List perspectives on job performance.Explain the performance formula.Contrast between expertise, competence, and incompetence.

I attached in aword document to sum all info up.

Requirements: 2 Pages

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…1/23Learning ObjectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to:List perspectives on job performance.Explain the performance formula.Contrast between expertise, competence, and incompetence.Describe job performance during onboarding.Analyze interventions for poor performance.It’s much more dificult to measure non-performance than performance!—Harold S. Geneen2Performance ManagementWavebreak Media Ltd/Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…2/23IntroductionRaquel was hired as the new frontline supervisor for the inishing department at Marshall Press Consolidated. The operations manager immediately toldRaquel that the inishing department as a whole was performing poorly, leading to many vendor complaints and a loss of customers; the operations managerhoped Raquel could turn things around.Raquel would be supervising the inishing department’s four employees: Kai, Sandra, Greg, and Juanita. Kai has been with Marshall and in the inishingdepartment for more than 10 years; Sandra was recently hired by Raquel’s predecessor, just a month prior to Raquel starting; Greg has been with Marshallfor 12 years but was transferred to the inishing department only recently; and Juanita has been with Marshall for almost 30 years and has worked in manydepartments over time.After a few weeks of observing the performance of her employees, Raquel concluded that each fell into one of four performance categories:1. Able and willing to do his job well—Kai2. Not able to do her job well, but seems willing—Sandra3. Able to perform job his job well, but for some reason not willing—Greg4. Not able to do her job well and not willing to, either—JuanitaRaquel intended to sit down with each employee and discuss their speciic job performance. How do you think Raquel should manage each type of workerperformance?Certainly, as this scenario suggests, a main objective of training employees is to assist them in performing their jobs well. This chapter will look at the conceptof job performance, not only the different types of performance—ranging from expertise to competence to incompetence—but also the determinants ofperformance, such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes, as well as the individual’s level of motivation and the impact of the work environment. But let us irststart by considering perspectives of workplace performance.Food for Thought: Theory X and Theory YManagers’ assumptions about their employees can inform how employees perform. Let’s consider McGregor’s (1960) classic Theory X and Theory Y.These theories describe the assumptions that managers make about workers. Managers who embrace Theory X, for example, tend to be task drivenand believe they must direct and/or coerce workers to get them to perform well, whereas managers who embrace Theory Y are generally relationshipfocused and assume that employees want to perform well and just need to be given the freedom and autonomy to do so (Kopelman et al., 2010; Sadler-Smith, 2021; Sahin, 2012; Werner 2021).

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…3/232.1 Perspectives in Workplace PerformanceThis chapter will discuss performance and the management of that performance (P), the related activities expected of a worker and how well the workerperforms those activities. But what exactly is the nature of performance in work? Swanson and Holton (2001) observed that the concept of performance haslargely been a practice-based phenomenon with little philosophical consideration, an observation reafirmed by Swanson (2022). As a result, let us irstconsider the concept of job performance by critically relecting on three core philosophical perspectives:1. performance as a natural outcome of human activity2. performance as necessary for economic activity3. performance as an instrument of organizational oppressionPerformance as a Natural Outcome of Human ActivityIn this view—which is also consistent with Knowles’s (1973) view that adult learners are motivated to learn something relevant and Maslow’s (1943) classicproposition that human beings pursue the need to self-actualize—performance is accepted as a natural part of human existence and regarded as a basichuman need. In this perspective of performance, the premise is that “few people are content not to perform” (Swanson & Holton, 2001, p. 132), which wasreafirmed by Swanson (2022).Performance as Necessary for Economic ActivityThis perspective of performance is value neutral and utilitarian; that is, this view sees performance as neither inherently good nor bad, but rather as a meansto economic ends. A pragmatic perspective with a rational exchange (for example, an honest day’s pay for an honest day’s work), this view sees performanceas necessary for individuals to earn livelihoods and be productive members of society. Here, performance leads to enhanced work and career paths (this ideawill be discussed further in Chapter 9).Performance as an Instrument of Organizational OppressionIn perhaps in its most controversial view, performance is viewed as a means of control and manipulation. Because there is a focus on performance,organizations are set up to coerce and demand behaviors from individuals in return for compensation. This view is not so far aield when one thinks aboutworkers in poorer nations like Bangladesh and Somalia who work in modern-day sweatshops, as well as the use of child labor for producing the goods we useevery day. Even in the United States—where we have protective legislation such as the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) with its child labor law provisions—there were over 2,800 violations and almost $3.5 million of penalties imposed in child labor violations in 2021 (U.S. Department of Labor, 2022).Did You Know? Pros and Cons of UnionsSafeguarding against organizational exploitation of the worker was one of the primary reasons employees irst organized to form trade unions (U.S.Department of Labor, 1998). Today union supporters emphasize the relevant role unions still play in representing employees on employment issuessuch as low pay, unsafe or unsanitary working conditions, long hours, and other potentially detrimental situations faced by workers (Yadav & Sinha,2021).Critics of unions, however, point out that “the fastest-growing occupations over the past quarter-century have been professional, technical, andmanagerial in nature” (Spencer, 2011, p. 103). And while unions worked relatively well when the United States was primarily a manufacturing economy—in which an employee’s unique talents made little difference on an assembly line, and many times promotions were based solely on seniority versusmerit—in today’s service economy, machines now perform most of the repetitive manufacturing tasks of yesteryear (Sherk, 2018).Review this list of the pros and cons of unions put out by SmartAsset: https://smartasset.com/career/the-pros-and-cons-of-unions.(https://smartasset.com/career/the-pros-and-cons-of-unions)Questions to Consider1. What case could be made that, even as we shift further away from a manufacturing to a service economy, unions are still relevant?2. As discussed previously, many employees have permanently transitioned to telecommuting and remote work since the pandemic; could therebe a value-added role for unions with remote workers?Today, with many employees now working remotely in post-pandemic arrangements, employer surveillance has also become a concern. Some companies areramping up the use of software to monitor and digitally supervise their employees’ post-pandemic performance, and privacy advocates say they worry thatthe intensiied tracking brought on by the pandemic will normalize workplace surveillance (Allyn, 2021). A podcast on this topic can be found here:https://www.npr.org/2020/05/13/854014403/your-boss-is-watching-you-work-from-home-boom-leads-to-more-surveillance(https://www.npr.org/2020/05/13/854014403/your-boss-is-watching-you-work-from-home-boom-leads-to-more-surveillance)Chapter 10 will discuss additional aspects of the ethics and social responsibility of human resource management, as well as in human resource development.These philosophical performance perspectives are consequential because studies bear out how the supervisor’s performance philosophy inluences employeejob performance (Ellinger, 2003; Rocco et al., 2020). But whatever your philosophical view of workplace performance, there is also a practicality to how welland why employees perform their jobs. So, now let us look at the variables of everyday job performance.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…4/23Workplace Performance is usually a function of three variables: the employee’sability, the employee’s willingness, and the state of the organizationalenvironment in which the employee works. Ensuring that each of thesevariables is positive is crucial to maintaining good workplace performance.2.2 A Formula for Job PerformanceIf we are to train employees so they can learn to perform the functions of their job, then it is imperative that we irst understand what components make upjob performance. To start, when analyzing—and therefore managing—workplace performance, you should know that performance is always a dependentvariable. That is, employee performance—good or bad—does not just happen; it is an outcome of three variables.Ability. The capacity of the employee to perform the job; collectively, the employee’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes.Motivation (M). The employee’s willingness to perform the job voluntarily.Environment (E). Anything within the organizational environment (such as supervisor, systems, and coworkers) that would affect the employee’s jobperformance.This leads to a good rule of thumb: If an employee has poor job performance, it is either because the employee is not able or willing or something in theorganizational environment is infringing on the employee’s efforts. Here is how it works speciically, using each variable.The Variables of the Performance FormulaP = PerformanceKSAs = Knowledge, skills, and attitudesM = MotivationE = EnvironmentThe Performance FormulaThese variables interact and come together to create the performance formula, as follows (Blanchard & Thacker 2013; Mitchell, 1982):Performance = f(KSAs × M × E)KSAs = Ability; M = Motivation; E = EnvironmentThe premise of the formula is relatively straightforward. When we evaluate an employee’s job performance, we can irst gauge it from a binary sense; in otherwords, is one of the independent variables positive (+) or negative (−)? If we deem the state of any of the variables to be negative (−), the job performancewould be negative because, as we learned in grade school:1 × 1 × −1 = −1And it makes common sense, too; we would expect job performance to be impacted:If the employee is not able (−)If an employee is not willing (−)If something in the environment is negatively affecting the employee (−)The performance formula has a caveat, however; it should only be used as a point of departure, and it should be used more iguratively than mathematicallybecause invariably you will have someone point out that when you multiply two negatives you get a positive. Although we do not take the formula so literally, itis worth noting that if an employee was not able (−) and not willing (−), the environment would likely turn negative (−) before long. Hence, three negativesequal a negative!The performance formula does not address capacities or speciic tactical decisions on performance, for example. Furthermore, because it has been shown thatan employee’s increased ability is linked to an employee’s motivation (Nelson & Quick, 2013; Weick, 1984) and vice versa, the formula would indeed have acircular logic error if put into a spreadsheet.Understanding Workplace Performance: The PerformanceFormula

