Is social media having a positive or detrimental impact on lone-wolf terrorist tendencies?
Research Question- Is social media having a positive or detrimental impact on lone-wolf terrorist tendencies?
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Lone-Wolf Terrorism and Social Media
A master’s thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University Systems
By
Sarah Barajas
In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts in Homeland Security
June 2023
Capstone Professor:
Dr. Lorrie Flores
TOPIC: Social Media Impact on lone-wolf terrorism.
Research Question: Is social media having a positive or detrimental impact on lone-wolf terrorist tendencies?
Literature Review
Introduction
Lone-wolf terrorism includes a significant problem for counterterrorism efforts due to its decentralized form and the challenges of identifying and securing individual attacks. Lone-wolf terrorism has developed as a substantial security concern in the present years. With the increase of social media platforms, there are growing concerns about their function in facilitating and influencing lone-wolf terrorist tendencies. This literature review analyzes the existing research on the effect of social media on lone-wolf terrorism on critical themes such as social media as a source of radicalization, social media as a tool for mobilization, and social media as a mode of operationalization. Also, the literature review aims to examine the existing scholarly study on the topic and explore whether social media has a positive and detrimental impact on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations.
The Impact of Social Media on the Radicalization of Lone-Wolf Terrorists
In order to shed light on the prevalence of lone-wolf attacks, notably in the United States, Spaaij’s study thoroughly examines the key characteristics and patterns of lone-wolf terrorism in fifteen different nations. Spaaij, R. (2010) investigates the mystery of lone-wolf terrorism and social media’s role in the radicalization process. Given that lone-wolf terrorism has increased in frequency in the US relative to the other countries under consideration, the study stresses the necessity to comprehend the overall context of this phenomenon. This predominance shows that during the past three decades, lone-wolf terrorism has significantly increased in the United States. However, the report also points out that there wasn’t comparable growth in the other nations it looked at. In order to fully understand how social media affects lone-wolf terrorism, it is essential to consider the several channels via which people can be radicalized. Social media platforms have become vital venues for spreading extremist ideology, bringing like-minded people together, and possibly fostering lone-wolf radicalization.
The study by Spaaij lays a framework for comprehending the intricate interactions between lone-wolf terrorism and social media. It draws attention to the necessity for research into how social media might aid in the radicalization process and the dissemination of extremist information. Despite the study’s lack of a social media focus, its examination of the characteristics and trends of lone-wolf terrorism can aid researchers in making linkages between social media use and lone-wolf inclinations. Future research should examine the precise mechanisms by which social media affects lone-wolf terrorist preferences, building on Spaaij’s conclusion. It is crucial to consider how people engage with extremist information on social media platforms, how online networks contribute to the spread of radical ideas, and the possibility of algorithmic amplifying of extremist narratives. Policymakers, law enforcement organizations, and social media firms can create plans to lessen the impact of social media on lone-wolf terrorism by recognizing these processes. Targeted interventions can concentrate on keeping an eye on and combating extremist information, boosting digital literacy and critical thinking abilities, and cultivating tolerant and resilient online networks.
In order to comprehend the prevalence of lone-wolf terrorism and its link to social media, particularly in the United States, Spaaij’s evaluation offers helpful background information. In order to build effective countermeasures to social media’s negative effects, further research is needed to explore the mechanisms by which it affects the tendencies of lone-wolf terrorists. We may work toward a better and more secure society by addressing the mystery of lone-wolf terrorism and its connection to social media.
The report by Hamm and Spaaij also focuses on how lone-wolf terrorists in America become radicalized, focusing on the importance of understanding these pathways to create successful prevention initiatives. This source examines radicalization to reveal how social media may influence lone-wolf terrorists. Understanding lone-wolf terrorists’ multiple paths is stressed in the research. It acknowledges that radicalization involves many social, ideological, and personal factors. Policymakers and practitioners can target lone-wolf radicalization vulnerabilities and risk factors by understanding these routes.
Internet platforms are becoming increasingly important in radicalization, but the study does not solely focus on them. Social media is a powerful instrument for propagating radical ideas, uniting like-minded people, and creating an echo chamber. Creating successful preventative and intervention strategies requires understanding how social media interacts with other elements in the radicalization process. The study emphasizes how social media may contribute to lone-wolf radicalization. It implies that social media sites could act as echo chambers, amplifying extremist narratives while giving users a virtual arena to affirm and reinforce their radical ideologies. Additionally, social media can provide lonely or disenfranchised people with a sense of connection and belonging, thereby luring them into extremist networks.
The paper by Hamm and Spaaij urges a thorough and integrated approach to prevention to counter social media’s impact on lone-wolf terrorism. In order to build cooperative tactics that undermine the allure of extremist content and encourage resilience against radicalization, this approach requires involving a wide range of stakeholders, including law enforcement, social media corporations, schools, and community organizations. Further investigation should focus on the precise mechanisms by which social media affects lone-wolf terrorist inclinations, building on the insights offered by this article. This entails looking at the methods used to spread extremist information, the part played by algorithms in promoting radicalizing content, and how social media platforms might be used for effective intervention and counter-messaging campaigns.
Research should also look into the possibility of collaborations between social media businesses and law enforcement organizations to identify and counteract online radicalization. The creation of sophisticated algorithms and AI-based technologies to recognize and flag extremist content, as well as the execution of targeted interventions to steer people away from radical ideas, are examples of such collaborations.
In order to develop successful preventative efforts, it is crucial to comprehend the radicalization pathways taken by lone-wolf terrorists in America, as demonstrated by Hamm and Spaaij’s report. The research acknowledges social media’s role in the radicalization process despite not being solely focused on it. The development of thorough preventative and intervention strategies that address the intricate interactions between online platforms and radicalization should be guided by future research into the precise processes by which social media affects the motivations of lone-wolf terrorists. By using this knowledge, society may endeavor to create a safer and more resilient community while successfully combating the impact of social media on lone-wolf terrorism.
Use of Social Media to Spread Extremist Content
The article by (Aldera et al., 2021) explores social media’s function as a wave carrier for radical ideologies, concentrating on its impact on millenarianism. The study sheds insight on the potential of social media to foster radical views among people prone to lone-wolf terrorist inclinations by examining how social media platforms facilitate the quick diffusion of extremist content. The article focuses on the distinctive features of social media that make it a powerful vehicle for disseminating extremist information. Extremist organizations may spread their ideology and gather supporters globally with an appreciation of social media platforms’ nearly endless reach. Social media is the perfect platform for spreading extremist propaganda due to the speed at which material can be communicated and the capacity to target particular audiences.
The term “millenarian contagion,” which refers to the contagious dissemination of apocalyptic narratives and beliefs through social media platforms, is stressed by (Aldera et al., 2021). These stories, which are frequently accompanied by violent photographs, videos, and testimonies, can enthrall impressionable people, and encourage their engagement with extremist ideology. Social media’s interactive features further increase the power of millenarian contagion since users may actively engage in conversations, distribute content, and contribute to spreading radical ideas.
(Aldera et al., 2021) Research focuses on the use of social media in terrorist organizations’ propaganda campaigns, focusing on how women are portrayed. This study demonstrates how social media platforms spread extremist narratives and target particular demographics, potentially affecting people susceptible to lone-wolf radicalization. The study also conducts a textual analysis of the propaganda materials spread, investigating the use of social media platforms to portray and recruit women for the extremist cause. The researchers highlight how female terrorists are strategically portrayed as role models on social media, highlighting their purported strength and autonomy within the extremist narrative. Social media platforms are vital for radicalizing and recruiting people, especially potential lone-wolf terrorists, by emphasizing the role played by women in violent acts and their contributions to the group’s ideological objectives.
The study highlights the effectiveness of social media as a tool for targeting particular demographics and adjusting extremist propaganda to their interests and objectives (Aldera et al., 2021). Extremist groups can attract and radicalize individuals into the ranks of lone-wolf terrorists by taking advantage of social media’s micro-targeting capabilities to connect with people who could be at risk of becoming radicalized.
