. Public Speaking: The Virtual Text The secret of successful speakers? Passion and compassion with a purpose. ~ Lily Walters introduction First impressions count. Carlin Flora (2004), writing in Psychology Today, recounts an experiment in which people with no special training were shown 20-to 32- second video clips of job applicants in the initial stages of a job interview. After watching the short clips, the viewers were asked to rate the applicants on characteristics including self-assurance and likeability—important considerations in a job interview. These ratings were then compared with the findings from the trained interviewers who spent 20 minutes or more with the job applicants. The result: The 20-to 32- second ratings were basically the same as the ratings from the trained interviewers. When we stand in front of an audience, we have very little time to set the stage for a successful speech. As seen from the example above, audience members begin evaluating us immediately. What we sometimes forget since we are so focused on the words we have to say is that we are being evaluated even before we open our mouths. He has the deed half done who has made a beginning. ~ Horace functions of introductions Speech introductions are an essential element of an effective public speech. Introductions have four specific functions that need to be met in a very short period of time. Introductions must gain the audience’s attention and their goodwill, they must state the purpose of the speech and they must preview the main points. These first two functions of the introduction, gaining the attention of the audience and the good will of the audience, have most to do with getting the audience to want to listen to you. The other two functions of the introduction, stating the purpose of the speech and previewing the structure of the speech, have to do with helping the audience understand you. gain attention and Interest The first function of the introduction is to the get the attention AND the introductions & conclusions chapter 9 By Warren Sandmann, Ph.D. Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN www.publicspeakingproject.org chapter objectives: After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. List and describe the four functions of an introduction 2. List and describe the common types of attention getters 3. Describe and implement strategies for preparing introductions 4. List and describe the four functions of a conclusion 5. List and describe common types of conclusions 6. Describe and implement strategies for preparing conclusions 7. Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities chapter outline:  Introduction  Functions of Introductions o Gain Attention and Interest o Gain Goodwill o Clearly State the Purpose o Preview and Structure the Speech  Attention-Getting Strategies o Tell a Story o Refer to the Occasion o Refer to Recent or Historical Events o Refer to Previous Speeches o Refer to Personal Interest o Use Startling Statistics o Use an Analogy o Use a Quotation o Ask a Question o Use Humor  Preparing the Introduction o Construct the Introduction Last o Make it Relevant o Be Succinct o Write it Out Word for Word  Functions of Conclusions o Prepare the Audience for the end of the speech o Present Any Final Appeals o Summarize and Close o End with a Clincher o Appeals and Challenges  Composing the Conclusion o Prepare the Conclusion o Do Not Include any New Information o Follow the Structure  Conclusion  Review Questions and Activities  Glossary  References

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-2 interest of the audience. The “and” here is important. Anyone can walk into a room full of people sitting quietly, and YELL AT THE TOP OF THEIR LUNGS. That will get attention. However, it will probably not garner much interest—at least not much positive interest. Gaining attention and interest is essential if you want the audience to listen to what you have to say, and audiences will decide fairly quickly if they want to pay attention. Standing in front of an audience, slouched, hands in pockets, cap pulled low over your head, and mumbling, “my name is… and I am going to tell you about…” is an effective method of NOT getting attention and interest. Before you even open your mouth, your attire, stance and physical presence are all sending out loud signals that you have no interest in the speech, so why should the audience. gain the goodwill of the audience Over 2000 years ago, probably the pre-eminent speech teacher of all time, Aristotle (1982), noted the importance of gaining the goodwill of the audience: …it is not only necessary to consider how to make the speech itself demonstrative and convincing, but also that the speaker should show himself to be of a certain character…and that his hearers should think that he is disposed in a certain way toward them; and further, that they themselves should be disposed in a certain way towards him (p. 169). When an audience has decided to listen to you—when you have gained their attention and interest—you still need them to think favorably of you. The most effective way of doing this is by establishing your credibility to speak. Credibility is your believability. You are credible when the audience thinks you know what you are talking about. There are a number of methods for developing credibility, and you will use them throughout the speech. In the introduction, however, since you have comparatively little time to develop this credibility, your options are a bit more limited. To be persuasive, we must be believable. To be believable, we must be credible. To be credible, we must be truthful. ~ Hellmut Walters Essentially, credibility has two elements: external credibility and internal credibility. External credibility is the type of credibility you as a speaker gain by association: use of sources that the audience finds credible, for example. In an introduction, you may be able to develop external credibility by this means, as we will see later in this section. More importantly, given the immediate nature of an introduction, is internal credibility. You develop internal credibility as the speaker through specific actions. First, be appropriately attired for a public presentation. Second, make eye contact with the audience before you speak. Third, speak clearly, fluently and confidently. You can also demonstrate internal credibility by demonstrating personal experience with or knowledge of the topic of your speech. Audiences are more positively disposed toward a speaker who has had experience with the topic of his or her speech. You can also demonstrate credibility and goodwill by showing a connection to your audience, demonstrating shared experiences or shared values. A student giving a speech to a class about a month before spring break, right in the middle of an extended cold spell of a long Midwestern winter, offered this introduction as a way to show shared values and experiences: I need everyone to close his or her eyes. All right, now I need everyone to picture how he or she got to school today. Did you bundle up with a hat, some mittens, boots, and two jackets because it’s so cold outside before you left for class? While walking to class, was it cold? Did your ears burn from the icy wind blowing through the air? Were your hands cold and chapped? Now I want you all to think about the sun beating down on your body. Picture yourself lying on the beach with sand between your toes and the sound of the ocean in the background. Or picture yourself poolside, with a Pina Coloda perhaps, with tropical music playing in the background. Picture yourself in Mazatlan, Mexico (Townsend, 2007). When speakers can identify with the audience and can show how the audience and the speaker share experiences, then the audience is more receptive to what the speaker has to say. The speaker is both more credible and more attractive to the audience.

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-3 The secret of success is constancy of purpose. ~ Benjamin Disraeli clearly state the purpose This seems like such a basic step, yet it is one too often missed; and without this step, it is difficult for the audience to follow, much less evaluate and comprehend, a speech. In both basic composition classes and basic public speaking classes, this function is much the same: State the thesis of your speech. In all speeches, there should be that one sentence, that one statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech. Speakers, especially novice speakers but also experienced ones, are so concerned with the content of the speech that they forget to let us know about the purpose. A good thesis statement clearly announces the topic and purpose of the speech. For example, a standard problem-solution speech should have a thesis statement that clearly states the problem and the need for a solution. So right now let’s see how dependence on fossil fuels costs you money and how use of ethanol as a supplement will save you money and save the world from energy dependence. We know the topic and we know what the speaker will be attempting to prove. Once a thesis statement is clearly announced, the final function of the introduction is ready. preview and structure the speech The thesis statement lets the audience know what the speech is about and what you as speaker want to accomplish. The preview statement lets the audience know HOW you will develop the speech. A preview can be understood as a roadmap—a direction for the speech that leads to a successful conclusion. A preview lets the audience know what will come first, what comes next, and so on, to the end of the speech. The preview is essentially an outline—an oral outline—of the basic organizational pattern of the speech. Previews help the audience follow the content because they already know the structure. Remember, though, that the basic structure of a speech is not linear, it is circular. Organizational patterns for speeches have a conclusion which, as we will see later, brings the audience back to the beginning. Taking as an example the thesis statement from above, a sample preview for that speech could appear as the following: To see how we can end our dependence on fossil fuels, we will first take a look at why we as a society are so dependent upon fossil fuels; secondly, find out what continues to cause this dependence; and finally, see how ethanol as a fuel supplement will help end this dependence and make the world a better place for all of us. attention-getting strategies Now that we have discussed the four basic functions of the introduction, let’s look at ten potential attention-getting strategies. This is not an exhaustive list, and many of these attention getters can be combined or adapted to fit the needs of the speaker, the occasion and the audience. Regardless of the specific strategy used for the introduction, all introductions still need to meet the four basic functions of an introduction. You will get good attention and people will be more inclined to listen to you if you can make a statement whereby their response is… “No kidding!” ~ Gael Boardman tell a story Human beings love stories. In all cultures, stories are used to communicate and share values, traditions and knowledge. Rhetorician Walter Fisher (1987) argues that human beings are best understood as homo narrans, as people who tell stories. As an introductory device, stories (and anecdotes and illustrations) are very effective attention getters. First, stories have a built-in structure that everyone recognizes and expects. Stories have a beginning, middle and end, and this built-in structure allows the audience and the speaker to immediately share this experience. Secondly, because this built-in structure, stories as attention getters lend themselves readily to a well-structured speech. You as speaker can

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-4 start the story, get right to the climax, and then stop. You have the attention of the audience; you have shared experiences with them; and now you also have the conclusion of the speech all set to go—the end of the story. Speakers who talk about what life has taught them never fail to keep the attention of their listeners. ~ Dale Carnegie refer to the occasion You are presenting this speech for a reason. The audience is present at this speech for a reason. These reasons can provide you with an effective attention getter. Referring to the occasion is often used as an introduction to tribute speeches, toasts, dedication ceremonies and historical events. Speech scholar Lloyd Bitzer (1968) argues that all speeches are made at least in part in response to specific occasions, so referring to the occasion seems a good idea. Bono (2006), lead singer of the rock group U2 and an activist for a number of humanitarian issues, addressed the 54th annual National Prayer Breakfast, and started his speech with these words: Well, thank you. Thank you Mr. President, First Lady, King Abdullah of Jordan, Norm [Coleman], distinguished guests. Please join me in praying that I don’t say something we’ll all regret. refer to recent or historical events In addition to referring to the occasion, another effective attention- getting device is to refer to current events or to historical events. This style of reference again helps to create a shared experience for the speaker and the audience, as the speaker reminds all present that they have these events in common. Additionally, referring to current or historical events can also help establish goodwill and personal credibility by demonstrating that the speaker is aware of the relationship between this particular speech and what is going on in the world at that time, or what has occurred in the past. Abraham Lincoln (1863), in one of the most well-known speeches in American history, refers both to historical events and current events in the beginning of the Gettysburg Address: Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. History, despite its wrenching pain, cannot be unlived, but if faced with courage, need not be lived again. ~ Maya Angelou refer to previous speeches Most of you reading this material are doing so because you are in a public speaking or introductory communication class of some kind. And that means that most of you will be presenting your speeches right after someone else has presented his or her speech. Even if you are not in a classroom situation, many other speaking situations (such as presenting at a city council or other government meeting, or taking part in a forum or lecture series) result in speakers presenting right after another person has spoken. In these situations, speakers before you may have already addressed some of the information you were planning to discuss, or perhaps have given a speech

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-5 on the same topic you are now planning to address. By referring to the previous speeches, you enhance your credibility by showing your knowledge of the previous speech, and you have the opportunity to either compare or contrast your speech to the previous speeches. Edward Kennedy, at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, began his speech with a short tribute and acknowledgement to the previous speaker, member of Congress Barbara Mikulski: Thanks very much, Barbara Mikulski, for your very eloquent, your eloquent introduction. Distinguished legislator, great spokeswoman for economic democracy and social justice in this country, I thank you for your eloquent introduction. refer to personal interest One of the key considerations in choosing an appropriate topic for your speech is that you have a personal interest in that topic. An effective attention getter then, can be your description of that personal interest. By noting your personal interest, you will demonstrate your credibility by showing your knowledge and experience with this topic, and because you have a personal interest, you are more likely to present this information in a lively and clear manner—again, enhancing your credibility. Referring to your personal interest in this topic in the introduction also helps you set the stage for additional anecdotes or examples from your personal experience later in the speech. In speaking at the 1992 Democratic National Convention, Elizabeth Glaser began her speech by acknowledging her very personal interest in the topic: I’m Elizabeth Glaser. Eleven years ago, while giving birth to my first child, I hemorrhaged and was transfused with seven pints of blood. Four years later, I found out that I had been infected with the AIDS virus and had unknowingly passed it to my daughter, Ariel, through my breast milk, and my son, Jake, in utero (Glaser, 1992). use startling statistics Startling statistics startle an audience and catch its attention, and encourage that audience to listen further as you present the context of the surprising statistic. Long-time radio announcer Paul Harvey is well known for the catch phrase “And now, the rest of the story.” The same function should be at work here. When you startle the audience, you set them up to want to hear the “rest of the story.” Be careful, though. Use of startling statistics requires that you do a number of things. First, make sure the statistic is accurate. Second, make sure the statistic is relevant to the topic of the speech. Startling an audience with an irrelevant statistic diminishes the speech and decreases your credibility. Third, make sure you then present “the rest of the story.” You need to place this startling statistic in the context of your speech so that everything fits together. One speaker used an effective startling statistic to help introduce a speech on the dangers of heart disease: According to the Center for Disease Control, in the United States 26.6 million adults have heart disease. This would be about 12% of adults, or three people in this room. use an analogy Analogies compare something that your audience knows and understands with something new and different. For your speech, then, you can use an analogy to show a connection between your speech topic (something new and different for the audience) and something that is known by your audience. Analogies can be effective because they use ideas, information and values of the audience to draw a connection to your speech topic—and to you as a speaker. Analogies create connections between you and the audience. One very common (and often misquoted) analogy comes from the 1919 Supreme Court case of Schenck v United States. Justice Oliver Wendell