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…5/23Critical Thinking Questions1. Based on your own experience in the workplace, are there other variables notincluded in the performance formula that may affect workplace performance?2. Are each of the three variables equal in their inluence on workplaceperformance? Explain your answer.Food for Thought: Who Performs Better: Individuals or Teams?HRD considers the performance of not only individuals and the organization but also teams. There has been research and debate about whetherindividuals perform better by themselves or as part of group (Donnelly, 2021; Forsyth, 2010; Kerr & Tindale, 2004; Stangor, 2013). The short answer is. . . it depends. Consider these domains of performance (Avolio, 2011; Bass & Avolio, 1994): conjunctive (last effort completes group), disjunctive (bestindividual enhances group), and additive (combined effort).The best way to illustrate this idea is to frame it as a selling competition. The company, Axel Ltd., really needs to sell the older model excess inventoryquickly so it does not have to include the inventory on its inancial statements on this iscal year’s annual report. Axel Ltd. has three sales departments,A, B, and C, in each of its three regions; each sales department has four salespersons.Sales Department A had the following sales from its salespeople: $46,000, $47,000, $47,000, and $49,000.Sales Department B had the following sales from its salespeople: $54,000, $41,000, $41,000, and $35,000.Sales Department C had the following sales for its salespeople: $48,000, $47,000, $46,000, and $51,000.If we evaluate sales performance conjunctively, then sales department A wins. With its last salesperson closing their inal sale for a total of $49,000,the entire Sales Department A successfully closed on all sales before Sales Departments B and C.If we evaluate performance disjunctively, then Sales Department B wins. This department had the best individual sales effort ($54,000) of anydepartment.If we evaluate performance additively, then Sales Department C wins. The summation of all sales for Sales Department C ($192,000) was the most ofany department.Question to Consider1. Should organizations promote individual performance or group performance?2. Which type of domain of performance underscores that a team is only as good as its weakest link?Breaking Down the Performance FormulaIf the objective is to ensure that the variables of performance stay positive (+), it is key that we understand what makes up KSAs, M, and E. So, let us start byfurther deining the variables.Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSAs)Within the KSAs, it is important to break down even further the terms individually, so let’s look at each domain.KnowledgeKnowledge (K) is an understanding of ideas or principles related to a particular job subject (Anderson et al., 2001; Bloom, 1956). Additionally, job knowledgeis communicated, especially between trainer and trainee, within the explicit, implicit, and/or tacit realm as part of knowledge management. As Figure 2.1

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…6/23illustrates, whether an idea is explicit, implicit, or tacit will depend on whether the idea has been, or can be, articulated (Ellerman, 2020; Nickols, 2000).Figure 2.1: Knowledge management lowchartEffective training in the workplace is a function of the trainer and trainee effectively communicating job knowledge.How a trainer communicates job knowledge can fall within the explicit, implicit, and/or tacit realm.The static igure has been replaced by an interactive version. Click here(https://ne.edgecastcdn.net/0004BA/constellation/PDFs/BUS375_2e/Figure2.1.pdf) for a static version.Adapted from “The Knowledge in Knowledge Management,” by F. W. Nickols, in J. W. Cortada and J. A. Woods (Eds.), The Knowledge ManagementYearbook 2000–2001 (pp. 12–21), 2000, Butterworth-Heinemann.Explicit knowledge is that which can be and has been articulated. Examples of explicit knowledge would be information found in the company policymanual, facts given out about the company health beneits program, or information shared in a how-to training video.Implicit knowledge is knowledge that can be articulated but has not been (at least, not yet). For example, as a new employee, I may ask during myorientation, “Where are the restrooms located?” My coworker responds, “Oh, down the stairs to the left.” In this exchange, but for me asking, theinformation about the location of the restrooms was in the implicit realm; it only becomes explicit knowledge when articulated. Similarly, an existingemployee may ask for clariication on a personal time-off policy, thus getting information unknown but for inquiring. When it comes to training,speciically, the reasons a trainer, whether a supervisor or coworker, does not tell the understudy everything that the trainee would need to know foreffective job performance could vary from noble to self-serving (Allen, 1922). Here are some reasons and examples of implicit knowledge; that is, whysomething that could have been articulated was not.Productive reason: “Sure, I could tell David everything, but I believe he will learn better if he tries out some things himself and learns by trial anderror; he’ll understand things better that way.”Neutral reason (including trainer laziness): “Ah, sorry; I had forgotten to tell you that.”Counterproductive reason: “If I tell David too much, he’ll know as much as I do and then the higher-ups won’t value me as much!” So-called liesof omission fall under this reasoning.Tacit knowledge is that which cannot be articulated; tacit knowledge can be described as “learned by doing.” This type of job knowledge will not befound in a training manual, and the worker is usually unconsciously competent in this knowledge; in other words, the worker is so skilled they donot even think about the skill, let alone have an ability to describe it. This is known as automaticity. One example of tacit knowledge would be alongtime worker who can identify production patterns, recognize market trends, or project outcomes out of what could be called instinct. Polanyi(1967; Polanyi & Sen, 2009) described tacit knowledge as we can know more than we can tell; the French might describe this as je ne sais quoiknowledge.From a training perspective, understanding knowledge management is essential, especially as it relates to implicit knowledge. Effective training programsensure that important facts about job performance are conveyed to new hires. In short, the quality of training is dependent in no small part on thecommunication patterns between the trainer and trainee as it relates to job knowledge. Not only do trainers have to understand explicit, implicit, and tacitcommunication patterns, they also must be able to use that proper communication pattern at the proper time, even sometimes all three in one training session.Skills