While each of these studies focuses on a different facet of social media’s involvement in spreading extremist information, they demonstrate how important online platforms are in fostering radical ideologies and shaping the tendencies of lone-wolf terrorists. Social media has more potential to fuel lone-wolf radicalization due to its capacity to spread extremist views quickly, engage users in interactive debates, and target particular groups.
Future research should investigate how people interact with extremist content online, the role of algorithms in promoting radicalizing content, and the potential for counter-messaging efforts to counteract the influence of extremist propaganda in order better to understand the dynamics between social media and lone-wolf terrorism. Policymakers, law enforcement organizations, and social media firms can create more effective preventative and intervention measures by acquiring a more thorough understanding of the precise tactics used by extremist groups on social media and their effect on lone-wolf radicalization.
As a result, Aldera et al.’s study shows the importance of social media as a vehicle for spreading extremist content. Social media platforms’ capacity to quickly disseminate extremist ideology, target particular groups, and engage users in interactive discussions helps people who are prone to lone-wolf terrorist inclinations reinforce their extreme convictions. Understanding how social media works and how it affects the spread of extremist narratives enables society to adopt methods to prevent their adverse effects and promote resilience against lone-wolf radicalization.
Lone-wolf terrorism and online groups
The (Williams et al., 2023) study adds to our understanding of lone-wolf terrorism by offering insightful information about the motives and preceding actions of lone-actor terrorists. This research underlines the need to understand the social networks and potential effects that lone-wolf terrorists may connect with, including those found in virtual settings, despite not being specifically focused on online communities.
Through a thorough investigation of 120 lone-actor terrorism cases, the study investigates the traits and behavioral tendencies of lone-actor terrorists. The results show that personal grudges, ideological motivations, and psychological factors frequently combine to cause lone-actor terrorists to commit violent attacks. These people could feel socially isolated or marginalized and seek acceptance and affirmation in groups with the same extreme beliefs.
The study highlights the significance of comprehending the social ties that lone-actor terrorists develop, even though it does not expressly address the impact of social media. Online communities can act as venues for people to engage, disseminate extremist material, and strengthen their radical ideologies. Although conventional offline social networks have contributed to radicalization, the rise of social media has increased the possibility for online communities to act as a spark for lone-wolf terrorism. Scholars can investigate the potential impact of social media and online networks on lone-wolf terrorism to understand better the processes that lead to radicalization. It is imperative to look into how people interact with extremist content online, how social networks help people connect and get radicalized, and how online groups affect the spread and reinforcement of extremist ideology.
Social media platforms offer possible channels for counter-messaging and intervention and chances for lone-wolf terrorists to interact with like-minded people and access extremist content. Practitioners and politicians may stop the echo chambers that might feed lone-wolf terrorist tendencies by focusing on online networks and interacting with people who are susceptible to radicalization. Critical tactics for reducing the effect of social media on lone-wolf terrorism include spotting and tracking the distribution of extremist content, acting against online radicalization narratives, and promoting constructive alternatives. Future studies should better examine the specific dynamics of online radicalization processes to understand the connection between online communities and lone-wolf terrorism. Analyzing how people utilize online communities to connect with radical groups or views, how social media algorithms impact online communities, and how online community projects work.
Thus, while Williams et al.’s study (Williams et al., 2023) does not expressly address social media, it emphasizes the necessity to understand lone-actor terrorists’ social networks and influences. To understand lone-wolf terrorism, social media and internet networks must be examined. Future research should examine the mechanisms of online radicalization and develop social media strategies to fight its harmful effects and discourage lone-wolf radicalization.
Social Media as a Mobilization Tool
Lone-wolf terrorists use social media to feel accepted, motivated, recognized, and instructed on how to plan and execute attacks. Auer & Fine (2017) details how social media makes this possible. Lone-wolf terrorists use social media to feel connected. Internet communities can validate lone-wolf terrorist views. They’re often lonely. Social media platforms build online communities where people can meet other radicals who share their ideologies, strengthening such ideologies. These networks provide emotional support and inspire action.
Lone-wolf terrorists can find motivation for their acts on these internet networks. Platforms for social media allow for the quick transmission of extremist content, such as speeches, manifestos, and propaganda. Individuals may get radicalized and acquire a feeling of purpose or mission through exposure to such information. According to a study by Auer and Fine (2017), social media plays a significant role in amplifying the influence of charismatic extremist leaders who utilize these platforms to spread their ideology and inspire violence. Social media sites also give lone-wolf terrorists a chance to gain popularity and exposure. Attackers acting alone are frequently driven by a craving for attention and a desire to leave their mark. They can gain support and attention by posting their extreme ideologies, plans, or manifestos on social media, which allows them to gain admirers and supporters. Some of these individuals might look up to former lone-wolf terrorists and try to replicate their behavior, which would serve to continue the cycle of violence.
Social media gives lone-wolf terrorists a forum to get advice on attack planning and execution, inspiration, and recognition. According to (Auter & Fine, 2017), social media platforms can act as virtual training grounds where people can obtain in-depth knowledge on a variety of subjects, such as weapon assembly, bomb-making methods, and target choice. Lone-wolf terrorists can now learn knowledge and abilities that were previously unreachable to persons operating alone thanks to online tutorials, forums, and encrypted communication channels. It is crucial to remember that while social media significantly contributes to recruiting lone-wolf terrorists, it is not the only deciding factor. Other offline elements affecting radicalization and mobilization include individual grievances, psychological weaknesses, and exposure to real-world extremist networks. Although it serves as a catalyst and amplifier for spreading extremist ideology, social media is not the primary driver of lone-wolf terrorism.
As a result, by giving lone-wolf terrorists a sense of belonging, validation, inspiration, recognition, and guidance, social media platforms have become efficient instruments for mobilizing them. Through these forums, people can communicate with other extremists who share their views, get motivation for their deeds, get attention for what they do, and learn how to organize and carry out attacks. In order to create counterterrorism tactics that consider the function of social media in lone-wolf terrorism, it is essential to comprehend these mechanisms.
Social media as a method of operationalization,
Social networking sites are essential in operationalizing lone-wolf terrorism because they give users access to vital data, strategies, tools, and targets. Lone-wolf terrorists’ operationalization of their operations has changed due to social media’s accessibility to content and extensive distribution of information. Giving people unrivaled access to information about tactics and plans is one of the main ways social media helps operationalize. In the past, it was frequently difficult for lone-wolf terrorists to learn all the specifics of how an attack was planned and carried out. Social media platforms, however, have altered this environment by enabling users to share and access a multitude of terrorism-related material. Social media sites provide instructional videos, manuals, and guidelines on various terrorist tactics, such as how to make bombs, put together weapons, and conduct surveillance. These platforms enable those who previously had such resources by offering comprehensive graphics and step-by-step guidance.
Additionally, social media acts as a forum for propagating extremist ideology, guiding and inspiring lone-wolf terrorists. Extremist leaders actively promote their ideology and provide tactical guidance to potential lone-wolf attackers through their online presence. These leaders spread their thoughts, gather followers, and offer operational direction through social media. They can sway impressionable people and incite them to commit lone-wolf attacks through posts, videos, and live-streamed content. Social media websites also allow lone-wolf terrorists to find potential targets. Attackers can acquire information and monitor potential targets thanks to the open nature of social media profiles and posts. Lone-wolf terrorists can find vulnerable or symbolic targets that support their extremist views by examining the online activity and personal information posted by individuals. Social media platforms also enable communication between people with similar interests, facilitating the exchange of strategic conversations and target recommendations.
The study by Möller et al. (2019) emphasizes the importance of social media in making lone-wolf assaults more operationalized. The study shows how social media platforms give terrorists a virtual area to exchange useful information, organize actions, and hone their operational strategies. In order to effectively combat lone-wolf terrorism, Berger’s findings highlight the significance of comprehending the online interactions and networks developed on social media platforms. Even though social media has boosted the operationalization of lone-wolf attacks, it is essential to remember that other factors also contribute to their execution. Lone-wolf terrorists frequently act out of personal animosities or pre-existing extreme ideology. Social media platforms serve as enablers by giving users the resources, contacts, and information they need to implement their ideas.
