Review the Final Project Rubric, located in the Course Information area, and consider the requirements needed for the Final Project Assignment. Select two psychological theories and

Psychology Perspectives

Behaviorist Perspective

The psychology perspective of interest is the behaviorist perspective. As the name suggests, this is a psychological perspective concerned with behavior. Humans and other animals respond differently when exposed to different environments. Therefore, behavioral psychologists manipulate the environment (stimuli) and observe how animals or humans react (response) (Mcleod, 2023). This is an exciting psychology perspective because it involves experimenting and implies that something new is always learned. Constant experimenting also enables psychologists to get a lot of experience in their fields, allowing them to be more knowledgeable as they will make better decisions.

Nature and Nurture

From a psychological point of view, nature significantly refers to innate biological factors or genetics. These are characteristics that people and animals are born with; they do not need to be taught. For instance, a child will cry when they feel pain or discomfort; this is a natural behavior. On the other hand, nurture is concerned with acquired behaviors that are influenced by the environment. For instance, children raised in different environments will react differently to the same situation. Nature and nurture are significant to the behavioral perspective of psychology because they directly impact behavior.

Interplay Between Biology and Environment

Biology and environment significantly impact behavior; they are core factors in behavioral psychology (Eccleston, 2018). Biological factors determine how animals or people behave naturally without being manipulated. On the contrary, the environment presents situations that affect how people behave. Different backgrounds result in other behaviors. Biological factors are inbuilt behaviors that people are born with. Environmental factors enable animals to acquire new behaviors depending on what they are exposed to. Behavioral psychologists consider biological and environmental factors as they study the behavior of animals.

References

Mcleod, S. (2023). Perspectives in Modern Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html#:~:text=The%20five%20major%20perspectives%20in,%2C%20behavioral%2C%20cognitive%20and%20humanistic .

Eccleston, T. (2018). Behavioral Psychology: Understanding Human Behavior. New York: Clanrye International Publishers.

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Students Name: Turissa Keys

University: Walden University

Professor: Carl Valdez, Ph.D.

Course: Themes and Theories of Psychology

Date:

Cognitive Development Theory:

Contributors

Jean Piaget: Considered the founder of cognitive development theory. His revolutionary studies and remarks concerning youth's intellectual capacities significantly impacted the evolution of this notion (Klahr & Wallace, 2022).

Lev Vygotsky: Made considerable contributions to the intellectual expansion theory field, emphasizing the part of social and cultural elements in academic advancement.

Nature vs. Nurture

Cognitive development theory emphasizes both nature and nurture. It recognizes the interaction between innate biological factors and environmental influences in shaping cognitive development (Klahr & Wallace, 2022).

Primary Characteristics

Key tenets: Children actively construct knowledge through their experiences and interactions with the environment.

Concepts: Stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational), assimilation and accommodation, object permanence, conservation, and egocentrism (Klahr & Wallace, 2022).

Emphasizes cognitive changes that occur from infancy through adolescence.

Strengths

Provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how children's thinking evolves.

Highlights the active role of the child in constructing knowledge and the importance of interactions with the environment (Klahr & Wallace, 2022).

Has influenced educational practices and curriculum development.

Weaknesses

The theory's stage-based approach has been criticized for oversimplifying the complexity of cognitive development.

Some argue that it may not adequately consider cultural variations in cognitive development.

Piaget's research has faced challenges regarding the age ranges and sequencing of cognitive milestones.

Attachment Theory:

Contributors

John Bowlby: Developed attachment theory based on his observations of the bond between infants and their primary caregivers.

Mary Ainsworth: Conducted the famous "strange situation" experiment, which expanded our understanding of attachment patterns.

Nature vs. Nurture

Attachment theory emphasizes the interaction between nature and nurture. It suggests that biological predispositions interact with early caregiving experiences to shape attachment styles (Johnson, 2019).

Primary Characteristics

Fundamental tenets: Attachment is a biologically driven need for infants to seek proximity and safety from their caregivers.

Concepts: Secure attachment, insecure attachment (avoidant, ambivalent/resistant, disorganized), internal working models, and sensitive caregiving.

Emphasizes the importance of early relationships and their influence on emotional and social development.