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…7/23Now that we have evaluated the knowledge piece of KSAs, let us look at skills (S). Skills are the psychomotor or cognitive aptitude in terms of ease andprecision of how one does a task (Bloom, 1956). Skill sets can be broken down within the job as must know, need to know, and nice to know (McArdle, 1999;Ramanand, 2021).Must-know skills usually are legally required by the government; for example, “to maintain your business license, the city requires caregivers at a daycare facility to be trained and certiied in CPR.”Need-to-know skills would usually be organizationally bound; for example, “You need to know how to work the phone system or web press here ifyou wish to work at Kopp, Inc.”Nice-to-know skills are just that—desirable but not necessary. For example, “Because we have many Hispanic customers, speaking Spanish would bedesirable for the new receptionist position.” Interestingly, with an increasingly diverse workplace, this nice-to-know skill may actually be a need-to-know skill, especially in metropolitan areas such as Miami, New York, and Los Angeles.From a performance evaluation standpoint, it is important to differentiate between these skills and evaluate appropriately. For example, you may have a raterwho focuses only on an employee exceeding expectations in the desirable region of performance yet ignores that the employee is still lacking in the necessaryskills.Food for Thought: Job Aids—A Cost-Effective Way to Improve Knowledge and Skills ImmediatelyIs it possible to improve performance without a training intervention? The answer is “yes.”Job aids, sometimes called performance support aids (Brown & Green, 2019; Rossett & Schafer, 2006), are non-instructive interventions to improve jobperformance. Speciically, when added to the work situation, job aids are anything that improves job performance by guiding, facilitating, or remindingperformers what to do in accomplishing job tasks (Brown & Green 2019; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011).According to Stolovitch and Keeps (2011) and Brown and Green (2019), job aids have the following characteristics.They give information that enables the user to know what actions and decisions a speciic task requires.They reduce training time by minimizing the amount of knowledge or skills the user must remember in order to perform the task.They assume that the user has prerequisite skills and knowledge to carry out speciied actions and interpret information.They are used during actual performance of the task.Job aids are intended to assist the employee in immediate performance tasks, not to develop the employee. Job aids can take on many different forms,such as the following (Charlton & O’Brien 2019; Sleight, 1993; Willmore, 2006):checklistshow-to instructionslaminated cards with phone extensionsto-scale modelsto-do listsAccording to Rossett and Schafer (2012), job aids are “helpers in life and work . . . a repository for information, processes, and perspectives that informand guide planning and action” (p. 2). When lack of skill or knowledge is the cause of inadequate performance, job aids (versus training) areappropriate (Stolovitch & Keeps, 2011).AttitudesAttitudes (A) are person’s general feelings of favorableness or unfavorableness, especially as those feelings relate to new learning. Although it is true that onedoes not get a second chance to make a good irst impression, further (functional) interaction with a coworker or supervisor can change someone’s attitude.One way to frame this dynamic is using attitudinal direction. For example, I remember a student who was giving me a bad attitude and was rude to meduring class meetings. One day after class, I took the student aside and asked her why she was acting this way toward me. She explained that, earlier in thesemester, she had seen me on campus walking toward her and said, “Good morning, Dr. Kopp,” whereupon I ignored her and kept walking. She thought I hadheard her, but I had not. Indeed, if we “reverse engineer” her behavior toward me, we can see how it was linked to her initial perceptions, per her attitudinaldirection (for more on the effects of attitude direction, attitude intensity, and structure of beliefs on differentiation, see original research by Harvey et al., 1968,and reafirmation by Kruglanski & Higgins, 2013).Attitudinal DirectionPerception + Judgment → EmotionEmotion → BehaviorPerception: “I see Dr. Kopp.”Judgment: “He’s aloof and rude.”Emotion: “I feel hurt and upset.”Behavior: “I’ll be rude to him, too.”This text deines KSAs as “knowledge, skills, and attitudes”; however, other authors refer to KSAs as “knowledge, skills, and abilities.” Clark (2012) explains thevariation in the Food for Thought feature box titled What Does the “A” in “KSA” Really Mean: “Attitude” or “Ability”?

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…8/23Food for Thought: What Does the “A” in “KSA” Really Mean:“Attitude” or “Ability”?The Case for “A” as “Attitude”The Department of Defense Handbook: A System Approach to Training (U.S. Department of Defense, 1988) used the terms “knowledge,” “skills,” and“attitude.” The handbook listed the learning levels for attitude:receivingrespondingvaluing (judgment)competenceKnowledge, skills, and attitudes relate directly to the Bloom’s taxonomy domains of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor:cognitive—knowledgeaffective—attitudepsychomotor—skillsRobert Gagné (1972) developed ive categories of learning:verbal informationintellectual skillcognitive strategyattitudemotor skillHowever, perhaps the irst mention of tying the three KSAs together is in a book edited by Gagné (1962). Meredith Crawford (1962) describes how thecourse objectives depend on how accurate the determination of knowledge and skills is. And as the training progresses, the learners form attitudesaboutthe training program,the knowledge and skills they are expected to acquire, andthe parent organization.The Case for “A” as “Abilities”The U.S. Department of Energy (1994) training handbook uses the terms “knowledge,” “skills,” and “abilities.”In Human Resource Development, Professor of Management Jon Werner (2021) uses the term “abilities”; Werner deines abilities as general capacitiesrelated to the performance of a set of tasks. These capacities develop over time through the interaction of heredity and experience. Although skills aresimilar to abilities, they differ in that they combine abilities with capabilities that are developed due to training and experience. Werner goes on todeine knowledge as an understanding of factors or principles related to a particular subject. Based on this deinition, it seems that abilities are reallythe “informal” version of skills—sort of like informal learning and formal learning. Following this line of reasoning, rather than just three categories,perhaps there should be four: knowledge (formal), intelligence (informal), abilities (informal), and skills (formal)—or for short, KIAS. In addition,Werner writes that it is KSAs, attitudes, and motivation that inluence employee behavior. Thus, continuing one step further, perhaps the categoriesshould be knowledge (formal cognitive), intelligence (informal cognitive), abilities (informal psychomotor), skills (formal psychomotor), attitudes(formal affective), and motivation (informal affective)—or for short, KIASAM.“Attitude” Versus “Ability”In their classic text, Training for a Rapidly Changing Workplace, Miguel Quiñones and Addie Ehrenstein (1997) used the term “ability.” However, theypoint out a distinction that should help explain why the acronym KSA has two different meanings. They distinguish between instructional objectives andlearning outcomes. Instructional objectives are a link between the results of a needs assessment and the design of training. The authors describe thejob performance the learners require; thus, perhaps “ability,” rather than “attitude,” makes more sense when used in this context.On the other hand, learning outcomes link the design of training to the selection of instructional strategies. They relect the educational and traininggoals of the designers and are derived from the learning objectives. And when formulating instructional or learning strategies, we normally refer to ataxonomy, such as Bloom’s cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Thus, “attitude” starts to make more sense when used in this context.ConclusionIt seems that the “A” in “KSA” originally meant “attitude.” It then became politically correct to use “ability” rather than “attitude” because it was deemedincorrect to change someone’s attitude if that person behaved correctly. Whereas our profession was at one time almost completely dominated bybehaviorism, we now have far greater perspectives to draw from; thus, we need to look beyond just behavior since a current correct behavior does notalways equal a correct future behavior. For example, when speaking of safety, it is just as important to have the correct attitude as it is to have thecorrect knowledge and skills. That is, as a warehouse employee, when I go to work in a warehouse full of heavy equipment, I want my fellow workers todisplay not only the correct behavior but also an attitude toward safety. My ability to come home in one piece depends on it! When viewing the “A” fromthe performance side of training, then perhaps “abilities” make more sense. However, when viewing the “A” from the strategy side, then perhaps“attitude” works better.Source: Adapted with permission from What Does the “A” in KSA Really Mean?, by D. Clark, 2012, Big Dog & Little Dog’s Performance Juxtaposition(http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/KSA.html (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/KSA.html) ).