As a result, social media platforms have changed how lone-wolf terrorism is operationalized by giving people access to knowledge, strategies, tools, and targets. These forums provide advice from extremist leaders, broadcast comprehensive instructions on attack preparation and execution, and make it easier to find possible targets. Developing effective counterterrorism policies that consider the difficulties presented by online platforms requires an understanding of the role played by social media in the operationalization of lone-wolf operations.
Conclusion
The literature already in existence offers a variety of viewpoints on how social media affects lone-wolf terrorism. While some studies point to the possibility that social media can aid in spreading extremist ideas and radicalization, other research highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of online networks’ role in lone-wolf terrorism. This study of the literature intends to advance knowledge of how social media affects the propensities of lone-wolf terrorists while also laying the groundwork for future investigation. Future studies can build on the current understanding and answer the research question: Does social media influence lone-wolf terrorist inclinations beneficially or destructively? By considering the themes and insights offered in this study.
Reference
Aldera, S., Emam, A., Al-Qurishi, M., Alrubaian, M., & Alothaim, A. (2021). Online extremism detection in textual content: A systematic literature review. IEEE Access, 9, 42384–42396. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3064178
Auter, Z. J., & Fine, J. A. (2017). Social Media Campaigning: Mobilization and fundraising on Facebook. Social Science Quarterly, 99(1), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12391
Hamm, M., & Spaaj, R. (n.d.). Lone Wolf Terrorism in America: Using Knowledge of Radicalization Pathways to Forge Prevention Strategies. Retrieved from www.opj.gov
Möller, J., van de Velde, R. N., Merten, L., & Puschmann, C. (2019). Explaining online news engagement based on browsing behavior: Creatures of habit? Social Science Computer Review, 38(5), 616–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319828012
Spaaij, R. (2010). The enigma of lone wolf terrorism: An assessment. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(9), 854–870.
Williams, T. J., Tzani, C., & Ioannou, M. (2023). Foreshadowing terror: Exploring the time of online manifestos prior to Lone Wolf attacks. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610x.2023.2205973
Lone-Wolf Terrorism and Social Media
A master’s thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University Systems
By
Sarah Barajas
In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts in Homeland Security
July 2023
Capstone Professor:
Dr. Lorrie Flores
I. Introduction
A. Background and Importance
In years, the globe has seen a disturbing increment in lone-wolf terrorism, in which people commit horrendous acts freely and without coordinated joins to set up terrorist organizations. Due to their decentralized character and difficulties in discovering and preventing such activities, lone-wolf attacks are callous for law enforcement and security authorities. While lone-wolf terrorism has been under study, the role of social media in influencing and intensifying this problem remains a significant worry.
Social media channels have evolved into modern civilization, connecting billions worldwide. These platforms enable users to communicate socially, share information, and express their thoughts. However, extreme people and organizations have increasingly used them to distribute information and attract new members. The possible influence of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations is a critical issue that needs further investigation.
Rise of Lone-Wolf Terrorism
Lone-wolf terrorism offers a severe security problem since it deviates from established terrorist institutions and techniques. These individuals radicalized online, consuming extremist views and interacting with like-minded others via social media (Borum Chattoo, et al 2019). The changing nature of psychological warfare and the expanding event of lone-wolf strikes over a long time requires intensive information on the components that contribute to such acts, counting the effect of social media.
The Role of Social Media in Contemporary Society
Social media stages like Facebook and others have changed how people connect, get data and interface. These systems provide users unparalleled connection, enabling worldwide real-time communication and networking. Social media’s broad use has dissolved conventional boundaries and can affect people’s behaviors and opinions.
The gap in the Literature Regarding the Specific Impact of Social Media on Lone-Wolf Terrorist Tendencies
several considerations to consider regarding the relationship between social media and psychological warfare are online; there is a considerable crevice within the writing around the particular impact of social media on lone-wolf terrorist proclivities. By exploring how social media promotes lone-wolf terrorist inclinations, this study fills a vital need. The outcomes of this research will help to design successful counterterrorism methods and policies worldwide by shedding light on the role of social media in shaping lone-wolf terrorist behaviours.
B. Research Question and Objectives
The Main Research Question
How does social media influence lone-wolf terrorist tendencies, and what are the underlying mechanisms of this influence?
Specific Objectives and Goals of the Study
To investigate the link between social media use and lone-wolf terrorist activity.
To discover trends and themes in social media information that might lead to lone-wolf radicalization.
To learn how lone-wolf terrorists communicate with internet extremist networks.
This study investigates the effect of echo chambers and automated suggestion systems in propagating extreme beliefs on social media.
The impact of social media on radicalization, case studies of lone-wolf terrorists and their online presence will be examined by the analysis.
C. Justification for the Theoretical Framework
Relevance of Social Learning Theory in Understanding Social Media Impact
The social learning theory created by Albert Bandura is excellent at considering the impacts of social media on solitary warrior propensities (Dauber, C. E., et al 2019). This theory emphasizes that people learn and acquire behaviour through observing, copying, and modelling others. Applying this hypothesis to social media recommends that users, including potential solitary terrorists, may be impacted by the activities and belief systems of others on those platforms. Through social learning, lone terrorists can observe and copy their peers’ and influential figures’ extremist content, belief system, and strategies.
Social media gives fertile ground for engaging with such substance, permitting clients to get to a vast extent of radical importance associated with people with comparative convictions. The strengthening of extremist discourses and ideologies in online communities further increases the potential for radicalization (Borum Chattoo, et al 2019). This research attempts to apply social learning theory frameworks to understand better social media’s role in the radicalization of lone wolves. This theory focuses on observational learning and imitation, mainly devoted to lone terrorists who act in isolation and often draw inspiration from online sources. Analyzing the impact of social learning mechanisms on stigma against isolated terrorism could shed light on how social media contributes to exacerbating extremist violence.
D. Significance and Implications of the Study
Contribution to the Field of Counterterrorism and International Security
The outcomes of this study will shed light on the intricate link between social media and lone-wolf terrorism inclinations. The research will add to a more nuanced understanding of the processes at work in the digital sphere by filling a gap in the existing research about the specific influence of social media on lone-wolf radicalization. Understanding how social media influence lone-wolf terrorists might help security agencies and policymakers build focused and successful counterterrorism efforts—recognizing the significance of social learning processes and online echo chambers to block the spread of extremist information and prevent vulnerable individuals from becoming radicalized.
Potential Policy Recommendations Based on Research Findings
Findings about how social media influences lone-terrorism tendencies could lead to evidence-based policy recommendations. It includes:
Strengthen social media platform policies and algorithms to quickly detect and remove extremist content.
We are working with technology companies to develop tools to detect potential signs of lonely radicalization early.
Implement educational programs to raise awareness of the dangers of online radicalization and the importance of critical media consumption.
Research can support international cooperation to address the global challenge of individualized terrorism. Employing a social learning theory framework in this study to analyze the impact of social media on lone warrior propensity has great potential to advance our understanding of this complex issue.
II. Literature Review
A. Lone-Wolf Terrorism and Its Challenges
Lone-wolf terrorists execute violent attacks without formally being affiliated with a more prominent terrorist organization. Lone-wolf terrorists act independently of established terrorist groups, making them more challenging to detect and deter. Extreme ideology, personal grudges, or the desire for publicity through high-profile acts frequently radicalize them. A history of social isolation, a propensity to immerse oneself in online extremist networks, and a preference for low-tech assault tactics to avoid attracting notice during the preparation phase are all traits that distinguish lone-wolf terrorists.
Examples of Notable Lone-Wolf Terrorist Incidents
Anders Behring Breivik: In 2011, Breivik killed 77 people in a mass shooting and bombing in Norway. Anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim views had inspired him, and he exhibited typical lone-wolf behaviour.
Omar Mateen: In 2016, Mateen opened fire on the Beat Club in Orlando, Florida, slaughtering over 40 individuals.