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-6 Holmes used this analogy to support his reasoning that some forms of expression can be suppressed because they present a “clear and present danger.” Holmes noted that “[t]he most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing a panic” (Schenck vs. United States). One good analogy is worth three hours discussion. ~ Dudley Field Malone use a quotation Using a quotation from a well-known figure, or using a quotation from a lesser-known figure if the quotation is particularly suitable for your speech topic, is a common attention-getting technique. When you quote that well-known figure, you are in a sense, borrowing some of that person’s credibility for your speech, enhancing your credibility with the audience. Even when you use a less than well-known figure, the quotation can be effective if it nicely sets up your speech topic and is something to which your audience can relate. Be careful with quotations, however. First, just using the quotation is not sufficient. You need to place the quotation in the context of your speech (as well as meet the other required functions of an introduction, of course). Second, it is easy to fall into a bad (and somewhat lazy) habit of simply finding a quotation and using it to start every speech. Third, simply using a quotation is no guarantee that your audience will find that quotation interesting or apt for the speech, and may also find the author of the quotation to be lacking in credibility—or your audience may simply not like the author of the quotation. Finally, beware of overly-long quotations (three or more sentences): Remember, this is just part of the introduction, not a main point of the speech. In his farewell address, former President Ronald Reagan (1989) utilized a very short quotation to emphasize his feelings upon leaving office. People ask how I feel about leaving. And the fact is, “parting is such sweet sorrow.” The sweet part is California and the ranch and freedom. The sorrow — the goodbyes, of course, and leaving this beautiful place. Using rhetorical questions in speeches is a great way to keep the audience involved. Don’t you think those kinds of questions would keep your attention? ~ Bo Bennett ask a question The use of questions can be a very effective way to get attention, whether those questions are rhetorical in nature, and are only meant to be considered and pondered by the audience, or are meant to be answered by the audience (generally a good technique to get audience involvement and interest). Rhetorical questions are designed to allow you as speaker to get the audience to think about your topic without actually speaking the answer to the question. Rhetorical questions allow you as speaker to maintain the most control over a speech situation, and allow you to guard against an inappropriate or even offensive response. Using questions that ask for real responses, however, has additional benefits, if a speaker feels comfortable with his or her audience, and is able to handle some impromptu situations. Getting the audience to physically and verbally involve themselves in your topic guarantees that they’re paying attention. Using questions that lead to positive answers can also enhance your connection to and credibility with the audience. Starting a speech with a question whether rhetorical or actual does require thought and practice on your part. You need to carefully consider the question and possible answers. Remember—even if you think the question is rhetorical, your audience may not know this and may answer the question. You also need to carefully deliver the question. Too often, speakers will use a question as an introduction—but then give the audience no time to either think about the answer or answer the question. You need to use timing and pause when starting with a question. You also need to be careful to use eye contact in asking questions, since you are above all asking for audience involvement, and your eye contact requests that involvement. It is not enough for me to ask questions; I want to know how to answer the one question that seems to encompass everything I face: What am I here for? ~ Abraham Joshua Heschel In 1992, Ross Perot selected a little-known retired military figure, Admiral James Stockdale, as his Vice Presidential running mate. In the fall debates, Stockdale began his opening statement with two questions: “Who am I? Why am I here?” (Stockdale, 1992). The questions received applause and also laughter, though the later reaction to these questions was mixed at best. Some saw this as confusion on the part of Stockdale

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-7 (Lehrer, 1999). Stockdale considered these two questions to illustrate his difference from the other two “mainstream” candidates, Al Gore and then Vice President Dan Quayle. Traditional politicians, Gore and Quayle were readily recognized as compared to Stockdale. Humor is the affectionate communication of insight. ~ Leo Rosten use humor The use of humor in an introduction can be one of the most effective types of introductions—if done well. Humor can create a connection between the speaker and audience, can get an audience relaxed and in a receptive frame of mind, and can allow an audience to perceive the speaker (and the topic) in a positive light. Humor done badly can destroy the speech and ruin a speaker’s credibility. So first, a word of warning: None of us (those reading this, those teaching this class, and those writing this) are as funny as we think we are. If we were that funny, we would be making our living that way. Humor is hard. Humor can backfire. Humor is to a large extent situation-bound. Most likely, there will be a number of members of your audience who do not use English as a first language (there are plenty of people reading this who are English as a Second Language learners). Much humor requires a native understanding of English. Most likely, there will be a number of people in your audience who do not share your cultural upbringing—and humor is often culture-bound. Be careful with humor. In general, there is basically only one safe and suitable style of humor: light and subtle self-deprecation. In other words, you as speaker are the only really safe subject for humor. Using humor to tell stories about other people, other groups, and even other situations, may work—but it is just as likely to offend those people, members of those groups, and people in that situation. Using self-deprecating humor will not offend others, but unless you can do this with a light and subtle touch, you may be harming your credibility rather than creating a connection between yourself and the audience. Now, with all these warnings, you may want to stay far away from humor as an introduction. Humor can work, however. Ann Richards, at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, used humor in the introduction to her Keynote Address. Knowing the audience, Richards was able to use partisan humor to establish a connection to the audience and score points against the political opposition. I’m delighted to be here with you this evening, because after listening to George Bush all these years, I figured you needed to know what a real Texas accent sounds like. preparing the Introduction construct the introduction last While this may seem both counter-intuitive and somewhat strange, you really do want to leave the development of the introduction for the last part of your speech preparation. Think of it this way: You can’t introduce the ideas in your speech until you have determined these ideas. The introduction is prepared last because you want to make sure that the body of the speech drives the introduction, not the other way around. The body of the speech contains most of your content, your arguments, your

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-8 evidence, and your source material: The introduction sets up the body, but it should not overwhelm the body of the speech, nor should it dictate the content or structure of the speech. Once you have the body of the speech complete, then you consider the introduction. With the body of the speech complete, it is relatively simple to complete two of the four functions of the introduction. You already know the purpose of the speech, so now you need to put it in a one-sentence statement. And you already know the structure and main points of the speech, so you can put that structure into the preview. With the structural functions of the introduction complete, you can carefully choose and craft the type of introduction you wish to use, and concentrate on making sure that the introduction also fulfills the other two necessary functions: gaining the attention and interest of the audience, and gaining the goodwill of the audience. make it relevant Another reason why your introduction should be the last part of your speech you prepare is so that the introduction can relate to the speech. If you prepare the introduction before you prepare the body of the speech, your introduction may be wonderful—but completely disconnected from the rest of the speech. When you consider the type of introduction you wish to use, you might note that many of the types could easily lend themselves to disconnection from the speech. A startling statistic may shock and get an audience’s attention—but if it is not relevant to the speech itself, the introduction is at best wasted and more likely distracting to the audience. A quotation may be both profound and catchy—but if the quotation has little to do with the speech itself, the introduction is once again wasted or distracting. Now, because your introduction will contain the thesis statement and preview, at least part of the introduction will be relevant to the rest of the speech. However, the entire introduction needs to be relevant. If your audience hears an introduction that they perceive to lack connection to the rest of the speech, they will have difficulty following your main ideas, any attention and interest you may have gained will be more than off-set by the loss of goodwill and personal credibility, and your speech will not make the positive impression you desire. The wise ones fashioned speech with their thought, sifting it as grain is sifted through a sieve. ~ Buddha be succinct In most classroom speeches, and in most speech situations outside the classroom, the speaker will be on a time limit. Even if you are giving a speech in a setting where there is no stated time limit, most people will simply not pay attention to a speech that goes on and on and on. Since you are on a time limit, and since, as noted above, the body of the speech is the heart of your speech, the introduction of your speech needs to be concise and succinct. There is no magic formula for the length of an introduction, and you do need to meet all four functions in your introduction. Many authors suggest that the introduction be no more than 10-15% of the total speaking time. Most audiences expect you to introduce your speech and then move quickly into the body of the speech. While the expectations vary from culture to culture, most of the speaking situations in which you will find yourself will involve audiences that have been taught to listen for an introduction with a main thesis statement of some type. This is the standard speech format with which the majority of your audience will be familiar and comfortable. Failing to meet that expectation of your audience is in a sense a violation, and communication scholars Burgoon and Hale (1988) have shown that expectancy violations create difficulties in communication situations. write it out word for word In another chapter, you may have read and studied speech delivery techniques, and in your class, you may be encouraged to use an extemporaneous style of delivery for your speeches. That is good advice. However, introductions are best written out word for word and then delivered as memorized. Introductions are succinct (as we learned above), and introductions have to do a lot of work in a short period of time. Because of this, you as a speaker need to carefully consider every word of your introduction. The best method for doing so is to write your introduction out word for word. Then you can more easily see if you have met all four functions, and can also have a very good idea just how long the

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-9 introduction will be. Just as importantly, memorizing and then delivering the introduction word for word gives you the most control over this important (yet short) part of your speech. Finally, in conclusion, let me say just this. ~ Peter Sellers functions of conclusions So: You are at the end of your speech, and you can’t wait to sit down and be done! You start speeding up your rate of delivery, but your volume goes down a bit because you are rushing and running out of breath. You finish the last main point of your speech and race off to your seat: That is not the best way to conclude a speech. Just as with introductions, conclusions have specific functions to fulfill within a speech. And just as with introductions, there are a number of types of conclusions. In this section of this chapter, we will look at these functions, discuss the relationship between introductions and conclusions, and offer some strategies for preparing and delivering an effective conclusion. The basic structure of a speech is not linear but circular. Speeches should not take you on a straight line from A to Z. Speeches should take you in a circle from A to Z. Speeches start at the top of the circle with the introduction, work their way all around the circle, and end up back at the top with the conclusion. All the parts fit together and flow together in this circle, and the conclusion takes you right back to the introduction—with an enhanced understanding of the topic. prepare the audience for the end of the speech A speech does not just stop—or, to be more precise, a speech should not just stop. A speech, effectively structured and delivered, should move smoothly from point to point and then to the conclusion. One of the most important functions of the conclusion is to prepare the audience for the end of the speech. Throughout the speech, you have been providing the audience with verbal and nonverbal cues to where you are going in the speech. As you move to the conclusion, you need to continue to provide these cues. You can use language cues (“now that we have seen that we can solve this problem effectively, we can review the entire situation”), movement cues (physically moving back to the center of the room where you began the speech), and paralinguistic cues (slow the rate of the speech, use more pauses) to help prepare your audience for the end of the speech. When you prepare the audience for the end of the speech, you let them know that they need to be ready for any final comments or appeals from you, and that they should be prepared to acknowledge you as a speaker. present any final appeals Depending on the type of speech you are presenting, you will be asking the audience for something. You may be asking them to act in a certain way, or to change their attitude toward a certain person or topic. You may be asking them to simply understand what you have had to say in your presentation. Regardless, one of the tasks of the conclusion is to leave the audience motivated positively toward you and the topic you have been presenting. Psychologists and sociologists (as well as communication scholars) know that there is both a primacy and recency effect in presenting information (Garlick, 1993). Essentially, people tend to better remember information presented first or last—they remember what they hear at the beginning of the speech or at the end. In presenting your appeals to the audience, you can take advantage of the recency effect to increase the likelihood of your audience acting on your appeals. Former President Lyndon Johnson (1964), in a speech announcing a major policy initiative known as the Great Society, concluded his speech with a series of challenges and appeals to his audience. For better or for worse, your generation has been appointed by history to deal with those problems and to lead America toward a new age. You have the chance never before afforded to any people in any age. You can help build a

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-10 society where the demands of moralit, and the needs of the spirit, can be realized in the life of the Nation. So, will you join in the battle to give every citizen the full equality which God enjoins and the law requires, whatever his belief, or race, or the color of his skin? Will you join in the battle to give every citizen an escape from the crushing weight of poverty? Will you join in the battle to make it possible for all nations to live in enduring peace — as neighbors and not as mortal enemies? Will you join in the battle to build the Great Society, to prove that our material progress is only the foundation on which we will build a richer life of mind and spirit? There are those timid souls that say this battle cannot be won; that we are condemned to a soulless wealth. I do not agree. We have the power to shape the civilization that we want. But we need your will and your labor and your hearts, if we are to build that kind of society. The appeals were significant in that the speech was delivered as a commencement address at the University of Michigan, at a time in American society when college and university students were protesting many government actions. When Demosthenes was asked what were the three most important aspects of oratory, he answered, Action, Action, Action. ~ Plutarch summarize and close A conclusion is structural in function. Just as the introduction must include a statement of the purpose of the speech, as well as a preview of the main ideas of the speech, the conclusion must include a restatement of the thesis and a review of the main ideas of the speech. The review and restatement are mirror images of the preview statement in the introduction. Structurally, the restatement and review bring the speech back to the top of the circle and remind the audience where we started. Functionally, they help cue the audience that the end of the speech is coming up. Let’s go back to the thesis and preview example on page 9-3. The example was from a speech on ethanol, and the sample thesis was “So right now let’s see how dependence on fossil fuels costs you money and how use of ethanol as a supplement will save you money and save the world from energy obsolescence.” In the conclusion of this speech, one effective method to summarize and wrap-up is to simply restate the thesis and preview—but in the past tense, since we have now heard the speech. Today we have seen how dependence on fossil fuels costs you money and how use of ethanol as a supplement will save you money and save the world from energy obsolescence. We learned first why we as a society are so dependent upon fossil fuels in the first place, and then secondly we found out what causes this dependence, and third, we saw how ethanol as a fuel supplement will help end this dependence, and finally we discovered how simple it is to implement this solution and make the world a better place for all of us. By restating the thesis and reviewing the main ideas, you once again take advantage of both the primacy and recency effect, and you create a complete and coherent structure to your speech. end with a clincher With conclusions, however, there are some additional forms you may wish to use, and there are some variations and adaptations of the introductions that you will want to use as you prepare your conclusions. Earlier in this section when we discussed introductions, it was argued that stories are quite possibly the most effective form of introduction: Stories appear to be almost “hard-wired” into our individual and cultural make-up; and stories have a built-in structure. Stories, then, also make excellent conclusions, and can be used as conclusions in at least two ways. First, you can complete the story that you started in the introduction. Remember: You stopped right before the climax or denouement, and now, you can finish the story. Alternatively, you can retell the story, and this time the story will reflect what the audience has learned from your speech. Either method

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-11 provides coherence and closure to the story and the speech. Humor also remains an effective type of conclusion, but the same dangers with the use of humor discussed in the section on introductions applies to the conclusion. Still, effective use of humor leaves the audience in a receptive frame of mind, and, so long as the humor is relevant to the speech, provides a positive reminder to the audience of the main purpose of the speech. Because of the functions of conclusions, there are two additional types of conclusions you may wish to consider: Appeals and Challenges. I appeal to you, my friends, as mothers: are you willing to enslave your children? You stare back with horror and indignation at such questions. But why, if slavery is not wrong to those upon whom it is imposed? ~ Angelina Grimke appeals and challenges Since the conclusion comes at the end of the speech, it is appropriate to leave the audience with an appeal or a challenge (or a combination of the two). Similar in nature, appeals and challenges primarily divide by tone. Appeals are generally phrased more as requests, while challenges can take on a more forceful tone, almost ordering or daring audiences to engage in thought or action. One of the most historically memorable and effective conclusions that utilized appeal and challenge was Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s I Have a Dream speech (1963). And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. But not only that: Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring. And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last! composing the conclusion Just as with introductions, there are two important points to remember from the start. First, regardless of the form of conclusion, all summary remarks must meet certain required functions. Second, most conclusions will be a combination of two or more forms. There is a third point to remember about conclusions as well: Conclusions need to provide a match to the introduction, so that there is symmetry and completeness to the speech structure. Because of this, very often, the conclusion will be of the same form as the introduction. At the very least, the conclusion must refer to the introduction so there is a sense of completeness. Naturally enough, the forms of conclusions you can use and develop are similar to the forms of introductions you can use and develop. Eloquent speech is not from lip to ear, but rather from heart to heart. ~ William Jennings Bryan prepare the conclusion The conclusion is the last part of the speech to prepare. What is common writing practice for the introduction is also true of the conclusion. As previously discussed, introductions and conclusions are similar in nature, they provide mirror images of one another other, and they are often of the same type. So you complete the introduction and conclusion at the same time. You do so to make sure that both elements work together. As you prepare the conclusion, make sure as well that there are no false conclusions. You need to prepare the audience for the end of the speech—but you can only prepare them one time, and there can be only one end to the speech. By the same token, you need to make sure that the conclusion is not so abrupt or sudden that no one in the