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…9/23Questions to Consider1. If we were to take the position that the “A” in “KSA” means “abilities,” then where would we capture and represent the attitudinal issues oftraining and performance?2. How would your training strategy be impacted if “A” were “attitudes” rather than “abilities”?Motivation (M)Now that we have considered KSAs, let us evaluate the M, or motivation, portion of the performance formula. Motivation is that which causes arousal,direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented; in sum, an employee’s willingness to do their job.Substantial research has been done over the decades regarding what motivates adults. Content theories of motivation seek what motivates adults; theseinclude Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which underscores that adults are motivated by unmet needs. As a practical matter, two employees in the samedepartment may have very different Maslow inventories; for example, if one employee is going through a divorce or has an ill child, that employee is dealingwith metaphoric safety issues, whereas another employee may be pursuing higher esteem needs. As a result, an employee’s socioeconomic situation or statuscould impact their performance.Expectancy TheorySome process theories of motivation try to determine the process of how adults are motivated (Vroom & Jago, 1988; Vroom & Yetton, 1973), and some modelsdifferentiate what motivates adults versus what motivates children (Knowles, 1973).For example, let us look at one process theory of motivation of Vroom & Yetton’s (1973) model of expectancy theory. Expectancy theory proposes thatindividuals will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated due to the value (called “valence”) they place on a certain outcome and theprobability of that outcome occurring (Latham, 2011). Following is our scenario.Isaac is asked by his supervisor to work on an urgent report. Here are some potential outcomes, with values from −10 to 10, and hypothetical probabilities.1. If Isaac completes the report, his boss will be especially appreciative, and there is a good chance he will be in line for a $5,000 bonus. (Valued by Isaac:9; 90% chance bonus will come through.)2. If Isaac completes the report, it will conirm for his boss that Isaac is ready for that next level, and she will recommend him for a promotion; therecommendation will then go to a committee. (Valued by Isaac: 10; 60% chance of promotion being granted.)3. Completing the report means working over the weekend and missing his son’s soccer game; as a result, there is a good chance that Isaac will get intoan argument with his spouse. (Negatively valued by Isaac: −7; 90% probability of argument.)Ranking Possible Outcomes1. Bonus of $5,000 (value 9 × probability 90%) = 8.12. Promotion and pay of $10,000 per year more (value 10 × probability 60%) = 6.03. Marital discord (value −7 × probability 90%) = −6.3In this hypothetical case, we would predict that Isaac was more motivated to work on the report with the potential outcome of a bonus (score of 8.1). Consideralso that although Isaac may value a promotion more, he may rationally know it does not have much likelihood of happening (score of 6.0), unlike the muchhigher probability of his getting a bonus. Also, it seems that a bonus is more of a driver for Isaac than the potential restrainer an argument with his spousewould realize (score of – 6.3).HRD in Practice: The Case of the $10 Off a HoneyBaked Ham®Keisha was excited as she opened her paycheck. Once again, she and each of her departmental colleagues had received an extra $3,000 check as part oftheir holiday bonus from Dyrex, Inc.; this one made 3 years in row. “With this year’s bonus,” she thought, “I will put a down payment on a car for Carrie.What great way to end another year!”One year later, Dyrex fell on some hard inancial times and had to close some of its international sites.Keisha opened her year-end paycheck with some trepidation. She had heard the rumors, but as she pulled out her paycheck, she saw they were true: acoupon for $10 off a HoneyBaked Ham®! She was angry. “This is ridiculous . . . where is my $3,000? This stinks!”Though dramatized for effect, the premise of this vignette is clear: Once the bonus became perceived as an entitlement, it lost its motivational power.Using extrinsic rewards works; however, you must use them sparingly, like seasoning. Although it does not have to be an either–or proposition, when itcomes to adult learners, we in HRD spend most of our time using intrinsic motivational reward strategies, following the advice of adult educatorMalcolm Knowles and his theory of andragogy, the art and science of how adults learn. That is, we understand that in the long run, applause from yourcolleagues while shaking the CEO’s hand for a job well done can be more valuable than a $3,000 bonus check!Questions to Consider1. Though Keisha is upset by the lack of a real bonus this year, do you think her work performance will suffer?2. Keisha had heard rumors around the company; how could prior organizational communication from management have eased the shock of thelack of a bonus this year?

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…10/23The FLOW model can be used to capture the state of an employee’s motivationat a given time. As you assess the status of both the employee’s skill sets andhow challenged he or she may feel on the job, you can uncover whether anemployee is anxious, bored, apathetic or in FLOW.As it relates to job performance speciically, two motivational models are especially relevant: low and SVVE. Let us look at each.FlowPer the performance formula, employee motivation plays a signiicant part in employee job performance outcome; in fact, as an employee’s on-the-jobmotivation goes, so goes their job performance.One way to evaluate the state of employee motivation is by using Hungarian psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990, 2014) four-channel low model.In the low model, the state of an employee’s motivation is based on the status and interaction of two forces: the employee’s skill set, or ability (high or low),and the employee’s assessment of the challenges of the job (high or low; see Table 2.1).Table 2.1: State of motivation via lowDomainEmployee skill set(high or low)Workplace challenge(high or low)Resulting motivation: negative (−)(distress) or positive (+)(eustress)ApathyLowLowNegative (−)BoredomHighLowNegative (−)FlowHighHighPositive (+)Source: Adapted from Flow and the Foundations of Postive Psychology, by M. Csikszentmihalyi, 2014, Harper & Row.For example, employees who are new to an organization will naturally be anxious (skills = low, challenge = high) during the irst months of the employmentbecause they are on a learning curve. (The next section will discuss onboarding.) As a result, their skill set may not be at a competent level to meet therequired tasks. An important point here is that workers will feel anxiety while learning new tasks; this is natural. However, if anxiety becomes a chronic state,there are other issues to address. As it relates to job performance, there are studies that show not all stress is the same. Eustress (“good” stress) is productive,whereas distress (“bad” stress) is debilitating (Szalma & Hancock, 2008; Terelak, 2019).The next domain is apathy, which occurs when employees not only have a less-than-competent skill set (skills = low) but also do not have, nor care to have,any workplace challenge (challenge = low). This type of employee may put it this way: “Listen, I don’t want to learn anything new and wouldn’t know how to doit anyway.”Contrast this to employees who are experiencing boredom. In this domain employees are competent enough (skills = high), but there is no workplacechallenge to engage them (challenge = low); their articulation might sound like this: “I have so much to offer the organization, but no one listens to my greatideas; they just give me this paper to push out. I’m so bored here!”Finally, there is low. Csikszentmihalyi described low as completely focused motivation, a single-minded immersion that represents the ultimate engagementwhile in the service of performing and learning. In sum, employees in the low domain are in the performance zone where high skill meets high challenge.The Flow Model and MotivationCritical Thinking Questions1. How would the intervention be different, if at all, between a chronically boredemployee and one who is just occasionally bored at his or her job?2. Describe when an employee would be anxious on the job? Should organizationstry to avoid placing employees in anxiety-provoking situations? Explain your