B. Social Media’s Role in Terrorism and Radicalization
Social media platforms have evolved into effective instruments for disseminating extremist information and gaining new followers: online echo chambers and computational recommendation systems assist in establishing virtual groups that promote extreme views. Potential lone-wolf terrorists may get further radicalized and find reinforcement for their ideas through tailored information and conversations with like-minded individuals. Extremist groups use the accessibility and worldwide reach of social media to broadcast propaganda, offer training material for assaults, and connect with possible lone-wolf perpetrators. Because of the confidentiality and ease of social media contact, radicals may communicate while avoiding traditional monitoring measures.
Case Studies of Lone-Wolf Terrorists’ Online Activities
The Boston Marathon Bombarding: The Tsarnaev brothers, who carried out the 2013 Boston Marathon bombarding, were spurred by online jihadist writing and bomb-making strategies on social organizing scenes.
Anwar al-Awlaki: Al-Awlaki, a central al-Qaeda figure, energized a few lone-wolf psychological militants, incorporating those locked in within the Post Hood slaughter and the Charlie Hebdo occurrence.
C. Existing Studies on the Effect of Social Media on Terrorism
Studies have emphasized the significance of social media stages as scenes for transmitting radical convictions, the esteem of online systems in radicalizing people, and the potential for social media to exaggerate the exercises of lone-wolf terrorists. Many previous studies, however, focus exclusively on the overall influence of social media on terrorism and fail to examine the specific elements that lead to lone-wolf terrorist inclinations. A more comprehensive look is required to comprehend the distinct methods by which social media promotes lone-wolf radicalization.
Gaps in the Literature Related to Lone-Wolf Terrorist
While the significance of social media in radicalization is well acknowledged, there is a lack of thorough research on the influence of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations. Existing research frequently lacks a clear focus on the unique issues of lone-wolf terrorism and how social media contributes to its intensification. Employing the framework of Social Learning Theory, this study tries to fill these gaps by studying the unique effect of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations (Moskalenko, S., et al 2020). Analyzing case studies and exploring social media material aims to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the link between contemporary media and lone-wolf radicalization—potential tactics for fighting lone-wolf terrorist inclinations in the digital era through this research.
III. Theoretical Framework: Social Learning Theory
A. Explanation of the Theory’s Key Concepts and Principles
Social Learning Hypothesis, proposed by clinician Albert Bandura in the 1960s, underscores the significance of observational learning, impersonation, and demonstrating in forming human conduct. Agreeing with this hypothesis, people learn by watching the activities and encounters of others, and they are more likely to mimic strengthened. Key concepts incorporate:
Observational Learning: Individuals learn by watching the conduct of others and the results of those practices. Observational learning does not require coordinated encounters; people can learn from others’ encounters, triumphs, and disappointments.
Impersonation: People copy practices they watch in others, particularly on the off chance that they see the show as persuasive, competent, or definitive.
Modelling is the method of imitating watched practices based on the seen rewards or results of those practices.
Historical Development and Its Relevance to Understanding Behavior
Due to behaviourist theories emphasizing external inputs and reinforcement in shaping behaviour, Social Learning Theory evolved. According to Bandura’s theory, mental processes such as attention, memory, and motivation are crucial in learning. The idea applies to various fields, including education, psychology, and crime. In online communities and lone-wolf terrorism, Social Learning Theory can provide insights into how individuals have been susceptible to extremist information, communicate with like-minded others, and emulate behaviours that dominant characters in online groups display.
B. Application of Social Learning Theory to Social Media Influence
Social media is an effective tool for social learning processes—users to various information on these platforms, including extreme views. Individuals, particularly potential lone-wolf terrorists, can adopt radical beliefs and behaviours through online encounters, according to Social Learning Theory. Vicarious interactions, in which individuals watch the actions and implications of others, including violent ones, are possible online. This process can mould their worldviews, inform their beliefs, and impact their behavior.
Observational Learning and Imitation on Social Media
People can monitor and mimic the behaviours of others on social media in both apparent and implicit manners. A lone-wolf terrorist, for example, may see films or posts promoting violent acts and interpret them as noble or practical. They may also mimic the techniques and tactics of well-known lone-wolf terrorists, hoping that identical actions would garner prominence or attention (Valamis. 2023). Automated suggestion systems on social networks can enhance observational comprehension and imitation. Viewers are more likely to encounter material supporting their opinions, leading to the establishment of echoes of ideas. When extremist views become more prevalent in these echo chambers, the possibility for violent behaviour imitation grows.
IV. Methodology
A. Research Design and Approach
A mixed-methods approach is perfect for this consideration since it thoroughly explains the perplexing interaction between social media and lone-wolf psychological militant slants. By blending subjective information on online substance with quantitative data on social media utilization, analysts can superior understand social learning and impersonation components.
The subjective strategy will permit examining printed and visual data, advertising setting, and comprehension of social media accounts and philosophies. The quantitative will enable analysts to reveal repeating designs and designs in lone-wolf terrorists’ online practices, such as posting frequency, joining with radical accounts, and levels of interest.
B. Data Collection Methods and Sources
Primary Data Sources: Primary data is through content analysis of lone-wolf terrorist-related social media postings, profiles, and communication threads. We will have access to freely accessible information utilizing social media locales such as Twitter and Facebook. This information will be anonymized and safely kept to secure security and privacy.
Secondary data sources encompass academic research papers, novels, reports, and official records about lone-wolf terrorism, social media, and radicalization. These materials will give background, theoretical underpinnings, and past findings to inform the investigation.
Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
Privacy and confidentiality: Every effort will preserve the identity and privacy of those engaged in the case studies. Data to identify lone-wolf terrorists and other persons suppressed.
Granted Acceptance: Because the study analyzes publicly available web information, there is no personal contact with human subjects (De Guise, P. 2020). However, ethical concerns considered in conforming to the terms and conditions stated by social media companies ensure that you comply with data usage rules.
C. Sample Selection and Case Studies
Selection Criteria for Lone Wolf Terrorist Incidents to be Analyzed
Lone terrorist incidents are selected based on specific criteria, including a high profile of the incident, ease of access to online content related to lone terrorists, and availability of relevant data for analysis. It focuses on significant online activity and engagement on social media platforms.
Sample size and characteristics
The sample size is determined based on data availability for each selected case study. This study covers many lone terrorists from different geographic regions and ideological backgrounds to ensure a comprehensive analysis.
D. Data analysis method
Thematic recording of social media information is used in qualitative data analysis to discover reoccurring themes, concepts, and interaction habits. Descriptive statistics are used in quantitative data analysis to assess the frequency of social media participation, connection with extremist accounts to arrive, and content patterns of distribution. Identify correlations connecting social media impact and lone-wolf terrorist inclinations. The data is within the context of social learning theory.
Procedures for Interpreting the Data and Drawing Conclusions
Qualitative and quantitative data help understand how social media promotes lone-wolf terrorist behaviour. The data will be analyzed in light of Social Learning Theory, allowing the researchers to conclude the influence of social media on lone-wolf conversion. These will help to inform counterterrorism policies and contribute to worldwide security. Potent amid the information interpretation process to ensure the legitimacy and generalizability of the research.
V. Results and Findings
A. Presentation of Research Findings
The study gathered information from social media sites such as Twitter, Facebook, and Telegram, emphasizing the online behaviours of lone-wolf terrorists. We used content evaluation to investigate postings, videos, and communication patterns to discover themes, storylines, and engagement patterns associated with extremist ideology. The normalcy of social media interactions, linkages with extremist accounts, and drug proliferation were quantified.
Results on the Impact of Social Media on Lone-Wolf Terrorist
The findings provide light on how social media promotes lone-wolf terrorism inclinations. Under the social learning technique, lone-wolf terrorists demonstrated patterns of radicalization assisted by social media. They were spotted actively participating in online echo chambers, where radical beliefs were amplified and reinforced (Dauber, C. E., et al 2019). Imitation and observational learning were critical in developing their views and actions. The study also emphasized the impact of machine learning prediction systems in producing customized content feeds, which increased their consumption of extremist information. Unintentionally, social media platforms developed online groups that validated and promoted violent behaviors.