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-12 audience is aware you have completed your speech. Keep in mind as well that conclusions should comprise no more than 10% of the total speaking time. Just as with the introduction, write out the conclusion word for word. This is your last chance to impress your audience and to make sure that they understand what you have said. Do not leave the conclusion to chance: write it out. Success depends upon previous preparation, and without such preparation there is sure to be failure. ~ Confucius do not Include any new information While it is important to present your appeal and any call to action in the conclusion, it is also important to NOT present new information in your conclusion. Remember: one of the functions of the conclusion is to prepare the audience for the end of the speech. If all of the sudden you present a new argument, new information, or a new point, you will confuse your audience. If you present new information in the conclusion, you will also lose the ability to integrate this information with the rest of the speech. Remember that all elements of the speech need to flow together. New ideas at the very end of the speech will not enhance the flow of the speech. Additionally, because you are just now bringing in this information at the end of the speech, you will have no or very little time to develop these ideas, or to provide supporting information and documentation for these ideas. follow the structure The approach of using the built-in structure of the specific introduction/conclusion technique is as equally effective with quotations, questions and startling statistics as it is with stories. You can use the same quotation at the end as at the beginning, but because of what we have learned in the speech, the quotation has a new and more developed meaning. You can also use a new quotation that draws a comparison and contrast to the beginning quotation, and also highlights what we have learned in the speech. You can use the same question at the conclusion as you did at the beginning, and regardless of whether you ask for a response or pose it as a rhetorical question (and allow the audience to consider the answer), the answer will be different because of your speech. The audience will be able to see what you have accomplished in the speech. You can also pose a new question, one that again points out what the audience has learned from your speech. Startling statistics, as quotations and questions, now take on new meaning because of all that you have told the audience in your speech. Reminding the audience of startling statistics should provide them with a key reminder of the main point of your speech. summary This chapter first shows how to structure and develop introductions and conclusions. Second, it argues that introductions function to gain audience attention and goodwill, and that introductions help structure the speech with a thesis statement and preview. Third, the chapter explains that conclusions help audiences remember the key ideas of a speech. Finally, the chapter reveals that there are a variety of different techniques for introductions and conclusions, and that many of the techniques for introductions apply to conclusions as well. Introductions set the stage for the speech that is to come; conclusions make sure that the audience goes away changed in a positive manner. Short in time, they require careful thought and precise language to be effective. Done well, introductions prepare an audience to learn, and conclusions help to insure that an audience has understood the purpose of the speech. When you can do the common things of life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world. ~ George Washington Carver

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-13 chapter review questions and activities review questions 1. What are the four basic functions of introductions, and why are these functions important? 2. List and give one original example of each of the ten attention-getting devices. 3. What are three reasons why stories are effective as introductions? 4. Why is humor both useful and dangerous at the same time? 5. What is a preview statement, and why is it important as part of an introduction? 6. What are the four basic functions of conclusions, and why are these functions important? 7. Compare and contrast an appeal and a challenge. When would you use each technique? 8. What does it mean to “follow the structure” in a conclusion? 9. Why are introductions and conclusions prepared last? activities 1. Review the following speech and then write a brief (150-200 words) analysis on how the speaker used (or did not use) effective introduction and conclusion techniques. http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/CollieSampPersSpeech.wmv 2. Read Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (http://americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm) and then rewrite the introduction to use: a. Humor b. Rhetorical Question c. A story Each introduction should be relevant to the topic and no more than 100 words in length. 3. Working with a partner, create at least five analogies that could be used as part of an effective introduction for any of the topics listed below  Commonalities of the world’s major religions  Dealing with gaming addiction  Selecting a college  Why the penny should be eliminated  My worst first date  Protecting your identity online and offline  Making the perfect lasagna  The three most important factors in choosing an automobile  The dangers of radon  Traveling through Europe on a budget 4. Locate an informative or a persuasive speech on Youtube. Watch the speech once in its entirety, and then watching it a second time, answer these questions. a. What attention-getting technique was used? Was it effective? b. Did the speaker establish his / her credibility effectively? c. Was the thesis or purpose of the speech clear? d. Did the speaker preview the main points of the speech. e. Did the main points of the speech correspond with the preview? f. Did the speaker prepare the audience for the end of the speech? g. Did the speaker present any final appeals? Was this effective? h. What type of clincher (closing technique) was used? Was it effective?

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-14 glossary Analogy A figure of speech that essentially compares something that your audience knows and understands with something new and different. Preview Sometimes called a road map, a preview is a brief oral outline in which the speaker clearly and concisely states the main points of the speech. Internal Credibility This is a form of credibility based on attributes that are largely controlled by a speaker, such as appearance, confidence, charisma, trustworthiness, and speaking ability. Expectancy Violation Expectancy violations occur when people engage in behavior that is unexpected or inappropriate for the situation. External Credibility This is a form of credibility based on attributes that a speaker can “borrow,” such as using credible sources and referring to credible and popular people and events. Primacy Effect According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read first. Recency Effect According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read last. Rhetorical Question When a speaker asks a question that is not meant to be answered outloud, or a question for which the audience already knows the answer. This is often used as a way to get an audience to think about the topic. Thesis One sentence or statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech.

Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org 9-15 references Aristotle (1982). The art of rhetoric. (J.H. Freese, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1, 1-14. Bono. (2006, February 2). Keynote address at the 54th national prayer breakfast. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/bononationalprayerbreakfast.htm Burgoon, J. K. & and Hale, J. L. (1988). Nonverbal expectancy violations: Model elaboration and application to immediacy behaviors. Communication Monographs, 55, (1), 58-79. Flora, C. (May-June 2004). The once-over you can trust: First impressions. Psychology Today, 37 (3), 60-64. Fisher, W. (1987). Human communication as narration: Toward a philosophy of reason, value, and action. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Garlick, R. (1993). Verbal descriptions, communicative encounters and impressions. Communication Quarterly, 41, 394-404. Glaser, E. (1992, July 14). 1992 Democratic national convention address. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/elizabethglaser1992dnc.htm Johnson, L. (1964, May 22). The great society. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/lbjthegreatsociety.htm Kennedy, T. (1980, August 12). 1980 democratic national convention address. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/tedkennedy1980dnc.htm King, Jr., M. L. (1963, August 28). I have a dream.” Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm Lehrer, J. (Interviewer) & Stockdale, J. (Interviewee). (1999). Debating our Destiny: Admiral James Stockdale. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/interviews/stockdale.html Lincoln. A. (1863, November 19). The Gettysburg address. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm Reagan, R. (1989, January 11). Farewell address to the nation. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganfarewelladdress.html Richards, A. (1998, July 19). Democratic national convention keynote address. Speech posted at http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/annrichards1988dnc.htm Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47 (1919). Stockdale, J. (1992, October 19). The 1992 vice presidential debate. Speech posted at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/92debates/vp1.html Townsend, C. (2007, February 5). Spring break in Mexico. Speech posted at http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/MMS/Cassie.wmv photo credits p. 1 Muhammad Yunnus by schipulites http://s3.amazonaws.com/estock/fspid9/19/21/48/0/hwac-grameenbank-author-1921480-o.jpg p. 2 Pueblo Bonito Emerald Bay, Mazatlan by bryce_edwards http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=3834933&searchId=d2b527e266d9adaf3b9eb5ba28008afc&npos=11 p. 4 Abraham Lincoln by U.S. Library of Congress http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Abraham_Lincoln_head_on_shoulders_photo_portrait.jpg p. 4 Bono at the National Prayer Breakfast by Paul Morse http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National_prayer_breakfast_2006.jpg p. 5 Kelly McCann by schipulites http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=2101671&searchId=117192ced800c1f4d61c5a6c55f6ee64&npos=4 p. 5 Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes by National Photo Company http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Justice_Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_standing.jpg p. 6 President Ronald Reagan by White House Photographic Office http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Reagan_farewell_salute.jpg p. 7 Laughing Audience by Damian Buonamico http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Audience_enjoy_Stallman%27s_jokes.jpg p. 7 Governor Ann Richards by Kenneth Zirkel http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ann_Richards.jpg p. 8 Ed Miliband by net_efekt http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=2282400&searchId=d1715efc5a67ac1c988152b8136e3dfa&npos=37 p. 8 Woman with Laptop by Matthew Bowden http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Woman-typing-on-laptop.jpg p. 9 LBJ at the University of Michigan Commencement by LBJ Library and Museum http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LBJ_at_the_University_of_Michigan.jpg p. 10 President Johnson’s Poverty Tour 1964 by Cecil Saughton http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:225-9-wh64_small.jpg p. 10 Woman speaks at BP Oil Flood Protest New Orleans by Derek Bridges http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BP_Oil_Flood_Protest_in_New_Orleans_30.jpg p. 11 Martin Luther King March on Washington by National Archives and Records Administration http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg p. 11 Kyung-wha Khang Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights by U.S. Mission Geneva http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=7527423&searchId=488e81758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab1b&npos=205 * All other photos from Microsoft Clipart

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Donna Painter Graphics. Public Speaking: The Virtual Text introduction “I have to do what?” You receive your syllabus on the first day of history class, and you see that a significant percentage of your overall grade for the semester depends upon one, ten-minute oral presentation in front of the class. The presentation is to be based on an original research project and is due in eight weeks. You are excited to get an email after a very positive job interview. They ask you to come to a second interview prepared to answer a number of questions from a panel made up of senior management. The questions are contained in an attachment. “Please be ready to stand in the front of the room to answer,” the email reads; ending with “See you next week!” The plans are finalized: You will have dinner to meet your new fiancé’s family on Saturday night – just days away. But, then you are told that your fiancé’s father, a former Marine and retired police officer, will want to talk about politics and current events – and that he will likely judge what sort of person you are based on how well you can defend your ideas. I get nervous when I don’t get nervous. If I’m nervous, I know I’m going to have a good show. ~ Beyonce Knowles In this chapter, you will learn about dealing with one of the most common fears in our society: the fear of public speaking, which is referred to as communication apprehension (CA). If you are one of those folks – take comfort in the fact that you are not alone! Research indicates that 20% or more of the U.S. population has a high degree of communicative apprehension (McCroskey, 1976). CA is an isolating phenomenon; something that makes one feel alone in the struggle. This is true even as programs designed to help people overcome it – like this program and this chapter, for instance – are spreading nationwide. CA is a real phenomenon that represents a well-documented obstacle not only to academic, but also to professional success. CA can impact many diverse areas; from one’s level of self-esteem (Adler, 1980) and how you are perceived by others (Dwyer & Cruz, 1998),to success in school, achieving high grade-point averages, and even landing job interview opportunities (Daly & Leth, 1976). People with higher levels of CA have demonstrated that they will avoid communicative interaction in personal and professional relationships, social situations, and importantly, classrooms. Such avoidance can result in miscom-munication and misunderstanding, speaking with confidence chapter 11 By Ronald P. Grapsy, Ph.D. Kutztown University, Kutztown, PA www.publicspeakingproject.org chapter objectives: After studying this module, you should be able to: 1. Understand the nature of communicative apprehension (CA), and be in a better position to deal with your particular “brand” of CA 2. Analyze objectively the formation of your habitual frame of reference 3. Apply cognitive restructuring (CR) techniques to create a more positive frame of reference 4. Understand the importance of customized practice to become conversant in your topic 5. Create a personal preparation routine to minimize your apprehension chapter outline:  Introduction  Classifying Communication Apprehension (CA) o Trait-anxiety o State-anxiety o Scrutiny Fear  Frames of Reference o Habitual Frame of Reference o Personal Frame of Reference  Cognitive Restructuring (CR) o Sources of Apprehension o Impact of Apprehension o Learning Confidence  Techniques for Building Confidence o Prepare Well o Visualize Success o Avoid Gimmicks o Breathe and Release o Minimize What You Memorize o Practice Out Loud o Customize Your Practice  Conclusion  Chapter Activities and Exercises  Glossary  References

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-2 which only becomes compounded by further avoidance. CA left unaddressed can even lead to a negative disposition toward public interaction, which leads to a lesser degree of engagement, thus perpetuating the fear and further compounding the situation (Menzel & Carrell, 1994). The anxiety creates a vicious cycle and becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. But it is a cycle that need not continue. By reading this chapter, you will learn about CA; not necessarily how it develops, as that can be different in every individual, but rather about how people can deal with it effectively. You will learn how therapies employed by psychologists to help people deal with phobias can be translated into effective techniques to deal with CA. You will learn the differences between trait-anxiety, state-anxiety, and scrutiny fear, and how understanding the differences between them can help a person deal with their “personal brand” of CA. You will learn about how people develop habitual frames of reference that come to define the way they approach an anticipated experience – and how anyone can employ cognitive restructuring to help change habits that are counter-productive to delivering effective presentations. Habits can be very difficult to break, but the first step is becoming aware and wanting to succeed. Going into any activity with a positive attitude is one of the basic ways of maximizing performance. CA is not something that can easily be eliminated – turned “off” as if controlled by an internal toggle switch. But it doesn’t have to remain an obstacle to success either. Effective public speaking is not simply about learning what to say, but about developing the confidence to say it. For many, it all comes down to overcoming those nerves and convincing yourself that you can actually get up there and speak! Each individual deals with CA most effectively through increased self-awareness and a willingness to work on reducing its impact. To conquer the nervousness associated with public speaking, one must identify the factors that lead to this anxiety, and then take specific steps to overcome this apprehension. As soon as the fear approaches near, attack and destroy it. ~ Chanakya classifying communication apprehension (CA) CA is not the result of a single cause, and so the phenomenon itself comes in many forms. It is important for each person to recognize that their particular sort of CA (we’ll call it a “personal brand”) is a phenomenon that has developed uniquely through each of their lives and experiences. Just as each individual is different, so too is each case of CA. There are specific distinctions between “stage fright” – a term reserved for the common, virtually universal nervousness felt by everyone – and CA – which is essentially “stage fright” with a corresponding emotional trauma attached. Scholars are somewhat divided, however, on whether CA is something inherent in the individual, or if it is the result of experience. In most people, it is very likely a combination of factors. trait-anxiety Some researchers (McCroskey, et al. 1976) describe CA as trait-anxiety, meaning that it is a type of anxiety that is aligned with an individual’s personality. People who would call themselves “shy” often seek to avoid interaction with others because they are uncertain of how they will be perceived. Avoiding such judgment is generally not difficult, and so becomes a pattern of behavior. These folks, according to researchers, are likely view any chance to express themselves publicly with skepticism and hesitation. This personal tendency is what is known as trait-anxiety. State-anxiety Other researchers (Beatty, 1988) describe CA as state-anxiety, meaning that it is a type of anxiety that is derived from the external situation which individuals find themselves. While some may fear public speaking due to some personal trait or broader social anxiety, researchers have found that CA more often stems from the fear associated with scrutiny and negative evaluation. Some people may have had a negative experience in public at an early age – they forgot a line in a play, they lost a spelling bee, they did poorly when called on in front of their class – something that resulted in a bit of public embarrassment. Others may have never actually experienced that stress themselves, but may have watched friends struggle and thus empathized with them. These sorts of experiences can often lead to the formation of a state-anxiety in an individual.