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToken…11/23answer.SVVEWhen it comes to job performance and the assumptions people make about how adult learners are motivated, another useful framework in managingmotivation in job performance is Wlodkowski’s SVVE (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, 2017), which stands for success, volition, value, and enjoyment. Thisframework makes the following assumptions about employees; these assumptions can help ensure that employees stay motivated as they perform their jobtasks.Success. Adults want to be successful learners; few employees come to work every day and say, “I’m here to do a bad job.” The assumption should bethat employees want to do a good job, and your role is to ensure that they have the requisite KSAs to succeed at doing their job duties. (See the Foodfor Thought feature box titled Theory X and Theory Y earlier in the chapter.)Volition. Adults want to have a say or sense of choice in their learning. Although every job has necessary duties, motivational beneits occur if theemployee participates in the decision-making process concerning the order, pace, and modality of the required training.Value. Employees want to learn something of value. Speciically, adult learners need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking tolearn it (Knowles, 1973).Enjoyment. Finally, though it is called work, adults want to have some level of enjoyment while performing their job. And not surprisingly, researchstudies conirm that a happy employee is a productive employee (Oswald et al., 2015).Environment (E)Now that we have considered KSAs and motivation (M), let us look at the inal variable to the performance formula, environment (E), ensuring that it, too,stays positive (+). Whereas KSAs and M were variables with respect to the employee, environment is everything that is associated with the employer thataffects the employee. Admittedly, the environmental barriers to job performance can be many, including a newly introduced, post-pandemic barrier—that ofthe remote workplace.These barriers include things such as poor supervision, frustrating coworkers, an organizational culture that does not support learning, ineficient job design,and perceived inequity in reward systems. Being impacted by the work environment also conirms why even an able and willing employee may end upperforming poorly. See Table 2.2 for a list of some the factors in the work environment that could inluence an employee’s job performance.Table 2.2: Work environment factors that affect employee performancePriority areas of focusBehaviors and actions that matter to employeesLeadershipLeaders are effective at growing the business.Leaders show sincere interest in employees’ well-being.Leaders behave consistently with the organization’s core values.Leaders earn employees’ trust and conidence.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…12/23Employee stress, balance, and workloadEmployees have manageable stress levels at work.Employees maintain a healthy balance between work and personallife.There are enough employees in the group to do the job right.Employees have lexible work arrangements.Goals and objectivesEmployees understand:The organization’s business goals.Steps they need to take to reach those goals.How their job contributes to achieving goals.SupervisorsSupervisors assign tasks suited to employees’ skills.Supervisors act in ways consistent with their words.Supervisors coach employees to improve performance.Supervisors treat employees with respect.Organization’s imageThe organization is highly regarded by the general public.The organization displays honesty and integrity in businessactivities.Source: Rick, 2014.Did You Know? The Work Environment and Employee PerformanceAs discussed earlier, even if employees are willing and able, if their work takes place in a negative work environment (-1), more than likely their overallperformance will be deicient. Therefore, it is crucial that we are able to distinguish between a functional work environment (+1) and a dysfunctionalone (-1), even if the work environment is now virtual. The following articles give context for each.What makes for a positive work environment (+1)? Here author Michael Poh discusses the ive characteristics of a positive work environment:http://www.hongkiat.com/blog/positive-working-environment. (http://www.hongkiat.com/blog/positive-working-environment/)Not surprisingly, in addition to honoring workplace balance, organizations that are training and development-focused are said to have workingenvironments that are afirmative and healthy, which give rise to more successful performance outcomes.What makes for a negative work environment (-1)? In this article, Amanda Deiratani of TeamBonding discusses the 10 signs that the workenvironment is dysfunctional: https://www.teambonding.com/10-signs-that-youre-in-a-toxic-work-environment/(https://www.teambonding.com/10-signs-that-youre-in-a-toxic-work-environment/)On the contrary, organizations that lack a training and development focus tend to have working environments that are punitive and toxic. Suchdysfunctional work environments can breed bullying and microaggressions within the workplace. Policies are not enforced equally or at all; this givesrise to an unhealthy working culture. It is especially in these circumstances that DEI programs can have an impact.Well-thought-out DEI programs also consider intersectionality, which is a facet of DEI programs that not only consider the overall aspects of diversity,equity and inclusion but also take into account what Crenshaw (2022) describes as a person’s combined vulnerabilities. For example, while there may becompany efforts to understand and empathize with the historical obstacles and struggles that African Americans have faced, there are additionalbarriers that an African American female and/or African American of the LGBTQ+ community encounter that an African American heterosexual,cisgender male does not. As a result, programs that seek to transform negative work environments into positive ones must incorporate intersectionality,as well (see Figure 2.2).Figure 2.2: Notion of intersectionalityIncorporating intersectionality programs into the workplace can help create a more positive environment throughinclusion.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…13/23