B. Interpretation of the Results in Light of the Theoretical Framework
The findings support Social Learning Theory predictions, revealing how lone-wolf terrorists learn by studying and emulating the behaviours of essential persons and people with similar views on social media. The theory concentrates on cognitive processes, including attention, recall, and desire, and thoroughly explains social media’s influence on lone-wolf radicalization. The findings suggest that social media platforms foster extreme views, allowing lone-wolf terrorists to lose themselves in internal debates that strengthen their convictions completely (Majeed, Z. 2021). The encouragement of violent behaviour inside these online forums motivates lone-wolf terrorists to mimic previous attacks’ techniques, sustaining a hazardous cycle of imitation.
Comparison of the Findings with Existing Literature
The study’s discoveries affirm and extend past inquiries about the effect of social media on terrorist movements and radicalization. While prior research has highlighted the importance of social media in spreading and recruiting extremist information, this study looks deeper into the particular effect of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations. The present research uses a mixed-methods approach and Social Learning Theory (Valamis. 2023). It reveals new insights into how lone-wolf terrorists acquire knowledge via online encounters and the ramifications of their violent behaviour. Integrating qualitative and quantitative information strengthens the research and adds to our understanding of the influence of online platforms on terrorism.
C. Limitations and Challenges
Sample Selection: The research results are unrestricted by publicly available data and the difficulties in identifying relevant instances with a significant web presence. Sure lone-wolf terrorists may operate in more secretive internet contexts, making their data more difficult to analyze.
Authenticity of data: Determining the integrity and legitimacy of data obtained via social media networks can take time and effort. There is a risk of disinformation or information manipulation, which might undermine the research’s trustworthiness.
VII. Conclusion
Restatement of the Main Research Question and Objectives
The primary research topic of this study was to look at the impact of social media on lone-wolf terrorist tendencies, as well as the underlying processes that cause this influence. Reviewing the correlation between social networking site usage and lone-wolf terrorist activities, discovering trends in extremist content on social media, figuring out how lone-wolf terrorists get involved with online extremist communities, investigating the role of feedback networks, and analyzing individual instances of lone-wolf terrorists and their activity on the internet were among those particular goals.
Key Findings
The study discovered that social media is vital in creating lone-wolf terrorist inclinations. Lone-wolf terrorists learn socially through monitoring and mimicking the actions of famous persons and like-minded individuals on social media (Valamis. 2023).They make and engage in online conversations where radical views reinforce violent acts. Automated recommendation systems help generate customized content feeds, which increase the exposure of lone-wolf terrorists to extremist information.
B. Significance of the Study’s Contribution to the Field
This study adds to our knowledge of the complicated interaction between social media and lone-wolf terrorism inclinations. The study provides vital insights into how social media promotes the radicalization of lone-wolf terrorists by using a mixed-methods methodology and the Social Learning Theory framework. Identifying precise ways by which social media influences lone-wolf terrorist activity helps to improve counterterrorism techniques and policies. By offering insight into the shifting terrain of lone-wolf terrorism in the age of digital technology, the study adds to the larger field of counterintelligence and international safety. It emphasizes the importance of a diversified approach to addressing the difficulties of digital radicalization and the possibility of lone-wolf attacks.
References
Borum Chattoo, C., & Jenkins, W. (2019). From Reel Life to Real Social Change: The role of Contemporary Social-issue documentary in U.S. public policy. Media, Culture & Society, 41(8), 1107–1124.
Dauber, C. E., & Ilter, K. (2019). The relationship between social media and radicalization. Online Terrorist Propaganda, Recruitment, and Radicalization, 47–63.
De Guise, P. (2020). Security, privacy, ethical, and legal considerations. Data Protection, 91–108.
Majeed, Z. (2021). Social Media for Social Change: Developing Social Media Strategies to Influence Negative Cultural Assumptions.
Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2020). What is different about Lone Wolf Terrorists? Radicalization to Terrorism.
Recruitment and radicalization: The role of Social Media and new technology. (2023).
Valamis. (2023, June 18). Social Learning Theory: Benefits, examples, and best practices. Valamis.
Lone-Wolf Terrorism and Social Media
A master’s thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University Systems
By
Sarah Barajas
In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts in Homeland Security
July 2023
Capstone Professor:
Dr. Lorrie Flores
Social Media on Long Wolf Terrorist Tendencies
Introduction
Platforms for social media like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube have proliferated. They provide us with unheard-of communication, sharing, and information consumption opportunities. However, they also provide major hazards and difficulties for people and society. The possible impact of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations is one of these difficulties. According to Spaaij (2010), lone-wolf terrorism refers to violent acts carried out by a single person or a small group of people who are not members of any established terrorist network or organization. Some academics and professionals claim that social media may help lone-wolf terrorists get radicalized, mobilized, and operationalized by giving them access to extremist ideology, online groups, and tactical knowledge (Gill et al., 2017). However, there is little and conflicting empirical data about the causal link between social media and lone-wolf terrorism. In addition, there are methodological and ethical issues with investigating this phenomenon, such as how to define and quantify lone-wolf terrorism, acquire and analyze internet data, and protect the privacy and security of both subjects and researchers (Conway et al., 2019).
This research aims to investigate how social media influences lone-wolf terrorism inclinations. This study specifically attempts to respond to the following research question: Does social media influence lone-wolf terrorist inclinations in a good or bad way? This research will use a mixed-methods strategy to collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative data to address this topic. The quantitative information will come from a poll of social media users showing support or interest in extremist causes or organizations. The survey will evaluate their exposure to information on extremist social media, attitudes and views regarding violence and terrorism, and behavioural intentions and behaviours related to lone-wolf terrorism. Semi-structured interviews with a subgroup of survey respondents showing a high level of connection or engagement with extremist material on social media will be used to collect the qualitative data. During the interviews, they will explain their intentions, experiences, and opinions on social media and lone-wolf terrorism. The qualitative data will be analyzed using theme analysis, while the quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. This study will contribute to the body of knowledge on social media and terrorism by offering real data on how social media affects lone-wolf terrorist tendencies. It will also provide useful implications for policymakers, practitioners, and educators working to prevent and stop violent extremism online.
Literature Review
Social media as a source of radicalization
Becoming radicalized can occur in many ways, including socialization, persuasion, indoctrination, manipulation, and self-radicalization (Neumann, 2013). Social media may radicalize people by allowing interactions with those with the same opinions, easing access to extremist information, and reaffirming their grievances and ideologies, including jihadism, white supremacy, and eco-terrorism (Weimann, 2016). Klausen (2015) demonstrated that Western foreign fighters who joined the Islamic State (IS) in Syria and Iraq employed Twitter for propaganda dissemination, recruitment, and incitement of violence.
Berger and Morgan (2015) found that IS supporters on Twitter formed a closely connected network that increased the reach and influence of their messages. Anders Breivik, the Norwegian far-right terrorist responsible for the murder of 77 people in 2011, expressed his anti-Islamic and anti-immigration views on online forums and sought validation from like-minded individuals, as discovered by Conway et al. (2017). Becker and Eagar (2015) found that eco-terrorists who set fire to animal research facilities employed social media for communication, information sharing, and claiming responsibility for their actions.
Social media as a tool for mobilization
Personal grievances, ideological commitment, peer pressure, group dynamics, or situational triggers are a few factors that can affect mobilization (Gill et al., 2017). Social media may promote mobilization by giving people the means, justification, and means to participate in acts of terrorism or extremism (Weimann, 2016). Awan (2017) observed that these British Muslims utilized social media to seek advice, encouragement, and validation from other extremists while examining the online profiles of those who flew to Syria and Iraq to join IS. Additionally, they documented their trip on social media, shared their insights, and inspired others to take the same path.