Strengths

Provides a valuable framework for understanding the significance of early relationships in human development.

Has practical implications for interventions and treatments to promote healthy attachment relationships (Johnson, 2019).

Weaknesses

Critics argue that the theory may oversimplify complex interactions between infants and caregivers.

Attachment patterns may be influenced by multiple factors beyond the caregiver-child relationship.

References

Klahr, D., & Wallace, J. G. (2022).  Cognitive development: An information-processing view. Routledge.

Johnson, S. M. (2019). Attachment theory.  Encyclopedia of Couple and Family Therapy, 169-177.

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One of my dearest playthings as an infant was a set of construction blocks. As specified by Piaget's hypothesis of psychological development, during the preoperational stage, which typically happens between the ages of 2 and 7, kids start to create allegorical portrayals and take an interest in make-believe (Sanghvi, 2020).

During this stage, egocentrism, animism, and intuitive reasoning characterize children's thinking. In the context of playing with building blocks, these cognitive characteristics were evident.

Egocentrism: I may have focused on my perspective and ideas while playing with the blocks in line with selfish thinking. I might have built structures according to my desires and imagination without considering others' viewpoints or cooperation.

Animism: During the stage of animistic thinking, individuals exhibit a cognitive tendency to attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects (Sanghvi, 2020). During this developmental phase, I might have engaged in imaginative play where I endowed ordinary objects, such as toys or building blocks, with personalities and roles. These objects would become characters in my make-believe world, each with unique traits and contributions to the story or scenario I had constructed.

Intuitive Reasoning: During the developmental stage described, intuitive reasoning takes precedence, leading to limitations in logical reasoning and abstract thinking (Sanghvi, 2020). Consequently, my tactic to play with construction pieces would have been primarily motivated by instinct, experimentation, and straightforward cause-and-effect associations instead of complicated problem-solving techniques. I would have depended on my gut feelings and intuitions to direct my incidents with the building blocks for intuitive understanding at the highest level.

Research by Babakr et al. (2014) supports the notion that during the preoperational stage, children engage in imaginative and symbolic play, which aligns with the characteristics displayed in space with building blocks. It's important to note that individual experiences and variations exist within each stage of cognitive development.

References

Babakr, Z., Mohamedamin, P., & Kakamad, K. (2019). Piaget's cognitive developmental theory: Critical review.  Education Quarterly Reviews,  2(3).

Sanghvi, P. (2020). Piaget's theory of cognitive development: a review.  Indian Journal of Mental Health,  7(2), 90-96.

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Bowlby's attachment theory asserts that children are born with a need for connection with at least one primary guardian as the adult supplies "help and reaction" (Guerrero, 2021, paragraph 6). This interjected with the conducted hypothesis of connection demonstrating food as the motivation behind why a tyke connected to a person (Heard, 2018). Bowlby further accentuated that this relationship was shielding for endurance; if this bond were not made by age 5, it would have unique mental and social struggles (Guerrero, 2021).

Gernhardt et al. (2016) performed a research project using imagery from 6-year-olds to assess and measure attachment. It is assumed that kids portray their emotional condition and bliss in pictures; thus, drawing a family photo would give an understanding of attachment ties inside the family (Gernhardt et al., 2016). Several appraisal apparatuses have examined attachment quality in sketches, including the Checklist of Drawing Signs and Global Rating Scales (Gernhardt et al., 2016). As these inventories spread, an inquiry was created if they were pertinent crosswise over cultures. Gernhardt et al.'s (2016) supposition was drawing marks would be distinctive over societies considering the cultural and socialization shaping, so they led an examination to decide if attachment classifications were dependable crosswise over organizations utilizing the two fundamental estimation tools. Representations were gathered from two assorted social and cultural populaces.

Culture A was "western urban middle-class households with formidable educational attainments, parenthood in later years, a small number of children, and nuclear family structures from Berlin, Germany," and Culture B was "non-western rustic subsistence-agriculture families with scant educational accomplishment, early parenthood, a significant number of children, and lengthy multigenerational homes from NW province of Cameroon" (Gernhardt et al., 2016, p. 1070). In Culture A, socialization focused on independent aims, the growth of an unrestrained child, equal union, and alternating with "close contact" (p. 1070). In Culture B, socialization concentrated on associations, esteem for older adults, authority, and keeping peace with numerous caregivers delivering care with physical contact to soothe the kid.