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…14/232.3 Quality of Performance: Expertise, Competence, and IncompetenceAs discussed in Chapter 1, the framework of HRD includes a goal of expertise seeking, both on the job and at the organizational levels. (Chapter 8 will discussorganizational learning.) So, when it comes to evaluating the quality or outcome of job performance in the workplace, we can typically discuss it in the contextof three domains of job performance: expertise, competence, and incompetence.ExpertiseExpertise is not only a mastery of the speciic KSAs of the job but also a state of mind for continuous improvement, which expert employees tend to have; thatis, they are never done learning. Experts are so experienced that they become unconsciously competent (see Table 2.3), moving from a job-based perspective toan intuitive, knowledge-based perspective of the tasks at hand (Abubakar et al., 2019; Farrington-Darby & Wilson, 2006).In fact, expertise seeking means that learners must adopt new paradigms and sometimes “unlearn” old ones (Hedberg, 1981). Experts are also able to predictprocess outcomes versus just reacting to them. It is within this domain of expertise seeking that Swanson (2022) says that the best opportunity to change theorganization, versus just maintaining it, exists. And expertise seeking is not easy; Ericsson et al. (2007) warn, “The development of genuine expertise requiresstruggle, sacriice, and honest, often painful self-assessment” (p. 2).CompetenceCompetence is deined as the employee’s ability to perform the job properly (Collin, 1989; Hull & Peter, 2020). But unlike expertise, competence is aboutoutcome, not process or development (Swanson, 2022; Swanson & Holton, 2001), and as a result, the disadvantage of an employee just being competent isthat there is no room for risk taking or “thinking outside the box.” As a practical matter, although an employee’s job performance may currently be satisfactory,a competent worker is only one small step away from being an incompetent worker—both consciously and unconsciously, as Table 2.3 shows.IncompetenceIncompetence is an inability to perform one’s job properly. However, supervisors must determine whether the job performance incompetence is a chronicperformance state or is temporal and part of a learning curve. For example, as the next section will discuss, incompetence could be a natural phase duringnew employee learning.As Chapter 9 will discuss, from a career development standpoint, the organization must protect against a systemic incompetence and the so-called Peterprinciple; that is, Hull and Peter (2020) warned against promoting employees to their level of incompetence. For example, just because our employee Roxane isa productive worker, does that mean she would be a good production supervisor? Not necessarily. Without adding the requisite production supervision KSAsto the competency framework, her effectiveness as a supervisor will be questionable at best.Consider that not only is there a continuum from incompetence to competence, there is also a continuum of employee consciousness regarding an employee’sown competence. That is, an employee can be either conscious or unconscious of their competence or incompetence. Table 2.3 describes each state.Table 2.3: Consciousness and competenceCompetenceIncompetenceConsciousConscious competencePeople achieve conscious competence in a skill when theycan perform it reliably at will.People will need to concentrate and think in order toperform the skill.People can perform the skill without assistance.People will not reliably perform the skill unless thinkingabout it—the skill is not yet second nature or automatic.People should be able to demonstrate the skill to others butare unlikely to be able to teach it well to another person, asdescribed in our earlier discussion of tacit communication.People should ideally continue to practice the new skill and,if appropriate, commit to becoming unconsciouslycompetent at the new skill.Practice is the single most effective way to move not onlyfrom incompetence to competence but from conscious tounconscious competence.Conscious incompetencePeople achieve conscious incompetence when theybecome aware of the existence and relevance of the skill.People are therefore also aware of their deiciency in thisarea, ideally by attempting to use the skill.People realize that by improving their skill or ability in thisarea, their effectiveness will improve.Ideally, people have a measure of the extent of theirdeiciency in the relevant skill and a measure of what levelof skill is required for competence.People ideally make a commitment to learn and practice thenew skill and to move to the conscious competence stage.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…15/23UnconsciousUnconscious competenceThe skill becomes so practiced that it enters theunconscious parts of the brain—it becomes second nature.Common examples are driving, sports activities, typing,manual dexterity tasks, listening, and communicating.It becomes possible for certain skills to be performed whiledoing something else—for example, knitting while reading abook.People might now be able to teach others in the skillconcerned, although after some time of being unconsciouslycompetent, someone might actually have dificultyexplaining exactly how to do it—the skill has become largelyinstinctual.This arguably gives rise to the need for long-standingunconscious competence to be checked periodically againstnew standards.Unconscious incompetenceWith unconscious incompetence, people are not aware ofthe existence or relevance of the skill area.People are not aware that they have a particular deiciencyin the area concerned.People might deny the relevance or usefulness of the newskill.People must become conscious of their incompetencebefore development of the new skill or learning can begin.The aim of the trainee or learner and the trainer or teacheris to move the person into the conscious competence stageby demonstrating the skill or ability and the beneit it willbring to the person’s effectiveness.Source: Adapted from Using the Conscious Competence Ladder for Better Workplace Learning, by Shift eLearning, 2021 (https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/conscious-competence-ladder-workplace-learning (https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/conscious-competence-ladder-workplace-learning) ).The assumption from a training standpoint is that a trainee begins at unconscious incompetence but ends at unconscious competence, having passed throughconscious incompetence and conscious competence phases.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…16/23The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) can represent a workplace learningcurve not only for new employees, but also for current employees learning newconcepts. Optimizing the ZPD triangle can help ensure that training is botheffective and eficent, and can represent a real cost-savings to the organization.2.4 New Employees: Onboarding for Job PerformanceAnother important aspect of job performance to consider is the time during which a new employee is being trained and assimilated into the organization; thisis known as the onboarding period. One of the frameworks that can be used to illustrate this newbie dynamic is Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximaldevelopment, or ZPD.ZPDCritical Thinking Questions1. How might an employee’s learning style inluence his or her timeline required forneeding assistance?2. Who or what should determine how long the training period should be? Forexample, 30 days, 60 days, 6 months?The premise of ZPD is that when a new employee enters an organization (To), the employee may need up to 100% assistance from a peer trainer orsupervisor; in fact, the new employee would be incompetent on their own. And certainly, the level of assistance needed will vary with factors such as how self-directed the employee is (Chapter 5 will discuss self-directed learning) and the communication processes between the trainer and trainee (explicit, implicit,and tacit domains). So, although an employee comes to an organization with a requisite skill set (for example, a college degree or certiications), they have notactually demonstrated any proiciency in any skills (yet). See Figure 2.3 for theoretical versus “real” ZPD.Optimizing the onboarding process as a cost savingsThe area of the right triangle represents time and, therefore, cost. If the area of the ZPD triangle can be minimizedwithout compromising employee job performance, onboarding cost savings can be realized.Adapted from Using the Conscious Competence Ladder for Better Workplace Learning, by Shift eLearning, 2021 (https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/conscious-competence-ladder-workplace-learning (https://www.shiftelearning.com/blog/conscious-competence-ladder-workplace-learning) ).;You Don’t Know What You Don’t Know—The 4 States of Competence, by Movementum, n.d.(https://movementum.co.uk/journal/competence (https://movementum.co.uk/journal/competence) ).

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…17/23As time progresses and training transfers (Chapter 8 will discuss training transfer), the level of needed assistance should decline accordingly, and by the endof the onboarding period (Te), the employee will be able to do the job tasks competently and will no longer need assistance. Of course, the process is notalways so neat. However, as Figure 2.3 illustrates, even metaphorically, an organization may realize a potential cost savings if it ensures that the onboardingprocess is optimized. In fact, geometry demonstrates that the area of a triangle can be minimized by reducing one of its sides; an example would be if we wereable to reduce the onboarding time frame from 120 days (Te-old) down to 90 days (TTe-new). This means using the best personnel to do the training, as wellas using the most effective training procedures. Evaluating job performance is an ongoing management task, so ensuring an effective onboarding process forall new hires—virtual or in-person—is an important part of ensuring that all employees are performing up to their potential and employer expectations.Did You Know? Remote Onboarding and Job PerformanceAs discussed in Chapter 1, organizations had to pivot to a remote work model due to COVID-19, and post-pandemic there is an expectation byemployees to continue a remote model for work and meetings, Indeed, because employers saw beneits to remote work such as greater productivity,lower absenteeism, and decreased turnover, many organizations made the business decision to allow some job positions to remain remote andpermanently go to a telecommuting model (SHRM, 2021), including virtual training and e-training, which will be discussed in the training design sectionof Chapter 4.Given that the post-pandemic workplace includes employees working remotely as part of its norm, it is vital that organizations have an effectiveonboarding program for the online workforce to ensure that their online (E)nvironment is positive (+), and therefore their online job performance ispositive(+). An expert panel at the Forbes Human Resources Council listed these 14 effective tips for onboarding remote employees:https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbeshumanresourcescouncil/2021/06/21/14-effective-tips-for-onboarding-remote-employees/?sh=4689c1e2155a (https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbeshumanresourcescouncil/2021/06/21/14-effective-tips-for-onboarding-remote-employees/?sh=4689c1e2155a) .Visit this Gallup poll showing the greater productivity in remote work: https://www.gallup.com/workplace/283985/working-remotely-effective-gallup-research-says-yes.aspx (https://www.gallup.com/workplace/283985/working-remotely-effective-gallup-research-says-yes.aspx) .