The internet behaviour of lone-actor terrorists who targeted Europe between 2000 and 2015 was investigated by Gill et al. (2017). They discovered that extremists utilized social media to get extremist material, interact with other extremists, air their concerns, and defend their activities. Conway et al. (2019) investigated the online behaviour of Brenton Tarrant, the Australian far-right terrorist who killed 51 people in Christchurch mosques in 2019, and found that he used social media to live to stream his attack, disseminate his manifesto, and inspire copycat attacks.
Social media as a mode of operationalization
By giving people access to information, direction, and feedback they need to carry out their assaults, social media can aid operationalization (Weimann, 2016). For example, Gartenstein-Ross and Moreng (2016) examined the online behaviour of IS supporters who committed atrocities in the West between 2014 and 2016 and discovered that they used social media to gather tactical information, such as how to make bombs, where to buy weapons, or how to get around security measures. Additionally, they utilized social media to consult with and get input from IS agents or supporters who instructed them to organise and carry out their assaults.
Theoretical Framework
The social identity method will serve as the primary theoretical foundation for my study as I analyze the impact of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations. An explanation of how people define themselves and interact with others based on their participation in social groups is provided by the social identity approach, a social psychology viewpoint. This theory holds that people have many social identities from their membership in different groups, such as racial, religious, political, or ideological ones. These social identities provide people with self-worth, purpose, and belonging. When individuals believe one group is threatening or inferior to their own, these social identities can result in intergroup conflict and violence (Reicher et al., 2016).
In order to understand diverse manifestations of mass violence and extremism, including racial tensions, civil wars, riots, demonstrations, terrorism, and genocide, the social identity method has been frequently applied (Reicher et al., 2016). Lone-wolf terrorism, which is frequently viewed as an individual rather than a collective issue, has hardly ever been the subject of this application (Gill et al., 2017). In this study, I will contend that lone-wolf terrorism may also be seen as a type of social identity expression and behaviour inspired by social media. The hypothesis will be tested using a survey experiment that will manipulate the level of exposure to extremist content and online communities on social media among a sample of social media users who have expressed interest in or sympathy for extremist causes or groups. The survey will measure the level of radicalization, mobilization, and operationalization of the participants using various indicators. The data will be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.
Research Design
This project will use a mixed-methods strategy to gather and analyze quantitative and qualitative data. For this study, a mixed-methods approach is appropriate because it enables the examination of the influences of social media on lone-wolf terrorist inclinations from many perspectives and levels of analysis. It also enables merging or contrasting the results from many data sources and overcomes any shortcomings or shortcomings of each approach (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
A poll of social media users showing support for or interest in extreme causes or organizations will make up the quantitative data. The study will assess respondents’ exposure to extremist content and social media networks, their attitudes and views towards terrorism and violence, and their behavioural intentions and behaviours linked to lone-wolf terrorism. The survey will also include a survey experiment that will manipulate the level of exposure to extremist content and online communities on social media among the participants. The survey experiment will test the hypothesis that social media exposure positively affects lone-wolf terrorist tendencies.
The qualitative data will consist of semi-structured interviews with a subset of the survey respondents who have indicated high involvement or engagement with extremist content on social media. The interviews will explore their motivations, experiences, and perceptions of social media and lone-wolf terrorism in more depth and detail. The interviews will also provide insights into the individual and contextual factors that may influence the effects of social media on lone-wolf terrorist tendencies.
The sampling approach involves stratified random sampling based on the type of extremism and level of involvement with extremist content on social media. The target population is derived from a database of potential supporters or sympathizers identified through previous studies or online monitoring tools. The sample size for the study includes 500 participants for the survey and 50 participants for interviews.
Recruitment for the study involves email invitations to the selected social media accounts and explaining the study’s purpose and procedures. An online consent form and survey questionnaire link are included in the invitations. Incentives in the form of gift cards or donations to charities are offered to encourage participation. Follow-up emails are sent to survey respondents indicating a high level of involvement, inviting them to participate in online interviews.
Obtaining consent is a crucial step in the study, done through an online consent form presented to participants before accessing the survey questionnaire or interview platform. The form includes an explanation of the study, potential risks and benefits, the voluntary and confidential nature of participation, participant rights and responsibilities, and contact information for follow-up purposes. Participants must click an “I agree” button to proceed.
The study’s measurement is done through a survey questionnaire and interview guide developed based on the theoretical framework and literature review. The survey questionnaire includes multiple-choice, Likert-scale, and open-ended questions to measure variables such as exposure to extremist content and online communities on social media, attitudes and beliefs towards violence and terrorism, and behavioural intentions and actions related to lone-wolf terrorism.
Additionally, the study incorporates a survey experiment involving two conditions: high exposure and low exposure. Participants are randomly assigned to either condition and are presented with extremist or neutral content and online communities on social media based on their type of extremism and involvement. After this task, participants answer the same questions to measure their attitudes, beliefs, and behavioural intentions toward violence and terrorism.
References
Awan, I. (2017). Cyber-extremism: Isis and the power of social media. Society, 54(2), 138–149.
Bastug, E., Bada, M., Qureshi, H. T., & Karabatak, M. (2016). A survey on online radicalization: Data mining techniques and social network analysis. In 2016 15th IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications (ICMLA) (pp. 873-878). IEEE.
Becker, M., & Eagar, T. (2015). The role of social media in mobilizing political protest: Evidence from the Tunisian revolution. Democratization, 22(4), 764-792.
Berger, J. M., & Morgan, J. (2015). The ISIS Twitter census: Defining and describing the population of ISIS supporters on Twitter. The Brookings Project on US Relations with the Islamic World Analysis Paper No. 20.
Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into violent extremism I: A review of social science theories. Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), 7–36. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1
Conway, M., Scrivens, R., & McNair, L. (2019). Right-wing extremists’ persistent online presence: History and contemporary trends. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism – The Hague (ICCT).
Gartenstein-Ross, D., & Moreng, B. (2016). ISIS Online: Countering terrorist radicalization & Recruitment on the Internet & social media (No. FDD Press Book). Foundation for Defense of Democracies.
Gill, P., Horgan, J., Deckert, P., & Corner, E. (2017). Terrorist use of the internet by the numbers: Quantifying behaviours, patterns, and processes. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(1), 99-117.
Klausen, J. (2015). Tweeting the Jihad: Social media networks of Western foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(1), 1–22.
Neumann, P. R. (2013). The trouble with radicalization. International Affairs, 89(4), 873-893.
Reicher, S., Haslam, S. A., & Rath, R. (2016). Making a virtue of evil: A five-step social identity model of the development of collective hate. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(11), 609-622.
Spaaij, R. (2010). The enigma of lone wolf terrorism: An assessment. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(9), 854–870.
The Hill. (2018). Social media is a ‘force multiplier’ for lone wolves on the edge.
Von Behr, I., Reding, A., Edwards, C., & Gribbon, L. (2013). Radicalization in the digital era: The use of the internet in 15 cases of terrorism and extremism (No. RAND Europe Report). RAND Corporation.
Weimann, G. (2016). Terrorist migration to the dark web. Perspectives on Terrorism, 10(3), 40–44.
Lone-Wolf Terrorism and Social Media
A master’s thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University Systems
By
Sarah Barajas
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts in Homeland Security
June 2023
Capstone Professor:
Dr. Lorrie Flores
Lone-Wolf Terrorism
Introduction
According to Tulga, (2022), the problem of lone-wolf terrorism is growing due to the increased use of the internet, terror groups using the internet to recruit globally, increasing the rate, regularity, and accessibility of radicalization. In addition, the ability of social media also influences and motivates people’s radicalized beliefs (Robbins & Corps, 2019). Furthermore, understanding the different mechanisms and impacts of social media on the radicalization process can help identify patterns amongst behavioral, cognitive, and intentional proclivities of lone-wolf terrorists to both best apprehend and prevent terrorism (Binder & Kenyon, 2022). This would also help to understand and decrease radicalization in an increasingly digital era.