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-3 scrutiny fear Still other researchers (Mattick et al., 1989) discuss CA as what is called a scrutiny fear; which stems from an activity that does not necessarily involve interacting with other people, but is simply the fear of being in a situation where one is being watched or observed, or one perceives him or herself as being watched, while undertaking an activity. When asked to categorize their own type of CA, many people will identify with this phenomenon. In order for anybody to effectively deal with CA, the first step is to consider what may be its primary cause. CA is what is known as a resultant condition; and those who are dealing with the challenge will recognize different intensities associated with different situations or triggers. This means that overcoming the condition requires first that you recognize, and then minimize, the cause. Each person is different, and so each case of CA is personal and unique. Trait-anxiety can be one contributing factor to CA, but is often part of a much larger condition. It is important to understand that, while the techniques discussed here would help in improving an individual’s approach to public speaking opportunities, we do not claim that these techniques would work with more significant personality disorders. However, both the presence of state-anxiety, and the appearance of scrutiny fear, can be effectively addressed through the application of cognitive restructuring (CR) and careful, deliberate experience. How little do they see what is, who frame their hasty judgments upon that which seems. ~ Robert Southey frames of reference Many popular movies are now based on multiple-book series like the “Harry Potter” or “Lord of the Rings” movies. If you are a fan of these book series, you know about the anticipation you felt as the next film was ready to be released – you get swept away by the memories, you look forward to seeing the characters again. Before you even enter the theatre and take your seat, you are in a very positive mood and you are looking forward to being entertained. Perhaps you are even familiar with the details of the story you are about to watch on film; and this only adds to your feelings of anticipation. Because of your previous experiences, you have developed a frame of reference toward future events. One’s frame of reference is the context, viewpoint, or set of presuppositions or evaluative criteria within which a person’s perception and thinking seem always to occur; and which constrains selectively the course and outcome of these activities. Once your anticipation is rewarded, this frame of reference becomes how you “approach” the release of each new film in the series – your frame of reference becomes “habitual.” Evidence for this can be seen in the consistent success of the serial movies – even if critics’ opinions are harsh, fans will go see the film. habitual frame of reference Developing the habitual frame of reference with regard to public speaking usually comes from a combination of personal experiences and what has been witnessed. Formal public speaking opportunities are most prevalent within the context of formal education – thus, public presentations are generally student-oriented experiences which are strongly associated with being evaluated or judged. Because there is such a focus upon the grade that results from the assignment, there is much less focus upon the integrity of the presentation itself. Studies have even shown that the possibility of a negative experience can lead to many students to skip assignments or drop a class – even when that class is required for graduation (Pelias, 1989). Students will often worry more about their grade rather than what is contained in their presentation. Thus, the act of public speaking takes on the pressure of taking a final exam with everyone watching. It’s no wonder so many students report that they are stressed out by public speaking!

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-4 personal frame of reference We can all recall a time when we’ve met a group of friends for lunch. Try to recall an instance when the conversation centered on the latest popular movie – and you happen to be the person in the group who saw it the night before. Was it fun? Was it worth the money? Should we go see it too? Everyone else around the table would look at you and wait to hear what you had to say. And what happened when you were faced with all these questions? Well, probably you focused on your favorite parts; probably you told the story in some sort of organized manner; probably you asked your friends whether or not they wanted you to give away the ending; and probably you were fine with any of your friends interrupting while you were talking. In short, you presented to your audience. But, since the action of public presentation was not undertaken within the stressful context of a “graded assignment,” but rather within the positive context of “lunch with friends,” you did not feel the same level of CA as with other presentations. The action was essentially the same, but the way you approached the action was completely different – solely because you perceived of yourself engaging in a fun activity (lunch with friends), and not a stressful one (public speaking). Think about how many different experiences have prompted the formation of a habitual frame of reference in you: social events with friends, holidays with family, the weekly staff meeting at work. Consider whether the way you approach the situation has anything at all to do with the sort of experience that follows. Is there a correlation between positive mood and positive outcome? Think of all the motivational aphorisms and advice you’ve heard: “Think Positive!” or “Expect Success!” all of which are based on the idea that approaching an activity with a positive attitude about your potential success is the best strategy. We need to build a positive attitude about doing something we are afraid to do. I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear. ~ Nelson Mandela cognitive restructuring Since the major difference between “presenting” to a public audience versus “presenting” to a small group of close friends involves one’s attitude about the situation. Overcoming CA is as much a matter of changing one’s attitude as it is developing one’s skills as a speaker. A change in attitude can be fostered through a self-reflective regimen called cognitive restructuring (CR), which is an internal process through which individuals can deliberately adjust how they perceive an action or experience (Mattick et al., 1989). Cognitive Restructuring is a three-step, internal process: 1. Identify objectively what you think 2. Identify any inconsistencies between perception and reality 3. Replace destructive thinking with supportive thinking These steps are easy to understand, but perhaps may be a bit difficult to execute! The first step is to identify objectively what you are thinking as you approach a public speaking opportunity. Recall your habitual frame of reference. The first step in CR is to shine a bright light directly on it. This will be different for each student undertaking the process. sources of apprehension After years of interviewing students from my classes, the two concerns most often described are the feeling of being the center of attention – as if you are under some collective microscope with everybody’s eyes on you; and the feeling that the audience is just waiting for you to make a mistake or slip up somehow – and that their disapproval will be swift, immediate, and embarrassing. Let’s discuss how CR might be applied to each of these widely-held perceptions. impact of apprehension Probably the most common concern people have is being the “center of attention.”When people describe this specific scrutiny fear, they use phrases like “everyone just stares at me,” or “I don’t like having all eyes on me.” Consider for a moment what your experiences have been like when you have been a member of the audience for another speaker. Where did you look while the person spoke? Did you look at the speaker? Direct eye contact can mean different things in different cultures, but in U.S. culture, eye contact is the primary means for an audience to demonstrate that they are listening to a speaker. Nobody likes to

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-5 Table 11.1 Impact of Cognitive Restructuring Before Cognitive Restructuring: After Cognitive Restructuring: One is worried about being under scrutiny. One recognizes that audiences look at who is speaking. One is worried about being judged harshly. One recognizes that audiences want success. One is worried about making an embarrassing mistake. One recognizes that audiences will empathize. be ignored, and most members of an audience would not want to be perceived as ignoring the speaker – that would be rude! Compare: before CR, the frame of reference reflects the idea that “everyone is staring at me”; after CR, the perception is altered to “the audience is looking at me to be supportive and polite – after all, I’m the one doing the talking.” Another common concern is the fear of being judged harshly or making an embarrassing mistake. Go back to that memory of you as a member of the audience, but this time reflect on what sort of expectations you had at the time. Did you expect the speaker to be flawless and riveting? Did you have in mind some super-high level of performance – below which the speaker would have disappointed you? Probably you did not (unless you had the chance to watch some prominent speaker). Think back to any experiences you may have had watching another speaker struggle – perhaps a classmate during one of their presentations. Witnessing something like that can be uncomfortable. Did you feel empathy for the person struggling? Isn’t it a much more pleasant experience when the speaker does well? Again, the vast majority of people empathize with the speaker when it comes to the quality of the presentation. They are willing to give the speaker a chance to say what they want to say. Thus: before CR, the frame of reference reflects the idea that “everyone is judging me harshly”; and after CR, the perception is altered to “the audience is willing to listen to what I have to say because it’s a more pleasant experience for them if the speaker is successful.” learning confidence Consider what comes into your mind if you are to deliver a public presentation. Are your thoughts consumed with many uncertainties. What if I make a mistake? What if they don’t like what I’m talking about? What if? Try your own version of CR. Put yourself in the role of audience member and ask yourself whether your fears as a speaker are consistent with your expectations as an audience member. Remember that, just like you, the audience wants the speaker to succeed. Of course CR, unfortunately, is always easier said than done. It is a process that takes time, patience, and practice. The most important thing to remember is that you are trying CR as a means of breaking a habit, and habits are formed over periods of time, never instantaneously. The breaking of a habit, similarly, cannot be done instantaneously, but gradually, over time and with deliberate effort. Changing your attitude is only one element in overcoming CA. The other involves improving your skills as a speaker. The presence of CA in any student brings with it the need to prepare more deliberately and more diligently. The other chapters in this book deal with the importance of preparation in all areas of public presentation. Readers should consider how the challenges involved with overcoming CA can impact the preparation process. It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech. ~ Mark Twain techniques for building confidence prepare well The correlation between preparation and nervousness is consistent. More practice results in less nervousness. The best, most consistent and direct way to minimize the level of nervousness you feel is through effective preparation. This is always true. Importantly, the best sort of practice is the kind that prepares you properly. Michael Jordan was once asked the best way to learn how to shoot free throws. He said that you cannot learn to shoot free throws by walking into a gym with a ball, walking up to the line, and shooting. Instead, he described how the first step in learning to shoot free throws is to run sprints. Most importantly, his advice was to run until your body was under the same stress as it would be in a game when you needed to make those free throws – because only under those conditions would your practice become truly productive. Only

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-6 then do you pick up the ball and shoot. And when you managed to catch your breath? All types of preparation and practice yield some benefits, but there is a significant difference between practice that is merely helpful and practice that is sufficient. There is a difference between “knowing what you are talking about,” and “knowing what you are going to say.” Thinking about your presentation can be helpful, but that sort of preparation will not give you a sense of what you are actually going to say. Athletes know that the best practices will re-create game conditions and test their abilities to perform in real-life scenarios. Studying a playbook? This is helpful, but not sufficient. Going over a speech in your mind? Again, it is helpful, but not sufficient. Many students do not practice effectively, and this can result in the wrong idea that practice isn’t helpful. Unfortunately, these same students usually have had little, if any, training in how one might prepare for a presentation, and so they employ the scholastic training they are most familiar with – how to write a paper. This is not the same activity as presenting, and so the lack of proper preparation only contributes to the lack of confidence. Let’s look at a few elements of effective practice. visualize success Athletes and performers are often coached to visualize what they are trying to do as a way to perform correctly. Baseball players need to anticipate what they will do if the ball is hit their way so that they are ready to perform without having to make split-second choices. Football and basketball players must envision how each member of the team will move during a particular play because team success depends on speedy and flawless coordination between individuals. Dancers and divers are trained to visualize the form and positioning of their bodies as they execute their moves. Golfers are coached to visualize the flight and arc of the shot they are about to attempt. Engaging the imagination in this way can be beneficial to performance. I visualize things in my mind before I have to do them. It’s like having a mental workshop. ~ Jack Youngblood Speakers too, should visualize success. As you practice, visualize yourself presenting with confidence to a receptive audience. “See” your relaxed facial expressions and “hear” your confident vocal tone. Imagine yourself moving gracefully, complementing what you say with expressive gestures. Imagine the audience reacting appropriately – nodding appreciatively and giving thoughtful consideration to your points. Imagine the gratification of watching the audience really “get it.” When you can honestly envision yourself performing at this level, you are taking an important step toward achieving that goal. avoid gimmicks Some acting coaches (and speech teachers) encourage their students to practice in front of mirrors, so that they can watch themselves perform and evaluate how they move. In acting, this can be very useful; but in speaking, it is less so. When you practice your presentation, the most important element is expressiveness. You want to become more familiar with the volume of material, the order in which you plan to present it, and the phrasing you think would be most effective to express it. Watching yourself perform in a mirror will focus your attention on your appearance first – and on what you express second. This makes using a mirror during practice a distraction from what the practice ought to achieve. Plus, consider what you are seeing in the mirror as you practice. Obviously, it is you! But more to the point, what you see in the mirror (your reflection) will not resemble, in any way, the audience that you would see while delivering your presentation. Just as you want to visualize success in yourself as part of your preparation; you also want to visualize success in your audience – which means that you want to imagine the members of your

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-7 audience reacting positively to your presentation, paying close attention and nodding their heads as you make your points. For some reason, the myth persists that imagining your audience in their pajamas – or something similarly silly – is an effective way to make standing in front of them seem less scary. Many of my students have discussed hearing “tips” like imagining the audience wearing pink bunny-ears as a way to make them less intimidating. These sorts of gimmicks don’t work! In fact, concentrating on anything other than what you are doing is distracting and not beneficial at all. Do your best to avoid such advice. Visualize success! Breathe. Let go. And remind yourself that this very moment is the only one you know you have for sure. ~ Oprah Winfrey breathe and release One type of pre-presentation exercise that might be helpful is based on a therapeutic idea called systematic de-sensitization, which is a multi-stage regimen to help patients deal with phobias through coping mechanisms. Going through both the cognitive and behavioral aspects of systematic desensitization often requires weeks of concerted effort to overcome the body’s involuntary reactions to stress. That sort of psychological therapy involves gradual exposure to what produces the anxiety, long-term self-reflection, and mental discipline. Here, we will discuss a shortened version called “breathe and release.” This is a short-cut relaxation technique that could be useful for nervous speakers – especially those who are concerned with the physical manifestations of nervousness, such as shaky hands or knees. The key to “breathe and release” is to understand that when nervous tension results in minor trembling, the effort of trying to keep one’s hands from shaking can contribute to the whole situation – that is, trying to stop literally can make it worse! Therefore, the best approach is through relaxation. “Breathe and Release” involves three steps: 1. Imagine the nervousness within your body. Imagine that energy bubbling inside you, like liquid being cooked. 2. Draw that energy to a high point within your body with a deep, cleansing breath. Imagine this cleansing breath to be acting like a vacuum – drawing up all of the bubbling liquid. 3. Release the energy by deliberately relaxing the entirety of your upper extremities – not just your hands, or even your hands and arms – but all the way from your fingertips to the bottom edges of your shoulder blades. Imagine how keeping any part of your upper extremities tense would result in a “kink” in the release valve, and so complete relaxation is the key to success. Remember: Relax everything from the fingertips to the very bottom edges of your shoulder blades. “Breathe and Release” is something that can be done even as one walks to the front of the classroom or boardroom to begin speaking. Many speakers, especially those who are concerned about the physical manifestations of nervousness, have used this relaxation technique effectively. I’ve a grand memory for forgetting. ~ Robert Louis Stevenson minimize what you memorize One important hint for speech preparation involves avoiding the writing of an entirely scripted version of the presentation. Many people have the impression that writing a script of the entire speech is the necessary first step in preparation; that practicing can only happen after you are done writing the entire speech. Unfortunately, this common impression is mistaken. Remember that lunch with your friends? When you were describing the movie plot, you were being conversant in a prepared way. This means that you knew what you were describing, but you were not concerned with the specific words you were using. Being conversant is the condition of being prepared to discuss an issue intelligently. Fans of sports are conversant about their favorite teams. Experts are conversant in their fields. A well-prepared speaker is conversant