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…18/232.5 Poor Performance Analysis—Managing the GapBecause one of HRD’s primary objectives is to move employees—and ultimately, work teams and the organization itself—from their current state to animproved future state, managing performance really becomes an exercise in managing and closing the gap between the current state of performance and theimproved future state.Root Cause AnalysisOne way to evaluate a “performance gap” is to do what is called a root cause analysis (Basarab, 2011; Rothwell, 2005a; Wysocki, 2004). Root cause analysis isthe process of determining why the gap exists and inding the solution to close that gap (Basarab, 2011; Latino et al., 2020). For example, we could perform aroot cause analysis after hearing that a worker slipped and fell on a puddle of oil on the facility loors; using root cause analysis, we would go beyond justaccepting that the slip was due to an oil spill on the loor and then instructing the worker to be more careful. A proper root cause analysis would instead lookfor fundamental problems in the workplace, such as the following.Why was the oil on the loor in the irst place?One of the gaskets in the compressor is leaking.Why did the oil remain on the loor?It was initially overlooked because that side of the compressor is not usually checked as part of the daily workstation inspections.Why was the oil not cleaned up when noticed?Each employee thought the other was going to clean it up.By reviewing the answers to just these three whys, you can gather that corrective actions will entail daily inspections that include checking that side of thecompressor and monitoring the quality of the gaskets. Corrective actions will also include instructing each worker to remember that safety is everyone’sbusiness and to never ignore a safety hazard or assume someone else will take care it. More examples of root cause analysis can be found at the OccupationalSafety and Health Administration (OSHA) website: https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/iles/publications/OSHA3895.pdf(https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/iles/publications/OSHA3895.pdf) .A root cause analysis for evaluating employee job performance is represented in Table 2.4. By evaluating the state of an employee’s ability and willingness(high or low), you can target the intervention for poor performance to see whether it is even a training issue (e.g., lack of training) or stems from the workenvironment, motivational issues, or organizational recruiting practices.Table 2.4: Poor performance analysisThe static table has been replaced by an interactive version. Click here (https://ne.edgecastcdn.net/0004BA/constellation/PDFs/BUS375_2e/Table2.4.pdf) for astatic version.Attribution AnalysisSometimes, pinpointing the origin of a job performance gap can be challenging. For example, is the gap due to the employee (KSAs and M) or somethingaffecting the employee (E)? One way to evaluate the origin of a dysfunction is to employ attribution analysis. Originally developed by Kelley and Michela(1980) and later afirmed by Hewett et al. (2019), attribution analysis considers three dimensions to establish whether the reasons for the behavior are due tothe employee (dispositional) or the environment (situational). The three dimensions follow.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…19/23Consistency. The degree to which a worker performs that behavior regularly.Consensus. The degree to which other workers engage in the same behavior directed at the same person.Distinctiveness. The degree to which a worker’s behavior is speciic to another unique worker.Here is an example of how attribution analysis might work.“We observe within a group that Mark doesn’t work well with Gisela.”After some investigation, you may come up with the following scenarios.It is just Mark who does not work well with Gisela (low consensus). He seems to get into disagreements with Gisela quite often (high consistency), andyou ind out that Mark does not work well with the other group members either (low distinctiveness). So, we would be more likely to explain Mark’sbehavior in terms of a negative property of Mark; that is, he is aggressive, unpleasant, a bully, and so on. Attribution is internal: Mark (low, high, low).Other group members also do not work well with Gisela (high consensus). Many group members often have problems with Gisela (high consistency),and the other group members seem to have disagreements only with Gisela (high distinctiveness). In these circumstances, we are likely to attributeMark’s behavior to some disposition of Gisela; for example, there is something she repeatedly does that tests everyone’s patience. Attribution isexternal: Gisela (high, high, high).Using Kelley and Michela’s (1980) classic three dimensions, we have seen how the pattern low, high, low leads to explanation in terms of negative attributionsabout Mark, whereas high, high, high leads to negative attributions about Gisela. Some patterns are quite easy to discern; others are more subtle and moredificult to identify. For example, high, low, high implies that there are particular situations in which Gisela gets on everyone’s nerves, and low, low, highsuggests that the incident was due to some unfortunate and unforeseeable circumstance (adapted from Davies, 2013).Returning to Opening Case—Job PerformanceRecall the case discussed in the introduction. The new inishing department manager, Raquel, sat down with each of her employees, came up with individualperformance plans, and decided to use leadership styles suited to each employee’s situation, per the situation leadership grid irst established by Hersey andBlanchard (1977) and reafirmed by Hersey et al. (2013), which suggests an appropriate leadership style based on the readiness of the follower’s willingnessand ability.For Kai, since he was able and willing to perform, Raquel would make sure to continue keeping workplace barriers to a minimum so Kai could continue toperform his job effectively. For Sandra, who was not able but willing, Raquel was going to ensure that Sandra would be effectively trained; in fact, she thoughtof delegating that task to Kai so he could train Sandra.Greg was able but not willing and presented a situation a bit more complicated. Raquel found that Greg was upset about having been transferred to theinishing department; she was going to work on building a relationship with Greg so he would deem her a credible and fair supervisor. Hopefully, this wouldchange Greg’s attitude for the better.And inally, Juanita, who was not able and not willing, presented the most challenging situation. Juanita was already very much in “retirement mode”; she wasnot open to learning new things and was barely competent in what she was currently doing. In sum, she was apathetic. In the short run Juanita would have tobe told what to do and be highly directed and monitored. There was a chance that if Juanita had some small successes, her willingness would improve, too.Otherwise, Raquel would have to exercise progressive discipline.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…20/23Summary and ResourcesChapter SummaryBecause the concept of performance has largely been a practice-based phenomenon, this chapter irst relected on three core philosophicalperspectives: performance as a natural outcome of human activity, performance as necessary for economic activity, and performance as a tool fororganizational oppression.The chapter also addressed how the work environment is affected by the organization’s diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts. DEI programs can havemore of an impact if they incorporate intersectionality, which not only considers the overall aspects of diversity, equity, and inclusion but also takesinto account a person’s combined vulnerabilities.Then the performance formula underscored that job peformance does not just happen; it depends on three key variables: KSAs, motivation, andenvironment. The irst two variables belong to the employee, and the last variable belongs to the employer.The chapter explained that the way in which these variables interact becomes crucial to performance outcomes. Speciically, if any variable is negative,performance is negative, and we can then determine why the employee is incompetent, competent, or expert in their job performance.Performance during onboarding for new employees can be illustrated using Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development. This model also shows howresponsibly minimizing the area of the triangle represents minimizing onboarding costs, as well.Once an employee’s performance is found to be lacking, employers can intervene by irst diagnosing where the breakdown occurs; for example,looking at an employee’s willingness and ability can help isolate the intervention. If an employer’s workforce is chronically unable and unwilling, areview of recruiting and selection practices with human resource management might be useful.Assess Your Learning: Critical Relection1. What are the dimensions of the performance formula, and what is meant by 1 × 1 × −1 = −1?2. How might your assumption about your employees be linked to your management style?3. What are the performance outcomes of incompetence, competence, and expertise seeking?4. How is the zone of proximal development used during new employee onboarding?5. How can the low model be used to intervene in employee motivation issues?6. How are tacit, implicit, and explicit communication linked to job performance?Additional ResourcesWeb ResourcesFor more information on Fred Nickols’s knowledge management:http://www.nickols.us/Knowledge_in_KM.htm (http://www.nickols.us/Knowledge_in_KM.htm)For detailed information on job aids:http://www.hsa-lps.com/E_News/ENews_Jul09/mainFrame_Jul09.htm (http://www.hsa-lps.com/E_News/ENews_Jul09/mainFrame_Jul09.htm)For more on the effects of attitude direction, attitude intensity, and structure of beliefs on differentiation:https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1969-06820-001 (https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1969-06820-001)For more about root cause analysis and templates:https://www.perkbox.com/uk/resources/blog/7-free-root-cause-analysis-templates-and-how-to-use-them(https://www.perkbox.com/uk/resources/blog/7-free-root-cause-analysis-templates-and-how-to-use-them)Further ReadingBlanchard, P. N., & Thacker, J. W. (2013). Effective training: Systems, strategies, and practices (5th ed.). Pearson Education.Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Flow and the foundations of positive psychology: The collected works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Springer Netherlands.Latino, K. C., Latino, M. A., & Latino, R. J. (2020). The PROACT® root cause analysis: Quick reference guide. CRC Press.Rossett, A., & Schafer L. (2012). Job aids and performance support: Moving from knowledge in the classroom to knowledge everywhere. John Wiley & Sons.Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.Wlodkowski, R., & Ginsberg, M. (2017). Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A guide to improving instruction and increasing learner achievement. Jossey-Bass.Key TermsClick on each key term to see the deinition.ability(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The current state of an employee’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes in totality as they relate to performing a speciic job.additively(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…21/23Relating to a job that is performed by the combined effort of individuals or groups.apathy(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23A domain in the low model of motivation. Apathy occurs when the employee not only has a less-than-competent skill set but also does not have, nor care tohave, any workplace challenges.attitudes (A)(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23A person’s general feelings of favorableness or unfavorableness, especially as feelings related to new learning; one of key variables of the performanceformula.attitudinal direction(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The perception, judgment, emotion, and behavior of or relating to attitudes; one of the dynamics that can be used to change people’s attitudes.attribution analysis(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23A means of evaluating the origin of a dysfunction that considers three dimensions to establish whether the reasons for the behavior are due to the employee(dispositional) or the environment (situational): consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness.automaticity(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The ability to do or perform things without conscious thought as a result of learning, repetition, and practice; an example of this is tacit knowledge.boredom(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23A domain in the low model of motivation; the employee is competent enough (high skills), but there is no workplace challenge to engage them (low challenge).conjunctively(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Relating to a way of evaluating a performance in which a group completes a given task only when the last individual of the group completes the task.conscious competence(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The state of being aware that one knows what to do.conscious incompetence(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The state of being aware that one does not know what to do; an example of this may be a new employee at the beginning of the learning curve.consensus(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The degree to which other workers perform the same behavior toward the same person.consistency(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The degree to which a worker performs any behavior regularly.current state(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The initial state of performance before a change was implemented.disjunctively(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Relating to a way of evaluating a performance in which the best individual effort enhances the group.distinctiveness(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The degree to which a worker’s behavior is speciic to another unique worker.environment (E)(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Anything within the organizational environment (such as a supervisor, systems, and coworkers) that would affect the employee’s job performance.