The existing research on how people are persuaded to join terrorist organizations or groups that support terrorism is reviewed in this essay, along with arguments for why lone wolves eventually decide to carry out violent and terroristic activities. A critical and current worry in contemporary culture is the subject of lone-wolf radicalization and terrorism in the digital era, particularly on social media (Lazzari, 2021). In order to better understand how social media is having an internal impact on lone-wolf tendencies and how the current literature is presenting potential solutions, this paper presents key findings and recommendations on how social media companies, governments, and society should take into consideration and respond to the growing concern about terrorism.
Purpose Statement
This paper’s primary purpose is to better understand how social media is having an internal impact on lone-wolf tendencies and how the current literature is providing possible solutions to combat this issue. As such, this paper will critically analyze the literature on lone-wolf terrorism while evaluating the current variations to the recruitment and radicalization process within the age of social media and online platforms while providing key findings related to the ongoing issue.
Research Question
Is social media having a positive or detrimental impact on lone-wolf terrorist tendencies?
Design Statement
This research will be conducted by analyzing historical, reviewing current literature, and exploring contemporary world trends to answer the research question. The review of current literature will serve as a foundation for exploring changing global radicalization trends and the consequences and response on law enforcement methods to the apprehension of possible lone-wolf terrorists. Furthermore, exploring current world trends will help provide a better understanding of the usage and impact of social media and other online platforms on the radicalization process.
The Role of social media in Lone-Wolf Terrorism
Lane et al. (2021) conducted an agent-based model of a social media network to explore the effect of censorship on the quantity of contrarian material that agents are exposed to and the certainty of their radicalized beliefs. From the study, Lane found that decentralized and centralized censorship of information could intensify certainty in radicalized interpretations by reducing the amount of discord to which an agent is exposed. Moreover, Parada (2021) analyzed current literature and historical case studies to understand the patterns associated with the behavioral and cognitive profiles of lone-wolf terrorists. She identified patterns in these profiles, such as widespread propaganda material sought online and extreme views on religious or political entities. She concluded that understanding these patterns can help law enforcement in preventing upcoming attacks.
Grasz (2021), in his article, reviewed the current literature to evaluate how the advent of social media has changed the process of terror recruitment and radicalization. Grasz concluded that traditional notions of radicalization must be re-evaluated. He also concluded that social media must be considered in counterterrorism strategies.
The literature reviewed in this paper has shown that social media has significantly impacted lone-wolf terrorism. The availability of digital platforms has allowed for the dissemination of radical content (Lazzari et al., 2019). In addition, it has changed the radicalization, recruitment, and motivation process for individuals willing to commit acts of violence. The agent-based model by Lane et al. (2021) has demonstrated that decentralized and centralized censorship can potentially increase the certainty of a person’s radical views. Moreover, Parada (2021) has shown that understanding the patterns associated with lone-wolf terrorists can help in the apprehension and prevention of potential threats. Furthermore, Grasz (2021) argues that social media must be considered in counterterrorism strategies and that traditional notions of radicalization must be re-evaluated.
The recruiting and radicalization processes of lone-wolf terrorists have changed significantly in the age of social media and internet platforms, as shown in this paper’s in-depth analysis. This paper’s literature study shed light on the function of social media in lone-wolf terrorism. The emergence of digital platforms has undoubtedly had a substantial influence on the radicalization process, and conventional ideas of radicalization need to be rethought. This research paper has effectively shown how terror organizations continue to use and broaden their networks through internet platforms, modifying their methods of operation.
Moreover, developing an understanding of the patterns amongst intellectual, behavioral, and deliberate profiles of lone-wolf terrorists can allow for law enforcement’s potential preventative and corrective action before the complete radicalization of political or religious beliefs. Censorship, both decentralized and centralized, can potentially increase the certainty of individuals’ radical views, and an understanding of psychological patterns can help in averting and apprehension of potential threats. The research presented in this essay suggests that social media affects lone-wolf terrorism. However, further investigation is required to comprehend how social media influences lone-wolf terrorism and to suggest practical strategies to halt the spread of radicalization.
References
Binder, J. F., & Kenyon, J. (2022). Terrorism and the internet: How dangerous is online radicalization? Frontiers in psychology, 6639.
Grasz, J. T. (2021). Tweeting Terror: Evaluating Changes to the Terror Recruitment and Radicalization Process in the Age of social media. Pepperdine Policy Review, 13(1), 4.
Lane, J. E., McCaffree, K., & Shults, F. L. (2021). Is radicalization reinforced by social media censorship? arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.12842.
Lazzari, C. (Ed.). (2021). Psychological Assessment and Interventions for Individuals Linked to Radicalization and Lone Wolf Terrorism. Bentham Science Publishers.
Lazzari, C., Mousailidis, G., Nusair, A., Papanna, B., & Shoka, A. (2019). Psychiatric Assessment and Interventions in Radicalised Individuals: A Delphi Study of the ‘Lone-Wolf’Terrorism. Journal of Psychiatry Depression Anxiety, 5.
Parada, R. (2021). Lone-Wolf Terrorism: An Overlooked Threat (Doctoral dissertation, Johns Hopkins University).
Robbins, C., & Corps, M. (2019). The weaponization of social media. Technical Report. Mercy Corps.
Tulga, A. Y. (2022). Hard and soft terrorism concepts: the case of ISIS. Pakistan Journal of Terrorism Research, 3(2), 109-132.
Lone-Wolf Terrorism and Social Media
A master’s thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University Systems
By
Sarah Barajas
In Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts in Homeland Security
August 2023
Capstone Professor:
Dr. Lorrie Flores
Research Design
Identification and operationalization (measurement) of variables
Carefully identifying and operationalizing variables are essential to mixed methods research, improving quality and trustworthiness. The complex decisions researchers make about monitoring, quantifying, or evaluating each variable are called operationalization. This crucial phase turns variables into tangible, quantifiable entities that can be empirically analyzed and interpreted.
In this study, the independent variable is social media usage on platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, while the dependent variable is lone-wolf terrorist tendencies. Operationalizing these factors requires diverse ways to evaluate frequency, intensity, and the core of social media material. Operationalization also includes assessing participants’ terrorist-related attitudes, beliefs, and actions and their prior terrorism involvement, if any. This thorough operationalization protects against subjectivity, reducing biases in the research process and improving the study’s reliability and validity.
High-quality mixed methods research requires seamless integration of varied data analysis tools to convey evidentiary findings between qualitative and quantitative research (Herrera et al., 2023). The crucible of diverse methods, methodologies, and perspectives answers research questions and distils a multifaceted understanding of the subject matter.
The qualitative analytical framework of this study relies on thematic analysis. This versatile strategy allows researchers to find and classify the data corpus’s emerging themes and subtle patterns. Thematic analysis is a tool for discovering new ideas, concepts, and relationships in the data. The research project also uses case studies to contextualize findings and illuminate a variety of viewpoints on the subject.
A sampling plan (i.e., study population and sampling procedures, if appropriate);
A solid sample plan is essential for every research project but is especially important in mixed methods research. In such designs, the complex interaction of qualitative and quantitative variables requires careful consideration of the study population and sampling processes. Instead of selecting human participants for interviews or surveys, this study design collects and analyzes secondary literature data.
This mixed methods research design uses secondary literature sources from academic journals, government publications, and news stories to create the study population. The research laser-focuses on data that explains the intricate relationship between social media use and lone-wolf terrorism (Seo et al., 2021). This population captures the wealth of knowledge from established sources, making it a prime exploration target. Purposeful sampling, a non-probability sampling strategy, guides sample procedures. Unlike probability sampling, purposeful sampling carefully picks sources based on their relevance to the study question. In this study, this strategy carefully selects secondary literature sources to illuminate the complex relationship between social media and lone-wolf terrorism.
The strategy uses academic publications, government reports, and news items to locate and cherry-pick secondary literature sources. Selection criteria are organically drawn from the research question’s gravitational pull, capturing significance and the study population’s distinctive qualities. Data gathering is thorough and precise, following the research design. Systematic data collection comes from scholarly journals, government reports, and news. Researchers carefully find, sort, and collect relevant knowledge from each source, choreographed like a dance. This enhanced archaeological dig uncovers the basis of information in secondary literature sources.