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-8 with regard to her topic. Consider how being conversant in this manner allows freer, more fluid communication, with no stress associated with your ability to remember what words you wanted to use. Being conversant also gives the speaker the best chance to recognize and react to audience feedback. If you are completely focused on the integrity of scripted comments, then you will be unable to read and react to your audience in any meaningful way. Imagine how frustrating it would be for your friends at that lunch if you would not respond to any of their questions until you were finished reading a few descriptive paragraphs about the movie. They would probably just wait until you were done reading and then try to engage you in a conversation! If you wish to forget anything on the spot, make a note that this thing is to be remembered. ~ Edgar Allan Poe Many people have had experience being in a stage play or some other type of performance that involved memorized recitation of a script. Many of us might recall moments during rehearsals when our minds would “freeze” and we might need just a quick reminder – the next word or phrase, the next few notes – to get back on track. This is because people do not memorize in units, but in phrases or chunks. The mind attaches to a rhythm – not to each individual unit, word, or note. This is why it is best to minimize what you memorize. Prepare your opening carefully so that you start smoothly. Prepare your closing comments so that you can end sharply and with style. But avoid preparing and then memorizing an entire script. Preparing for a speech by memorizing a written script engages your mind at a different level from that of a conversant speaker. Concentrating on remembering words is different from paying attention to how one’s audience is reacting. The pressure that arises from trying to remember the next word can be considerable, yet that pressure is entirely avoidable. The goal of public speaking should never be about loyal recreation of a script – it is about getting the appropriate response from your audience. Trying to remember an entirely scripted speech can result in the rather ironic situation of a person being able confidently and smoothly to discuss the topic in casual conversation, but still quite stressed about their ability to remember their scripted comments. Many students forget their lines while discussing topics like their families and hometowns. Of course they knew what they were talking about, but their minds were focused on the task of remembering specific words – a task different from effective speaking. So, should you write any prepared comments at all? Yes, of course ,you should. Specifically, the feedback you should be most concerned with will happen during the body of the speech – when you are discussing the substance of your presentation. It is during the body of the speech when you need especially to retain the ability to adjust to how your audience reacts. Thus, memorizing your entire speech is ultimately detrimental to your ability to react to your audience. However, during the introduction and conclusion of your speech, the primary concerns are about connecting with your audience personally; which is something best assured through consistent eye contact. So, carefully preparing the introduction and the conclusion of your speech is a smart strategy – but don’t make the mistake of scripting everything that you plan to say. The best rule here: Minimize what you memorize – familiarize instead! If I don’t train enough, of course I’m nervous. ~ Haile Gebrselassie practice out loud Remember the very first time you tried to do anything – a game, a sport, an activity, anything at all. How good were you out of the gate? Perhaps you had talent or were gifted with a “feel” for what you were doing. But even then, didn’t you get better with more experience? Nobody does anything the very best they can on their very first attempt, and everyone – even the most

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-9 talented among us – will benefit from effective practice. Speaking in public is no different from any other activity in this way. To maximize the chance that your presentation will come out smooth and polished, you will need to hear it all the way through. By practicing out loud, from the beginning to the ending, you will be able to listen to your whole speech and properly gauge the flow of your entire presentation. Additionally, without at least one complete out-loud practice, there will be no way to accurately estimate the length of your speech and your preparation will remain insufficient. When dealing with CA, the last thing you want is to leave some questions unanswered in your own mind! The out-loud “dress rehearsal” is the single, most important element to your preparation. Without it, you will be delivering your presentation in full for the first time when it counts the most. Putting yourself at that sort of disadvantage isn’t wise, and is easily avoided. Consider your current method of preparing a public presentation. At some point, you will have gathered notes and information together. That represents an opportune moment for your first out-loud practice. You might even consider trying that initial practice without the benefit of any notes. Stand up; start speaking; see what comes out! Such a practice can serve as an “oral first draft” in the same vein as any written first draft of a paper, and can answer a number of questions for you: 1. Where, during your presentation, are you most – and least – conversant? 2. Where, during your presentation, are you most in need of supportive notes? 3. What do your notes need to contain? Prepare for your public presentation by speaking and listening to yourself, rather than by writing, editing, and rewriting. Remember that when you are having a conversation, you never use the same sort of language and syntax as you do when you are writing a formal paper. Practice with the goal of becoming conversant in your topic, not fluent with a script. You can’t hire someone to practice for you. ~ H. Jackson Brown, Jr. customize your practice We’ve discussed a variety of techniques in this chapter; from the importance of out-loud practice to suggestions of when, during your preparation, you should start the out-loud practice. We’ve discussed Cognitive Restructuring as a means of changing your attitude about presenting in a positive way. Depending on your personal brand of CA, you may choose to implement these hints in different ways. Take a moment to reflect on what causes your CA. Do you dislike the feeling of being the center of attention? Are you more concerned with who is in the audience and what they might think of you? Or are you worried about “freezing” in front of the audience and forgetting what you wanted to say? Write some of these concerns down and put them into a priority order. If you are worried about a particular issue or problem, how might you prepare to minimize the chance of that issue arising? Then consider your current method of preparation. Do you prepare more for a written paper than for an oral presentation? Do you have the goal of presenting a scripted message? Do you practice out loud? When, during your process, do you practice aloud? Do you practice at all before you begin to compose your speaking notes; or do you only practice after? Remember that dealing with CA often involves the breaking of a mental habit. It is a good idea to change what you have done previously. Be deliberate. Observe what works for your situation.

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-10 Recall what was discussed at the beginning of this chapter: CA is a condition unique to each person dealing with it. CA is the result of many varied causes – some internal and personal, some external and experiential. Dealing with anxiety may be as much dealing with your attitude as with your skills, as much a struggle with perception as with ability. Because of this, you are in the best position to know how to deal with your particular brand of CA. As stated earlier in the chapter: Each individual deals with CA most effectively through increased self-awareness and a willingness to take each of the steps in the entire process. After you acknowledge your reality, then you take the steps necessary to overcome apprehension. When you’ve read about the ways to overcome the debilitating impact of CA, the next steps in your process involve seeing what works best for you. Do not continue to prepare in exactly the same way as before. Speak more; write and revise less. Be sure to practice out-loud at least once during your preparation, in order to prepare yourself sufficiently. Reflect on your personal concerns and try Cognitive Restructuring on those concerns. Take your time. Do the work. Have confidence that your preparation will yield positive results. Nothing in the affairs of men is worthy of great anxiety. ~ Plato conclusion In this chapter, we’ve discussed Communication Apprehension or CA. This difficult condition can be the result of many, varied causes. Even professional researchers don’t always agree on whether CA is inherent in the person, or the result of what the person experiences or perceives – with some calling it “trait-anxiety;” others “state-anxiety;” and still others classifying it as “scrutiny fear.” The first step for any person to address this condition is self-reflection. Try to identify what has caused you to feel the way you do about public speaking. Careful introspection can result in a more productive level of self-awareness. Whatever the root cause of CA might be for any particular individual, the first step in addressing CA is to objectively view the habitual frame of reference that has emerged in your mind regarding public speaking. Consider all those “what-if’s” that keep cropping up in your mind and how you might begin to address them productively, rather than simply to ignore them and hope they go away. Go through the steps of Cognitive Restructuring or CR. Consider how many of those “what-if’s” are nothing more than invented pressure that you place upon yourself. Relaxation techniques, such as “Breathe and Release,” have proven to be effective for many speakers, especially those concerned with the physical manifestations of nervousness like trembling hands or shaky knees. Remember that those sorts of tremors can often be exacerbated by efforts to hold still. Don’t force yourself to hold still! Relax instead. Lastly, we discussed the most effective means to prepare – which is toward the goal of becoming conversant in your topic, rather than being able to recite a memorized script. By familiarizing yourself with your topic, you become better able to consider the best way to talk to your audience, rather than becoming “married to your script” and ultimately consumed with saying the words in the right order. Practicing out-loud, without a mirror to distract you, is the best way to prepare yourself. CA is a real issue, but it need not be an obstacle to success. Take the time to become more aware of your personal brand of CA. Take positive steps to minimize its impact. Your willingness to work and your positive attitude are the keys to your success. Believe you can and you’re halfway there. ~ Theodore Roosevelt

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-11 review questions and activities review questions 1. What percentage of the general population is likely dealing with CA? 2. What are some of the potential issues or problems that can result from CA? 3. What are some of the different ways researchers classify CA? What are the differences between these ideas? 4. What are some of your sources of CA? Would you classify these as examples of trait-anxiety or state-anxiety? 5. How does Cognitive Restructuring work? Does it work the same for every person who tries it? 6. What does it mean to become conversant in your topic? 7. Why is memorizing a presentation a risky move? Is there any part of your presentation that should be memorized? activities 1. Prior to a speech, practice the following relaxation technique from Williams College (from http://wso.williams.edu/orgs/peerh/stress/relax.html): a) Tighten the muscles in your toes. Hold for a count of 10. Relax and enjoy the sensation of release from tension. b) Flex the muscles in your feet. Hold for a count of 10. Relax. c) Move slowly up through your body- legs, abdomen, back, neck, face- contracting and relaxing muscles as you go. d) Breathe deeply and slowly. After your speech, evaluate the technique. Did you find that this exercise reduced your nervousness? If so, why do you think it was effective? If not, what technique do you think would have been more effective? 2. Together with a partner or in a small group, generate a list of relaxation techniques that you currently use to relieve stress. Once you have run out of ideas, review the list and eliminate the techniques that would not work for helping you cope with nervousness before a speech. Of the remaining ideas, select the top three that you believe would help you personally and that you would be willing to try. 3. The author of this chapter says that one of the keys to overcoming nervousness is preparation. Make a list of the barriers to your own preparation process (e.g. “I don’t know how to use the library,” or “I have young children at home who make demands on my time”). Having identified some of the things that make it difficult for you to prepare, now think of at least one way to overcome each obstacle you have listed. If you need to, speak with other people to get their ideas too. glossary “Breathe and Release” This is a short-cut version of systematic de-sensitization appropriate for public speaking preparation. Cognitive Restructuring (CR) CR is an internal process through which individuals can deliberately adjust how they perceive an action or experience. Communication Apprehension CA is the anxiety resulting from fear of public speaking. Conversant Being conversant is the condition of being able to discuss an issue intelligently with others.

Chapter 11 Speaking with Confidence www.publicspeakingproject.org 11-12 Frame of Reference A frame of reference refers to the context, viewpoint, or set of presuppositions or of evaluative criteria within which a person’s perception and thinking seem always to occur; and which constrains selectively the course and outcome of these activities. Scrutiny Fear Anxiety resulting from being in a situation where one is being watched or observed, or where one perceives themselves as being watched, is known as scrutiny fear. This sort of anxiety does not necessarily involve interacting with other people. State-Anxiety State-anxiety is derived from the external situation within which individuals find themselves. Systematic De-sensitization Systematic de-sensitization is a multi-stage, therapeutic regimen to help patients deal with phobias through coping mechanisms. Trait-Anxiety Trait-anxiety is anxiety that is aligned with, or a manifestation of, an individual’s personality. references Adler, R. B., (1980). Integrating reticence management into the basic communication curriculum. Communication Education, 29, 215-221. Beatty, M.J. (1988). Public speaking apprehension, decision-making errors in the selection of speech introduction strategies and adherence to strategy. Communi-cation Education, 37, 297 – 311. Daly, J. A. & Leth, S. A., (1976), Communication Apprehension and the Personnel Selection Decision, Paper presented at the International Communication Association Convention, Portland, OR. Dwyer, K. & Cruz, A (1998), Communication Apprehension, Personality, and Grades in the Basic Course: Are There Corre-lations? Communication Research Reports, 15(4), 436 – 444. Mattick, R. P., Peters, L., & Clarke, J. C., (1989) Exposure and cognitive restructuring for social phobia: A controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 3-23. McCroskey, J. C., & Anderson, J. (1976). The relationship between communication apprehension and academic achievement among college students, Human Commu-nication Research, 3, 73-81. McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral Communication Apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4, 78-96 McCroskey, J. C. (1984). The communication apprehensive perspective. In J. A. Daly & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.), Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. McCroskey, J. C. (1976) The Problem of Communication Apprehension in the Classroom, Paper prepared for the special edition of Communication, Journal of the Communication Association of the Pacific compiled for the C.A.P. Convention (Kobe, Japan, June 1976). Menzel, K. E., &Carrell, L. J., (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking, Communication Education, 43, 17-26. Pelias, M. H. (1989). Communication apprehension in basic public speaking texts: An examination of contemporary textbooks. Commu-nication Education, 38(1), 41- 53. photo credits p.. 1 Rebiya Kadeer http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rebiya_Kadeer_Speaking_at_UN_Geneva_(3).jpg By United States Mission Geneva p. 5 Tuvalu woman speaking http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tuvalu_woman_speaking_on_the_climate_threat_her_culture_and_nation_face.jpg By Takver p. 6 Michael Jordan http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jordan_by_Lipofsky_16577.jpg By Steve Lipofsky p. 6 Woman in wheelchair http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/USMC-111028-M-ZU667-58.jpg By Cpl. Andrew D. Thorburn p. 7 Man speaking http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Middle_age.jpg By Måns Sandström p. 8 98 year-old mother of neuroscience http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NGF_%2708_Rita_Levi-Montalcini.jpg By Audrey_sel p. 9 Kellee Santiago http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kellee_Santiago_-_Game_Developers_ Conference_2010_-_Day_1.jpg By Official GDC p. 9 Two men http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kellee_Santiago_-_Game_Developers_Conference _2010_-_Day_1.jpg By Official GDC p. 10. Patrick Norton & Veronica Belmont http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Patrick_Norton_Veronica_Belmont_Tekzilla.jpg By Tyler Howarth