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…22/23explicit(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Describes anything that is stated clearly and in detail, leaving no room for confusion or doubt. Explicit knowledge is that which can be and has been articulated;for example, information found in the company policy manual.low(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23A domain in the low model of motivation that experts need to have. Flow is completely focused motivation, a single-minded immersion that represents theultimate engagement while in the service of performing and learning in a high-challenge environment.implicit(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Describes a statement or fact that is implied though not plainly expressed; implicit knowledge is knowledge that can be articulated but has not been.improved future state(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The outcome state of performance after a change was made while overcoming the in-between area, or performance gap. One of the points of agreement inHRD practice is a problem orientation in which the path of the current state to the future state allows for the in-between area to be the HRD opportunity (orthe problem).job aids(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Any non-instructive or non-learning interventions to assist and improve job performance by guiding, facilitating, or reminding performers what to do in jobtasks. These are also called performance-support aids, job performance aids, performance support systems, or if found on a computer, electronic performancesupport systems.knowledge (K)(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The understanding of ideas or principles related to a particular job subject.motivation (M)(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23An employee’s willingness to perform the job voluntarily. Motivation is one of the key elements of the performance formula.must-know skills(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Skills that are legally required for any given job or occupation.need-to-know skills(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Any organizationally bound skills.nice-to-know skills(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Any desirable but not completely necessary skills.onboarding period(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The period when new hires may need 100% assistance from a trainer or supervisor upon their employment; this is sometimes called the “honeymoon period.”performance (P)(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The collaborated outcome of human activity from three variables: the ability (KSAs), motivation, and environment; the valued productive output of a system inthe form of goods or services. In HRD this is viewed as the natural outcome of human activity and is necessary for economic activity and a tool fororganizational oppression.performance formula(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23An equation that tests whether any of the variables that make up employee performance (KSAs, motivation, and environment) are positive or negative, withthe premise that if any is negative then performance will be negative, following the 1 × 1 × −1 = −1 rule.perspectives of workplace performance(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23

8/8/23, 1:46 AMPrinthttps://content.uagc.edu/print/Kopp.6900.23.1?sections=ch02,ch02intro,sec2.1,sec2.2,sec2.3,sec2.4,sec2.5,ch02summary&content=all&clientToke…23/23The core philosophical perspectives to conceptually understand a practice-based job performance; that is, performance as a natural outcome of humanactivity, performance as necessary for economic activity, and performance as an instrument of organizational oppression.Peter principle(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The principle that states that an employee will tend to rise to their level of incompetence. This was formulated by Laurence J. Peter and Raymond Hull in their1969 classic, The Peter Principle, in which they warned against promoting employees to their level of incompetence.root cause analysis(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23One way to evaluate a performance gap; it is the process of determining why the gap exists and inding the solution to close that gap.skills (S)(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23A psychomotor or cognitive activity in terms of ease and precision in how one does a task. This can be broken down as must-know, need-to-know, and nice-to-know skills within the job.tacit(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23Pertaining to any statement or fact that is understood or implied without being stated. Tacit knowledge is that which cannot be articulated but can be describedas “learned by doing.”unconscious incompetence(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23The state of not being aware of one’s impact on the system or that one is not doing one’s job.unconsciously competent(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23.1/sections/cover/books/Kopp.6900.23When someone is performing a task but not aware that they are; this is more of a natural low and not necessarily expertise seeking but rather an autopilotmode.

Collepals.com Plagiarism Free Papers

Are you looking for custom essay writing service or even dissertation writing services? Just request for our write my paper service, and we'll match you with the best essay writer in your subject! With an exceptional team of professional academic experts in a wide range of subjects, we can guarantee you an unrivaled quality of custom-written papers.

Get ZERO PLAGIARISM, HUMAN WRITTEN ESSAYS

Why Hire Collepals.com writers to do your paper?

Quality- We are experienced and have access to ample research materials.

We write plagiarism Free Content

Confidential- We never share or sell your personal information to third parties.

Support-Chat with us today! We are always waiting to answer all your questions.