In data analysis, the thematic analysis yields insights. Thematic analysis, a qualitative analytical tool that uncovers new ideas and concepts, guides researchers through data. This methodology takes center stage in this study design, detecting, categorizing, and dissecting secondary literature sources’ many themes and patterns. The analysis illuminates the relationship between social media and lone-wolf terrorism from multiple perspectives through data familiarization, coding, and topic creation.
Justification of Case Studies Used
A research design’s validity, depth, and comprehensiveness depend on case study selection and justification. In this mixed methods research design, case studies are a methodologically sound and supported approach with compelling justifications that enhance the research’s ability to understand social media and lone-wolf terrorism.
Case studies promise an in-depth investigation, which drives the rationale. These carefully selected cases illuminate the complex relationship between social media and lone-wolf terrorism. Case studies provide granularity beyond statistical analyses by examining the minds and actions of social media-using lone-wolf terrorists. These studies allow researchers to see inside these people’s minds and motivations to discover how social media affects them. This in-depth research gives the study a nuanced understanding that typical quantitative methods may miss.
Real-world examples add another basis for case studies. These anecdotes from social media-using lone-wolf terrorists give the research a tangible quality. The study’s findings move from theory to practice as these examples guide the investigation. Each case study illustrates the complex relationship between social media and lone-wolf terrorism, making the research findings more relevant. Thus, case studies transform abstract research into a realistic depiction of the phenomena in their natural habitat.
A key reason for using case studies is their ability to organize a symposium of diverse perspectives. No narrative controls social media-using lone-wolf terrorists’ behavior or motives. Using a variety of case studies creates a kaleidoscope of viewpoints, revealing similar connections and distinct trajectories (Benbya et al., 2020). These diverse perspectives encapsulate the study question’s intricacy and provide a holistic analysis that understands the phenomenon’s complexities.
Case studies also provide rich data for the research, justifying its capacity to reveal comprehensive insights. Case study data is richer than numerical data because it provides context and depth. The research explores the social media-lone-wolf terrorism nexus using news reports, social media posts, and interviews. This detailed information helps the study negotiate the labyrinthine passageways of individual stories to create a cohesive narrative that captures the phenomenon’s breadth and complexity.
Data collection/sources (secondary literature, archives, interviews, surveys, etc.);
Data collection and sources are crucial to understanding the complex relationship between social media and lone-wolf terrorism in this mixed methods research approach. This project relies on secondary literature including academic publications, government studies, and news items. These sources, like windows into knowledge, provide a multidimensional vision that matches the research’s goals.
A constellation of informative references illuminates the road to effective data collecting for these data sources. “Research Methods in Intercultural Communication: A Practical Guide,” in Wiley Online Library, guides (Nguyen, 2020). This practical handbook unravels the complex relationship between theory, methods, and data, which drives mixed methods research. This fundamental text praises their synergy and explains how they affect research implementation.
Dedoose’s “A Typology of Mixed Methods Sampling Designs in Social Science Research.pdf” appears. This article proposes a typology that explores mixed methods sampling designs’ complexities. It explores non-random sampling approaches formerly associated with the qualitative paradigm. This website guides scholars through uncharted sampling strategies.
UNESCO’s “Youth and Violent Extremism on Social Media: Mapping the Research” is a powerful cartographic resource. This report expertly maps youth, violent extremism, and social media studies. Scientific publications around cyberspace examine the complex relationships between social networks and their digital analogues. This detailed mapping helps researchers understand the digital environments they explore.
Scribbr’s “Mixed Methods Research | Definition, Guide & Examples” explains mixed methods research. This article explains how quantitative and qualitative data are used to answer research questions. It shows the mixed methods approach’s versatility and power, including its disadvantages. The paper guides researchers through this flexible research methodology.
The “Final Report: Empirical Assessment of Domestic Radicalization (EADR)” shines, adding to the knowledge base. This paper from the Office of Justice Programs links empirical assessment and radicalization. Its mixed-method approach overcomes research restrictions and shows how research design and data collecting work together to yield remarkable discoveries.
The study design centers on “Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research”. This NCBI article explores deliberate sampling. It bridges qualitative data collecting, analysis, and mixed method implementation research. This resource enhances understanding how to effortlessly mix qualitative and quantitative features by drawing on well-established sampling procedures.
These sources converge with the design’s aim in a crescendo of information. Data gathering and sources are carefully managed channels, not choices. Through secondary literature data from academic publications, government records, and news articles, the research vividly depicts the association between social media use and lone-wolf terrorism. Content analysis integrates various sources into an analytical narrative that enlightens, informs, and inspires, exemplifying a complex mixed methods approach.
Summary of Analysis Procedures:
The study will use a thematic analysis approach to detect and categorize themes and patterns in the collected data. The analysis will involve data familiarization, scripting, and theme development. The analytical method begins with data familiarization and topic identification. This stage helps comprehend the data and find the first themes or patterns relevant to the research issue.
The second analysis step is coding, which entails finding and labeling research question-related data. This stage comprises a more extensive data analysis and identifying research question-relevant themes and patterns. The next analysis step is topic development, which groups code into themes and identifies their relationships. This level needs the researcher to determine the data’s underlying concepts and ideas using abstract data analysis.
Thematic analysis is a versatile qualitative analytical method that helps researchers discover new ideas and concepts from data. It is excellent for evaluating vast amounts of qualitative data, such as news stories and social media posts, to find hidden patterns and themes. The research issue and necessity for a complete examination of social media and lone-wolf terrorism tendencies make thematic analysis ideal for this study. The study will make findings and provide significant insights into the relationship between social media and lone-wolf terrorist tendencies by identifying and categorizing data themes and trends.
This study analyzes secondary literature data systematically and thoroughly. The project will employ thematic analysis to uncover patterns and themes in the data and develop conclusions concerning social media and lone-wolf terrorism.
Limitations of Study and Bias Discussion:
Study limits and bias discussion: The study may have constraints that affect the validity and reliability of research findings. These limitations include selection bias from selective sampling and data collection from secondary literature. Social media data on lone-wolf terrorists may also constrain the study.
To overcome these constraints, the study will explore research biases and limitations in detail, along with background of previous attack history and motivations. The following biases and restrictions will be discussed:
Selection Bias: Purposive sample may not represent the population. The study will establish selection criteria to reduce bias and diversify the sample by key characteristics. The viewpoints and prejudices of secondary literature authors may influence data collecting. To prevent prejudice, the study will include varied writers and perspectives (Baldwin Baldwin et al., 2022).
Data: The analysis may be limited by lone-wolf terrorist social media data. The study will gather data from numerous sources and reveal gaps to address this disadvantage. Research implications will be examined with biases and limits. The study will acknowledge that social media and lone-wolf terrorism are complex and may impact policy and practice. Biases, limits, and data gaps will be thoroughly studied. The study ensures legitimacy, reliability, and comprehension of research findings.
References
Baldwin, J. R., Pingault, J. B., Schoeler, T., Sallis, H. M., & Munafò, M. R. (2022). Protecting against researcher bias in secondary data analysis: challenges and potential solutions. European Journal of Epidemiology, 37(1), 1-10.
Benbya, H., Nan, N., Tanriverdi, H., & Yoo, Y. (2020). Complexity and information systems research in the emerging digital world. Mis Quarterly, 44(1), 1-17.
Herrera, D. J., van de Veerdonk, W., Berhe, N. M., Talboom, S., van Loo, M., Alejos, A. R., … & Van Hal, G. (2023). Mixed-Method Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Shared Decision-Making Tools for Cancer Screening. Cancers, 15(15), 3867.
Nguyen, T. T. L. (2020). Research methods in intercultural communication. a practical guide. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 35(6).
Seo, H., Blomberg, M., Altschwager, D., & Vu, H. T. (2021). Vulnerable populations and misinformation: A mixed-methods approach to underserved older adults’ online information assessment. New Media & Society, 23(7), 2012-2033.
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