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Lisa Schreiber and Donna Painter Graphics. Public Speaking: The Virtual Text introduction Every day you give others information in an informal way, whether you realize it or not. You give your grandparents driving directions to your college campus. You tell your professor about a breaking news story. You teach a friend how to ride a motorcycle. You explain to your significant other your spiritual philosophy. You show a co-worker how to operate the cash register. You help your younger brother build his first Facebook page. Or you share your summer travel experience with your roommate. Without a doubt, information plays a vital role in our everyday lives. In the dictionary, the term “inform” has several meanings, including to impart knowledge; to animate or inspire; to give information or enlightenment; to furnish evidence; to make aware of something; to communicate something of interest or special importance; to give directions; and to provide intelligence, news, facts or data. When you deliver an informative speech, your primary purpose is to give your audience information that they did not already know, or to teach them more about a topic with which they are already familiar. Your ability to give informative speeches is one of the most important skills you will ever master, and it will be used both during the course of your career, and in your personal life. A pharmaceutical sales representative who can’t describe the products’ chemical composition, uses and side effects, will have trouble making a sale. A high school math teacher who can’t explain algebra in simple terms will have students who will not learn. A manager who can’t teach workers how to assemble microchips will have a department with low productivity and quality. And a little league coach who is unable to instruct players on batting and catching techniques will have a disadvantaged team. It is easy to imagine how difficult it would be to go about the business of our daily lives without the ability to give and receive information. Speeches to inform are the most common types of speeches (Gladis, 1999), so speech writers should give priority to learning how to construct them. informative speaking chapter 15 By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. Millersville University, Millersville, PA www.publicspeakingproject.org chapter objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Explain why informative speeches are important 2. Recognize the functions of informative speeches 3. Identify the main responsibilities of the informative speaker 4. List and describe the four types of informative speeches 5. Discuss techniques to make informative speeches interesting, coherent, and memorable 6. Apply chapter concepts in review questions and activities Not only is there an art in knowing a thing, but also a certain art in teaching it. ~ Cicero chapter outline • Introduction • Functions of Informative Speeches o Provide Knowledge o Shape Perceptions o Articulate Alternatives o Allow us to Survive and Evolve • Role of Speaker o Informative Speakers are Objective o Informative Speakers are Credible o Informative Speakers Make the Topic Relevant o Informative Speakers are Knowledgeable • Types of Informative Speeches o Definitional Speeches o Descriptive Speeches o Explanatory Speeches o Demonstration Speeches • Developing Informative Speeches o Generate and Maintain Interest o Create Coherence o Make Speech Memorable • Conclusion • Review Questions and Activities • Glossary • References A speaker hasn’t taught until the audience has learned.

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-2 functions of informative speeches People encounter a number of formal and informal informative presentations throughout their day, and these presentations have several consequences. First, informative presentations provide people with knowledge. When others share facts or circumstances associated with some topic, our comprehension, awareness or familiarity is increased. The speaker imparts information, and this information is turned into knowledge. A music teacher describes the difference between a note and chord as an introduction to music. When issuing a warning to a teenager, a police officer explains the nature of the moving violation. A travel agent clarifies for customers the policies for airline ticket refunds. Participants at a cultural fair are enlightened by a shaman explaining her spiritual practices. Knowledge helps us to understand the world around us, enables us to make connections, and helps us to predict the future. Second, informative presentations shape our perceptions. These presentations can affect how people see a subject by bringing it to light, or may influence what is seen as important by virtue of directing attention to the subject (Osborn & Osborn, 1991). Information helps us to interpret our experiences, it shapes our values and beliefs, it may alter our self-concept, and it gives meaning to situations. Imagine you meet your new boss, and she is very curt and pre-occupied during the first staff meeting. You may at first perceive her as being rude, unless later you find out that just before your meeting with her she learned that her father had been hospitalized with a stroke. Learning this new information allowed you to see the situation from a different perspective. In the same way, informative presentations enable us to get a sense of “the big picture” and improve our ability to think and evaluate. Some informative presentations may be aimed at helping listeners understand the number, variety, and quality of alternatives available to them (Hogan et al., 2010). Consequently, informative presentations also serve to articulate alternatives. A car sales associate might explain to you the features of one car in comparison to another car in order to help you differentiate between the models. A doctor might explain to your grandmother her treatment options for arthritis. A fitness trainer may demonstrate to you several types of exercises to help you strengthen your abdominal muscles and reduce your waistline. If you go to a temporary employment agency, a staff member may provide you will a range of job options that fit your qualifications. Successful informative presentations provide information which improves listeners’ ability to make wise decisions, because they understand all of their options (Jaffe, 1998). Finally, informative presentations enhance our ability to survive and evolve. Our existence and safety depend upon the successful communication of facts and knowledge. An informative speech “helps keep countries developing, communicates valuable and useful information in thousands of areas, and continues to change, improve or upgrade the lives of audiences” (Wilbur, 2000, p. 99). For thousands of years, cultural and technical knowledge was passed from generation to generation orally. Even today with the presence of the internet, you are still likely to get a good amount of information verbally. We have all seen “how to” YouTube videos, and although these have a significant visual components, the “experts” still have to give a verbal explanation. Through meetings, presentations and face-to-face interactions, we gain information about how to perform and improve in our jobs. To keep our children safe, we don’t give them an instruction manual, we sit down with them and explain things. All of the knowledge we accumulate while we live will be passed down to (hopefully) improve on the lives of those who come after us. Much of this information will be passed down in the form of a presentation. role of speaker Now that you understand the importance of informing others, this next section will show you the speakers’ responsibilities for preparing and presenting informative speeches. informative speakers are objective Most public speaking texts discuss three general purposes for speeches: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain. Although these general purposes are theoretically distinct, in practice, they tend to overlap. Even in situations when the occasion calls for an informative speech (one which enhances understanding), often persuasive and entertaining elements are present. First, all informative speeches have a persuasive component by virtue of the fact that the speaker tries to convince the audience that the facts presented are accurate (Harlan, 1993). Second, a well-written speech can make even the most dry, technical information entertaining through engaging illustrations, colorful language, unusual facts, and powerful visuals. All men by nature desire knowledge. ~ Aristotle Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe. ~ H. G. Wells

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-3 In spite of this caveat, when planning your informative speech your primary intent will be to increase listeners’ knowledge in an impartial way. For instance, in a speech about urban legends (Craughwell, 2000), your specific purpose statement may be: “At the end of my speech, my audience will understand what an urban legend is, how urban legends are spread, and common variations of urban legends.” The topic you choose is not as important as your approach to the material in determining whether your speech is informative or persuasive (Peterson, Stephan, & White, 1992). Can you imagine how speeches on witchcraft, stem cell research, the federal deficit, or hybrid cars could be written either to inform or persuade? Informative speeches need to be as objective, fair, and unbiased as possible. You are not asking your audience to take action or convincing them to change their mind. You are teaching them something and allowing them to decide for themselves what to do with the information. When writing your speech, present all sides of the story and try to remove all unrelated facts, personal opinions, and emotions (Westerfield, 2002). informative speakers are credible An objective approach also enhances a speaker’s credibility. Credibility, or ethos, refers to an audience’s perception that the speaker is well prepared and qualified to speak on a topic (Fraleigh & Tuman, 2011). Peterson, Stephan, and White (1992) explain that there are two kinds of credibility; the reputation that precedes you before you give your speech (antecedent credibility) and the credibility you develop during the course of your speech (consequent credibility). In many cases, the audience has no prior knowledge of the speaker, so they make judgments about the quality of the evidence and arguments in the speech. In addition, they look at and listen to the speaker to determine if s/he is a reliable source of information. Audience members have no motivation to listen to a speaker they perceive as lacking authority or credibility — except maybe to mock the speaker. To avoid this pitfall, there are at least three ways to boost your credibility as a speaker; by establishing your expertise, helping your audience identify with you, and showing you are telling the truth (see examples in Table 16.1). It seems to be common sense that we do not listen to speakers who do not know what they are talking about, who cannot relate to us, or who give the impression of being dishonest. However, in planning informative speeches, we can get so wrapped up in the topic that is easy to forget about the elements of credibility. Just remember that in order to teach, we first have to show that we are worthy of our audience’s attention. informative speakers are knowledgeable Good informative speeches contain a number of different source citations throughout the speech. To show that the information you present is accurate and complete, these sources should be up-to-date, reliable, unbiased, and directly relevant to your topic. Even if you plan to give a speech about an activity you have done all of your life, you will still need to seek out additional sources for your speech. By all means, you should cite and use your own experiences with the topic, but if you want to appear objective, you will need to show that your ideas and experiences correspond with others’. Using a variety of sound reference materials helps you appear well-informed and more trustworthy. T able 15.1 Boost Your Credibility Establish Expertise By:  Citing reputable sources  Making sure your facts are accurate  Covering your points in enough detail to demonstrate your knowledge  Revealing your personal expertise with the topic Help the Audience Identify with You By:  Wearing appropriate and attractive clothing  Mentioning what you have in common  Being friendly and enthusiastic  Relating to listeners’ situations, feelings, and motives Show You are Telling the Truth By:  Presenting both sides of an issue  Sharing what motivated you to select your topic  Having open, natural nonverbals that correspond to what you say  Approaching the speech with ethics and positive intentions for your audience In the end, you make your reputation and you have your success based upon credibility and being able to provide people who are really hungry for information what they want. ~ Brit Hume

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-4 In our information age, people are fortunate to have unlimited and free access to information on virtually any topic they can imagine via the internet. Unfortunately, in addition to the credible information, the internet contains an abundance of garbage. Good speech writers know that it is important to avoid weak or questionable sources (e.g. Wikipedia, Britannica.com or Ask.com) when constructing their speeches. Start by asking what you know, find out what the experts know, and then move to find out what information other sources can provide (Gladis, 1999). You can search your library catalogue or Amazon.com to locate books (which provide details and depth), and then check out or order these books via interlibrary loan (often free) if they are not available in your library. Explain not only how something is done, but also why it is done for a great speech (MacInnis, 2006). This variety gives a speech depth and a level of interest that cannot be achieved merely by doing a Google search and using the first five websites that pop up. For additional ideas on locating sources, “Sources of interesting information” is provided at the end of this chapter. informative speakers make the topic relevant When you are selecting your topic and thinking about what you want to accomplish in your informative speech, two factors should drive your decision. Foremost, you want to select a topic that holds a high degree of interest for you (i.e. the topic is meaningful to you). Students who feel at a loss for topic ideas should turn their attention to their own lives and activities. If you like to play video games, you might give a speech about how they are made. If you have a passion for ska reggae music, you might bring in MP3 cuts to help define the boundaries of this music genre. If you have to work three jobs to help pay for school, you could give a speech on effective time management. Genuine curiosity will make the research and preparation process easier. Further, when you have enthusiasm for a topic, it shows when you speak. On the other hand, if you do not really care about your topic, your audience is not likely to care either. In addition to having relevance for you, it is crucial that you tie your topic directly to your listeners. Early in the speech, give listeners at least one reason why they should care about your topic and the ways in which the information will be beneficial or entertaining (Morreale & Bovee, 1998). Establish-ing a motive for your audience to listen to you is commonly referred to by the acronym WIIFM – “What’s in it for me?” This is what the audience consciously or unconsciously asks when you start speaking (Urech, 1998). To establish WIIFM, you clearly link the topic to the listeners’ values, attitudes, beliefs and lifestyle. Consider not only what the audience wants to hear, but also what they need to hear (Gladis, 1999; Maxey & O’Connor, 2006). Take the topic of retirement planning as an example. Younger listeners may not perceive this as relevant to their lives when they are not yet making a steady salary. But, if you can demonstrate how investing even a small amount every month can grow to a considerable nest egg by retirement age, and that getting into the habit of saving early can lower the number of years they have to work, the topic becomes more interesting for them. Making the topic relevant for your audience can also mean that you show them how to apply the information immediately. In a speech on relaxation techniques, a speaker can lead the audience through a simple stress reduction exercise they can use at home. For a speech on handwriting analysis, listeners can be given paper, asked to write a sample sentence and shown how to interpret some points on the sample. If the audience members have laptops, a speaker can show them how to improve one of their digital photos. If listeners can use the information they learn quickly, they tend to remember it longer, and they are more likely to try the action again later (Nelson, et al., 2010). types of informative speeches In the last section we examined how informative speakers need to be objective, credible, knowledgeable, and how they need to make the topic relevant to their audience. This section discusses the four primary types of informative speeches. These include definitional speeches, descriptive speeches, explanatory speeches, and demonstration speeches. definitional speeches In definitional speeches the speaker attempts to set forth the meaning of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues that may be unfamiliar to the audience. In these types of speeches, speakers may begin by giving the historical derivation, classification, or synonyms of terms or the background of the subject. In a speech on “How to identify a sociopath,” the speaker may answer these questions: Where did the word ‘sociopath’ come from? What is a sociopath? How many sociopaths are there in the population? What are the symptoms? Carefully define your terminology to give shape to things the audience cannot directly sense. Describing the essential attributes of one concept compared to another (as through use of analogies) can increase understanding as well. For a speech on “Elderly Abuse,” the speaker may compare this type of abuse to child or spousal abuse for contrast. The cure for boredom is curiosity. There is no cure for curiosity. ~ Dorothy Parker

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-5 Regardless of the listeners’ level of knowledge about the subject, it is very important in these types of speeches to show the relevance of the topic to their lives. Often the topics discussed in definitional speeches are abstract — distanced from reality. So provide explicit, real-life examples and applications of the subject matter. If you were going to give a speech about civil rights, you would need to go beyond commonly held meanings and show the topic in a new light. In this type of speech, the speaker points out the unique and distinguishing properties or boundaries of a concept in a particular context (Rinehart, 2002). The meaning of “civil rights” has changed significantly over time. What does it mean today compared to the 1960s? How will knowing this distinction help audience members? What are some specific incidents involving civil rights issues in current news? What changes in civil rights legislation might listeners see in their lifetimes? descriptive speeches The purpose of descriptive speeches is to provide a detailed, vivid, word picture of a person, animal, place, or object. Audiences should carry away in their minds a clear vision of the subject (Osborn & Osborn, 1991). Consider this description of the Taj Mahal in Agra, India by Steve Cassidy (edited for length). To gaze in wonder at that magnificent dome and elegant gardens will be a moment that you remember for the rest of your life. The Taj Mahal just takes your breath away. What is immediately striking is its graceful symmetry – geometric lines run through formal gardens ending in a white marble platform. Atop this platform is great white bulbous dome complemented by four towering minarets in each corner. The whole image shimmers in a reflecting pool flanked by beautiful gardens – the effect is magical. The first stretch by the reflecting pool is where most people pose for their photos. But we were impressed by the fresh, green gardens. As you approach through the gardens two mosques come into view flanking the Taj – both exquisitely carved and built of red sandstone. In the descriptive speech, determine the characteristics, features, functions, or fine points of the topic. What makes the person unique? How did the person make you feel? What adjectives apply to the subject? What kind of material is the object made from? What shape is Sample Definitional Speech Outline Title: “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings (Thompson, 1999) Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will understand the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path in Buddhism Central Idea: Regardless of your religious beliefs, Buddhist philosophy teaches a number of useful lessons you can apply to your own life. I. Four Noble Truths A. All life involves dukkha (suffering) B. Suffering is caused by tanha (longing for things to be other than they are) C. If this longing stops (nirodha), suffering will cease D. The way to eliminate longing is to follow the Eightfold Path II. The Noble Eightfold Path (the Middle Way) A. Right view B. Right intention C. Right speech D. Right action E. Right livelihood F. Right effort G. Right mindfulness H. Right contemplation

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-6 it? What color is it? What does it smell like? Is it part of a larger system? Can it be seen by the naked eye? What is its geography or location in space? How has it changed or evolved over time? How does it compare to a similar object? When preparing for the speech, try to think of ways to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. As an example, in a speech about different types of curried dishes, you could probably verbally describe the difference between yellow, red, and green curry, but the speech will have more impact if the audience can see, smell, and taste samples. Sample Descriptive Speech Outline Title: Easter Island: The Navel of the World (Fischer, 2006) Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be able to visualize some of the main attractions on Easter Island. Central Idea: Easter Island hosts a number of ancient, mysterious, and beautiful attractions that make it an ideal vacation destination. I. Stone Giants – “Moai” A. Average 13 feet high; 14 tons B. Play sacred role for Rapa Nui (native inhabitants) C. Central Ahu ceremonial sites II. Coastline activities A. Beaches B. Snorkeling & Scuba C. Surfing III. Rano Kau Chilean National Park A. Giant crater B. Sheer cliffs to ocean C. Sea birds Be able to describe anything visual, such as a street scene, in words that convey your meaning. ~ Marilyn vos Savant explanatory speeches An explanatory speech (also known as a briefing) is similar to the descriptive speech in that they both share the function of clarifying the topic. But explanatory speeches focus on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and options. Whereas descriptive speeches attempt to paint a picture with words so that audiences can vicariously experience it, explanatory speeches focus on the how or why of a subject and its consequences. Thus, a speaker might give a descriptive speech on the daily life of Marie Antoinette, or an explanatory speech on how she came to her death. Recall that definitional speeches focus on delineating concepts or issues. In this case, a speaker might give a defintional speech about the Emergency Economic Stabiliztion Act of 2008, or an explanatory speech on why the financial bailout was necessary for U.S. financial stability. If a manager wanted to inform employees about a new workplace internet use policy, s/he might cover questions like: Why was a policy implemented? How will it help? What happens if people do not follow established policies? Explanatory speeches are less concerned with appealing to the senses than connecting the topic to a series of related other subjects to enhance a deep understanding (McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, & Monroe, 2000). For example, to explain the custom of the Thai wai greeting (hands pressed together as in prayer), you also need to explain how it originated to show one had no weapons, and the ways it is tied to religion, gender, age, and status. Sample Explanatory Speech Outline Title: Giant Waves, Death, and Devastation: The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (National Geographic, 2006) Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be aware of the nature of the 2004 Tsunami and the destruction it caused. Central Idea: The 2004 Asian Tsunami was one of the worst natural disasters in human history in terms of magnitude, loss of human life, and enduring impact. I. Geological event A. Earthquake epicenter and magnitude B. Tsunami forms (waves reach up to 100 feet) C. Tsunami strikes land of various countries with no warning II. Human casualties reach almost 230,000 – top 10 of all natural disasters A. The countries and people involved B. Loss of food, water, hospitals, housing, electricity, and plumbing C. Threat of disease III. Ongoing effects A. Environmental destruction B. Economic devastation C. Psychological trauma

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-7 I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. ~ Confucious demonstration speeches The most practical of all informative speeches, a demonstration speech shows listeners how some process is accomplished or how to perform it themselves. The focus is on a chronological explanation of some process (how potato chips are made), procedure (how to fight fires on a submarine), application (how to use the calendar function in Outlook), or course of action (how court cases proceed to Supreme Court status). Speakers might focus on processes that have a series of steps with a specific beginning and end (how to sell a home by yourself) or the process may be continuous (how to maintain the hard drive on your computer to prevent crashes). Demonstration speeches can be challenging to write due to the fact that the process may involve several objects, a set of tools, materials, or a number of related relationships or events (Rinehart, 2002). Nevertheless, these types of speeches provide the greatest opportunity for audience members to get involved or apply the information later. When preparing this speech, remember first to keep the safety of the audience in mind. One speaker severely burned his professor when he accidently spilled hot oil from a wok on her. Another student nearly took the heads off listeners when he was demonstrating how to swing a baseball bat. Keep in mind also that you may need to bring in examples or pictures of completed steps in order to make efficient use of your time. Just think of the way that cooking demonstrations are done on TV — the ingredients are pre-measured, the food is pre-mixed, and the mixture magically goes from uncooked to cooked in a matter of seconds. Finally, if you are having your audience participate during your presentation (making an origami sculpture), know what their knowledge level is so that you don’t make them feel unintelligent if they are not successful. Practice your speech with friends who know nothing about the topic to gauge if listeners can do what you are asking them to do in the time allotted. Sample Demonstration Speech Outline Title: How to Survive if You Get Stranded in the Wilderness (U.S. Department of Defense, 2006). Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech my audience will understand what to do if they unexpectedly become stranded in the wilderness. Central Idea: You can greatly improve your ability to stay alive and safe in the wilderness by learning a few simple survival techniques. I. Size up the situation A. Size up the surroundings B. Size up your physical and mental states C. Size up your equipment (handout “What to Include in a Survival Kit”) II. Survival Basics A. Obtaining water B. Acquiring food C. Building a fire D. Locating shelter III. Finding help A. Call or signal rescue personnel B. Wilderness navigation C. Leaving “bread crumb” trail Any subject can be made interesting, and therefore any subject can be made boring. ~ Hilaire Belloc developing informative speeches The first sections of this chapter explained the importance of informative speaking, the functions of informative speeches, the role of the informative speaker, and the four major types of informative speeches. This final section of the chapter discusses three goals in developing informative speeches and advice for increasing the effectiveness of your speech. These three goals include 1) arousing the interest of your audience, 2) presenting information in a way that can be understood, and 3) helping the audience remember what you have said (Fujishin, 2000). generate and maintain interest Use Attention-Getting Elements Before you capture the interest of an audience, you have to get their attention. As you know, attention getters are used in the introduction of a speech, but attention getters can also be used throughout your speech to maintain an audience’s attention. There are a number of techniques you can use that will naturally draw listeners’ attention (German, et al., 2010). Intensity refers to something that has a high or extreme degree of emotion, color, volume, strength or other defining characteristic. In a speech about sharks’ senses, showing how sharks smell 10,000 times better

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-8 than humans would be an example of the intensity principle. Novelty involves those things that are new or unusual. Discussing the recent invention of the flesh-eating mushroom death suit developed by Jae Rhim Lee would be novel. This suit is designed to help bodies decompose naturally above ground to avoid the use of dangerous embalming chemicals. Contrast can also be used to draw attention through comparison to something that is different or opposite. This works best when the differences are significant. If you were showing the audience how to make hot sauce, and you showed a bar graph comparing the scoville units (level of hotness) of different chili peppers, this would be contrast. Jalapenos rate at 2500 – 8000 scoville units, habaneros rate at 100,000 – 350,000, and the naga jolokia rates at 855,000 – 1,041,241. Audiences will also attend to movement or Activity. To employ this technique, the speaker can either use action words, well-chosen movements, an increased rate of speech, or s/he can show action with video. A speech describing or showing extreme sports with high levels of risk, a fast pace, or amazing stunts could be used to illustrate activity. Finally, Humor can be used to draw attention to a subject or point, but be sure that it is relevant and in good taste. In a speech about the devotion of Trekkies (Star Trek fans), you could share the example of Tony Alleyne who designed and outfitted his flat in England as a replica of the deck of the Voyager. You could also direct the audience’s attention to couples who have wedding ceremonies spoken in Klingon. Tell a Story Story telling is not only the basis for most of our entertainment; it is also one of the best ways to teach an audience (Carlson, 2005). Also known as narratives, stories typically have a beginning in which the characters and setting are introduced, a rise in action, some complication or problem, and a resolution. Stories with compelling characters can be used in a creative way to weave facts otherwise dry and technical facts together (Walters, 1995), as in a speech about preparing a space shuttle for take-off from a mouse’s perspective. Jaffe (1998) differentiates between three types of narratives that can be used in informative speeches. The first type of story is a natural reality in which natural or scientific facts are brought together in chronological accounts, as in the formation of the Grand Canyon. The second narrative involves social realities which detail historic events, and the development of cultures and institutions. The last kind of story, the ultimate reality, is focused on profound philosophical and spiritual questions like “Where do we come from?” and “What happens to us when we die?” Nursery rhymes and song lyrics familiar to the audience can also be used in an interactive way to get listeners interested in the topic (Maxey & O’Connor, 2006). In a speech about the global population explosion, you could ask audience to finish the phrase “There was an old woman who lived in a shoe…” Common commercials, lyrics to Beatles songs, holiday songs, and children’s games are universal. Commercial jingles and song lyrics also work to get the audience involved. You could start a speech on boating safety with these lyrics: Just sit right back / And you’ll hear a tale / A tale of a fateful trip / That started from this tropic port / Aboard this tiny ship (from Gilligan’s Island). Depending on the make-up of your audience, you might use lyrics from Johnny Cash, Billy Holiday, The Doors, The Beatles, Jay-Z, The Judds or the Arctic Monkeys. Just remember you probably can’t read all of the lyrics, you need to make sure the lyrics are directly linked to your topic, and you should be sure to cite the artist and song title. Just for fun, can you name the artist who sang the lyrics below? Can you think of a speech topic that would correspond to the lyrics? (Answer at the end of the chapter) Mystery Artist Money, get away. Get a good job with good pay and you’re okay. Money, it’s a gas. Grab that cash with both hands and make a stash. New car, caviar, four star daydream, Think I’ll buy me a football team. The wisest mind has something yet to learn. ~ George Santayna

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-9 Be Creative Speakers who are different are memorable (Maxey & O’Connor, 2006). To give your speech impact, be imaginative and dare to push the envelope of conformity. When you have spent time researching a topic, you may be able to envision ways to incorporate surprising facts, props or visuals that make your presentation different from others, and therefore more memorable. You could dress like a Shakespearian actor for a speech about the famous playwright. You could have the audience move their chairs and take part in a yoga demonstration. Or you might use your own audience plants to help with a speech entitled “Behind the Scenes of TV Talk Shows.” When one student got up to speak, he drew a row of houses on the blackboard and then began to drink a glass of water and speak about the life giving properties of water. After making a few comments, he threw the glass of water on the blackboard — erasing most of the houses. Then he began his speech on the devastating effects of a flood (be sure to get your professor’s permission before you do something like this!). Another student giving a speech about “Clowning” had two actual clowns wait in the hall until she was ready to bring them in and show off their make-up and costumes. The speaker was wise to have her cohorts in the room just long enough to make the point (but not the entire time which would distract from the speaker), and the audience was attentive and grateful for the variety. Hanks and Parry (1991) explain that anyone can be creative, if s/he wants to be and is willing to make the effort. For some tips on how to foster your creativity, see Table 16.2. However, you need to remember that creativity is just a tool to help you teach your audience. Do not overlook the requirements of the occasion, the content of your research, or the needs of your audience in your zeal to be creative. The worst enemy to creativity is self-doubt. ~ Sylvia Plath Stimulate Audience Intellect Most people have a genuine desire to understand the world around them, to seek out the truth, and learn how to solve problems. The role of the informative speaker is to satisfy this desire to learn and know. To illustrate our quest for knowledge, consider the success of the Discovery Channel, the Learning Channel, the History Channel, the Food Network and other educational broadcasts. So how do we appeal to the minds of listeners? Think about all of the information we encounter every day but do not have time to pursue. Think about subjects that you would like to know more about. Ask what information would be universally interesting and useful for listeners. Many people fly on airplanes, but do they know how to survive a plane crash? People also share many ordinary illnesses, so what are some common home remedies? All of the people on earth originated someplace, so who were our ancient ancestors? In addition to finding topics that relate to listeners, the information we supply should be up to date. For instance, Egypt recently had a revolution, and if you are giving a speech on travelling to the Pyramids, you should be aware of this. When you are talking about a topic that your audience is familiar with, you should share little known facts or paint the subject in a new light. In a speech about a famous person, you might depict what they are like behind the scenes, or what they were like growing up. In a speech about a new technology, you might also talk about the inventors. In a speech about a famous city, you could discuss the more infamous landmarks and attractions. create coherence Organize Logically Several types of organizational patterns are discussed in the Selecting and Arranging Main Points chapter. Using these as a starting point, you should make sure the overall logic of the speech is well thought out. If you were giving speech best suited to chronological order, but presented the steps out of order, it would be very difficult to follow. Those of you who have seen the movie Memento (which presented the sequence of events backwards), may have noticed how difficult it was to explain the plot to others. In a logical speech, the points you are trying to draw are obvious, the supporting materials are coherent and correspond exactly to the thesis, and the main points are mutually exclusive and flow naturally from start to finish. Tbale 16.2 Tips for Jump Starting Your Creativity From Everyday Creativity by Carlin Flora (2009) • Take a different way to work • Collaborate with others with complementary skills • Seek inspiration in beautiful surroundings • Start working on the problem right away • Work in a blue room (it boosts creativity) • Get a hobby or play music • Think about your problem right before falling asleep

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-10 Clarity of thought is critical in presenting information. As Peggy Noonan (1998, p. 64) argues: The most moving thing in a speech is always the logic. It’s never the flowery words and flourishes, it’s not sentimental exhortations, it’s never the faux poetry we’re all subjected to these days. It’s the logic; it’s the thinking behind your case. A good case well argued and well said is inherently moving. It shows respect for the brains of the listeners. There is an implicit compliment in it. It shows that you are a serious person and that you are talking to other serious persons. When planning your speech, ask questions like: What information needs to come first? What organizational pattern best suits the topic? What information must be shared or omitted to aid in audience understanding? What points or sub-points should be grouped together to aid listeners’ understanding? Use Simple Language One common mistake that speech writers make when they are writing their speech is to use the same language that they would use in a written document. Experienced speech writers know that simple language and ideas are easier to understand than complex ones. “Clear speaking is not an alternative to intelligent discourse, but rather an enabler of intelligent discourse” (Carlson, 2005, p. 79). Did you know that Lincoln’s Gettysburg address contains only 271 words, and 251 of these words only have one or two syllables (Hughes & Phillips, 2000)? Another benefit of using simple language is that you are less likely to trip over or mispronounce simple words. Instead of “protracted,” say “drawn out.” Instead of “conundrum,” say “puzzle.” And instead of “loquacious,” say “talkative. As you are writing your speech you also want to avoid technical jargon, slang, clichés, and euphemisms. This type of language is difficult to understand and tends to be low impact. Compare the Low Impact language column with the High Impact column in Table 16.3 above to see examples of ways to make your language more powerful. Avoid Information Overload No one is given an unlimited amount of time to speak. You can’t cover everything that there is to know about your topic. And even if you could speak forever about everything there was to know about a subject, your listeners would never be able to take it all in. Information overload occurs when a person feels that they are faced with an overwhelming amount of information, with the effect that they are unable to process it all or unable to make decision. So whether you have five minutes to give a presentation or three eight hour days, you will need to narrow and focus your speech topic and objectives. If you know that you have ten minutes to speak, you will not be able to cover “Car Maintenance for Dummies,” but you probably could give a good speech entitled “How to Change the Oil in Your Car.” When planning your speech, be sure to determine the amount of information that can reasonably be covered in the time allowed. In fact, rather than taking the entire allotted speaking time, you should get into the practice of speaking only for 90 – 95% of the time that you are given (Reynolds, 2008). More is not always better — and your audience will appreciate it if you can skillfully make your point with time to spare. Today knowledge has power. It controls access to opportunity and advancement. ~Peter Drucker Table 16.3 Simplify Your Language Low Impact High Impact Under the present circumstances Currently At the present time Now Are in agreement with Agree Due to the fact that Because Is fully operational Works In close proximity to Near Of sufficient magnitude Big enough In close proximity to Near Of sufficient magnitude Big enough In the event of If Each and every one Each In the course of During Never before or since Never Deciduous trees (jargon) Trees that lose their leaves Somnolent (jargon) Drowsy Awesome (slang) Impressive Put the bit on (slang) Borrow No brainer (cliché) Easy decision An arm and a leg Expensive Vertically challenged (euphemism) Short Gone to the great beyond (euphemism) Dead

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-11 make your speech memorable Build in Repetition Audience retention is determined by a number of factors including listeners’ interest, knowledge, physical and emotional state, level of stress, background, and other competing demands (Fujishin, 2000). One way to help your audience remember the content of your speech is by repetition (Hughes & Phillips, 2000). There are three ways to incorporate repetition into your speech. The first form repetition involves restating your main points in your introduction, body and conclusion. When you do this, you will restate your points using different language — not repeat the points word for word. The second form of repetition is where a word or a phrase is repeated in a poetic way, either throughout the speech or at a critical point in the speech. One example of this would be Abraham Lincoln’s “government of the people, by the people, for the people.” Another example can be found in Sojourner Truth’s speech, delivered in 1851 at a women’s rights convention. … That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man – when I could get it – and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain’t I a woman? The final way to use repetition in your speech is through nonverbal communication. When you say the word “four” and you hold up four fingers, or when you verbally agree with a point and nod your head at the same time, you are reinforcing the idea verbally and nonverbally. Appeal to Different Ways of Learning Individuals have different learning styles, so some people are visual [V] learners, some are aural [A] learners, some learn by reading [R] and writing, and some learn kinesthetically [K] (Fleming, 2001). You can test your own learning style at www.vark-learn.com. Understanding your own and others’ learning styles is useful for two reasons. First, you will find that you tend to teach others using your own learning style. Second, regardless of your own learning styles, you need to appeal to as many different learning styles as possible in your informative speech. To see how each learning style prefers to be taught, see the table below. Unfortunately, since the ear alone is a very poor information gathering device, steps must be taken to improve retention. Typically listeners only retain only a small fraction of what is explained to them verbally. The first way to enhance retention is to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. Studies show that audiences retain 20 percent of what they hear, 30 percent of what they see, and 50 percent of what they hear and see (Westerfield, 2002). When the audience has an opportunity to do something (adding the kinesthetic sense), their retention increases to 80 percent (Walters, 1995). Or, if participation is not possible, a handout will raise retention to an impressive 85 percent – if the audience can review the handout at least once (Slutsky & Aun, 1997). Another way to help your listeners remember is by the use of techniques like association, linking the new topic to things that the audience knows about Table 16.4 The VARK Model of Learning Learning Style Approach the Learner With… Visual Learners Maps, charts, graphs, diagrams, brochures, flow charts, highlighters, different colors, pictures, word pictures, and different spatial arrangements Aural Learners Explanations of new ideas, large and small group discussions, lectures, audio recordings, stories, and jokes Read/Write Learners Lists, essays, reports, textbooks, definitions, printed handouts, readings, manuals, and web pages Kinesthetic Learners Field trips, hands-on projects, sensory stimulations, laboratories, recipes and solutions to problems, and collections of samples From Hawk and Shaw (2007, p. 7)and Fleming (2001).

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-12 or already understands. If you were giving a speech about rugby, you might compare it to soccer and football to help the audience understand the rules. The use of acronyms also aids retention. On the “Krusty Krab Training Video” episode of Spongebob Squarepants (a spoof on corporate training videos), they use the acronym “POOP.” When I asked my then eight-year-old son if he remembered (several weeks after watching the episode) what “POOP” stood for, he immediately and correctly answered “People Order Our Patties.” The final technique to help audiences remember information is the simplicity criterion. Information is best retained when it is explained from top to bottom (rather than bottom to top), when events are presented from first to last (rather than last to first), and when information is presented in the positive voice (rather than in the negative voice) (Devito, 1981). Use Visuals Visual aids can be a very powerful and efficient way to present facts that might otherwise be difficult to convey verbally. The benefits of visuals used for informative speeches include increasing interest, understanding, retention, and the speed at which your audience can understand complex facts. We live in a mediated culture, where people are visually oriented. This means that they expect to be visually stimulated with pictures, graphs, maps, video images and objects. Speakers who do not make use of visuals may be at a disadvantage when compared to speakers who use them. This is assuming of course that the visuals enhance what you are saying and that you use them well. As you know, plenty of people use Power Point, and it does not necessarily make their speech better or more memorable. Perhaps the best reason to use visuals aids during an informative speech is to help your audience understand a concept that may be difficult to understand just by explaining it. In a speech about heart bypass surgery, would it be better to verbally describe the parts of the human heart, or to show a picture of it? How about a model of the heart? How about an actual human heart? Be sure to consider your audience! What if your speech is about an abstract concept that does not lend itself well to slick graphic representations? One way trainers get their audiences involved and make their presentations memorable is to provide handouts which the listeners complete (in part) themselves. You could use fill-in-the blank statements (where you provide the answer), open-ended questions where listeners can write their thoughts, and activities like matching or crossword puzzles. Regardless of the type of visual media you select for your speech, just make sure that it does not overpower you or the subject. Work to keep the audience’s attention on you and what you are saying, and use the visual to complement what you have to say. Only one person in a million becomes enlightened without a teacher’s help. ~ Bodhidharma conclusion The primary goal of informative speaking is to increase listeners’ knowledge so they can better understand the world around them and can make more informed decisions. Discussing the impact a speaker can have on an audience, Perry Wilbur (2000, p. 99) explains: Always keep in mind that if your talk helps just one listener in your audience, it has been successful. It is far more likely to have an impact on a number of listeners in your audiences. That is one of the real powers of spoken communication. Develop skill for getting the material across to audiences, and you can and will change lives for the better and make a worthy contribution as a speaker. Informative speaking is a crucial skill that, if developed, will help you be more successful in both your personal life and your professional career. When constructing an informative speech, you should strive to be objective, spend time developing your credibility, demonstrate that you have done your research, and link your subject to the lives of the listeners. There are four main types of informative speeches. Definitional speeches present the meanings of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues. Descriptive speeches provide detailed word pictures of people, animals, places, or objects. Explanatory speeches report events, customs, transformations, inventions,, policies, outcomes or options. Demonstration speeches show listeners how some process is done or how to do it themselves. Several techniques can be used by speakers to increase the effectiveness of their informative speech. Speakers can arouse interest by using attention getting elements, telling a story, adding creative features, and stimulating the intellect of the audience. Speakers can create coherence through logical organization, the use of simple language, and by avoiding information overload. Finally, a speaker can make a speech more memorable via repetition, appealing to different ways of learning, and by using visuals appropriately. If you have knowledge, let others light their candles at it. ~Margaret Fuller

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-13 chapter review questions and activities review questions 1. For each of the characters described below, what types of informative speeches might each person be called upon to give in her or his personal and professional life? List as many as you can think of for each. A. Stacy is an emergency room physician and medical school professor. She also serves on the board of directors for a local college. For recreation she enjoys rock climbing. B. Rick is an animal control officer who volunteers his time at both the animal shelter and the local Habitat for Humanity group. He is in a bowling league with other city employees. C. Akiko is in insurance sales and volunteers in the math classroom at her children’s middle school. As a hobby, she collects and sells antiques. 2. Early in the module, the importance of credibility was discussed. Can you think of any presentations you heard where you DID NOT feel that the speaker had credibility? What did the speakers do and/or say to make you think they lacked credibility? If you were to give these speakers advice on how to improve their credibility, what would you say? 3. The chapter states that speakers need to be objective, credible, knowledgeable and that they need to make the topic relevant to the audience. Rank these responsibilities in order from most to least important, and then explain your ranking. 4. Imagine you are giving an informative speech on ______________ [you fill in the blank]. How would you apply each of the five attention getting techniques — intensity, novelty, contrast, activity and humor — in your speech? Make note of at least one idea for each technique. 5. After you have selected a topic for your informative speech, answer the questions below to help determine ways to orient your topic to your audience. Questions adapted from Ulloth and Alderfer, (1998b, pp. 61 – 62). A. How much information does your audience already have about your topic? B. What social or cultural influences of audience members might affect their reaction to your topic? C. How can your topic be made interesting if the audience has no knowledge or apparent interest in it? D. Are there any mental, physical, or emotional factors in the audience that may affect their response to your speech? E. What do you want your audience to understand after you have delivered your speech? Answers to song lyrics question on page 8: Mystery Artist: Pink Floyd “Money” from Dark Side of the Moon

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-14 activities 1. The list directly below includes a number of potential sources for your informative speech (Walters, 1995; Ulloth & Alderfer, 1998; Slutsky & Aun, 1997). Using this list for ideas, which of these potential sources could be used in the research process for each of the following speech topics? speech topics Tattoos Making great BBQ Bruce Lee Action figure collecting Music piracy Decorating on a budget Free local activities Auctions Creating a web site sources of interesting materials 2. Use the list of potential informative speech topics below to complete the steps of this activity. A. Which of the topics listed below might also be used for a persuasive speech? B. For each of the four different types of informative speeches (Definitional, Descriptive, Explanatory, Demonstration), identify three topics that would be appropriate to use for each type of speech. C. At this point, you should have twelve topics listed — three each under each type of speech. Now, take one topic from each of the four groups and generate a specific purpose statement and three potential main points. You will have four different speeches, each with their own specific purpose and main points. potential speech topics • Adventure vacations • The Alamo • Alternatives to chemo therapy • Boating safety • Building a pond • Changing the oil in your car • Characteristics of successful managers • Cultural changes resulting from 9/11 • Diamond selection • Ghandi’s achievements • Hospice care • Hot air balloons • How a meteor killed the dinosaurs • How to set up a wireless network • Illicit drug policy • Matching dog breeds with owners • Orchids • Ramadan • Robots for the home • Space vacations • Using Power Point effectively • Unemployment and the economy • What to do when your identity is stolen• Libraries • Bookstores • Used book stores • Video stores • Music stores • Reference books • Phone books (use for experts and specialized businesses) • Schools and colleges (where your topic is taught or researched) • Magazines and newsletters • Trade associations and publications • Special interest clubs and groups • People selling products and services • Research departments of television stations and newspapers • Objects related to the subject • Museums • Computer search engines and data bases (on and off campus) • Other sources (e.g. specialized stores, friends, colleagues, educational videos)

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 15-15 glossary Activity The use of action words, physical or visual movement, or faster rate of speech to draw the audience’s attention. Attention Getter A device or technique used to gain the audience’s attention in the introduction or keep the audience’s attention during the course of a speech. Contrast An attention getting technique whereby supporting ideas are compared to emphasize difference. Credibility Refers to the audience’s perception of the speaker’s expertise, authenticity, and trustworthiness. Definitional Speech A type of speech in which the speaker attempts to explain or identify the essential qualities or components of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues. Demonstration Speech A speech that shows listeners how some process is accomplished or how to perform it themselves. Descriptive Speech A speech that provides a detailed, vivid, word picture of a person, animal, place, or object. Explanatory Speech Also known as a briefing, the focus of this speech is on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes, and options. General Purpose The speaker’s overall goal, objective, or intent: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. Humor The use of amusing or comical facts, stories, or forms of expression to maintain an audience’s attention. Information Overload An overwhelming feeling of being faced with so much information one cannot completely process it. Informative Speech A speech in which the primary purpose is to provide the audience with information that they did not already know, or to teach them more about a topic with which they are already familiar. Intensity Supporting material that is characterized by a high degree of emotion, color, volume, strength, or other defining characteristic. Novelty Very recent or unusual supporting ideas. WIIFM An acronym that stands for “What’s in it for me?” This is the question that listeners ask themselves when they begin to listen to a speech. Listeners want to know; What does this speech have to do with my life? Is this information useful to me? Is the speaker talking about something I already know? Is the subject interesting? Why should I pay attention?

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Colorado Springs, CO: Piccadilly Books, Ltd. photo credits P. 3 Aztec Speaker by Orin Zebest http://www.flickr.com/photos/orinrobertjohn/1796533234/ P. 12 Beauty Undressed by Shannon Cutts http://www.flickr.com/photos/40940503@N05/4982554199/in/photostream/ http://www.key-to-life.com/programs

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