The investigation's findings corroborated the speculation affirming that attachment characterizations varied across the two cultural groups based on drawing symbols (p. 1074). As estimated, Culture A demonstrated safe attachments, whereas Culture B demonstrated dangerous attachments; however, it doesn't appear reasonable to analyze different societies' results utilizing a unified device that doesn't consider this (p. 1074). This raises doubts about the credibility and meaning of safe and unstable attachment across societies (p. 1076).

Cultural A and B have various social and cultural qualities influencing connection, reactions, and identity for childhood. It began with the disparities in disciplining objectives of the mother. These societal and social attributes contrast yet don't demonstrate one is more favored than the other in this examination.

References

Mooya, H., Sichimba, F., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (2016) Infant–mother and infant–sibling attachment in Zambia. Attachment & Human Development ( 18)6, 618 – 635.

DOI: 10.1080/14616734.2016.1235216

Guerrero, L. K. (2021). Attachment theory: A communication perspective. In  Engaging theories in interpersonal communication (pp. 299-313). Routledge.

Heard, D., McCluskey, U., & Lake, B. (2018).  Attachment therapy with adolescents and adults: Theory and practice post Bowlby. Routledge.

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The conditioning technique I have chosen is operant conditioning to provide a plan to reduce bullying. The operant activity emphasizes how consequences modify behavior. For this purpose, we can exploit positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and reprimand mold behavior and hinder bullying.

To address bullying, the strategy would involve the following operationalized characteristics within the framework of operant conditioning:

Positive Reinforcers: In this strategy, positive reinforcement will be utilized to encourage positive behaviors and discourage bullying. When students display gracious deportment, for instance, exhibiting kindness, tenderheartedness, or including others, they will gain approbation and acknowledgment from teachers and associates (Akpan, 2020). This benevolent reward seeks to augment the desired activity, making it more probable to happen. Positive reinforcement acts as positive reinforcement in operant conditioning.

Negative Reinforcers: Negative reinforcement involves removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. In bullying mitigation, detrimental consequences can be implemented by cultivating an atmosphere where bullies experience negative repercussions that they find disagreeable (Bąbel, 2020). For example, if students exhibit bullying, they might be obligated to attend special conferences or classes focused on sympathy, reconciliation, or anger governance. The detrimental consequence in this situation is the termination of the disagreeable result (e.g., being isolated or ousted from daily activities) after the desired behavior is presented (e.g., attending classes and displaying enhanced behavior).

Punishers: Punishment in operant conditioning involves introducing an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. In the bullying mitigation strategy, punishment can be used as a deterrent (Bąbel, 2020). For instance, if a student is consistently engaged in bullying, they may receive disciplinary measures such as detention, loss of privileges, or even a temporary suspension from school. These consequences act as punishers, discouraging bullying behavior and making it less likely to be repeated.

References

Akpan, B. (2020). Classical and Operant Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov; Burrhus Skinner.  Science Education in Theory and Practice: An Introductory Guide to Learning Theory, 71-84.

Bąbel, P. (2020). Operant conditioning as a new mechanism of placebo effects.  European Journal of Pain,  24(5), 902-908.

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Students Name: Turissa Keys

University: Walden University

Professor: Carl Valdez, Ph.D.

Course: Themes and Theories of Psychology

Date

Theory: Behaviorism

Contributors

John B. Watson: Considered the founder of behaviorism, Watson emphasized the study of observable behavior and rejected the focus on subjective experiences.

B.F. Skinner: Augmented on Watson's thoughts and devised the concept of operant conditioning, which focused on the influence of aftermaths in forming habits.

Ivan Pavlov: Despite primarily being known for his pioneering experiments with canines, Pavlov's work served to establish the basic principles of linking indicators and reactions to affect behaviors.

Nature/Nurture Emphasis

Nurture (environment)

Key Tenets and Concepts

Focus on Observable Behavior: Behaviorism emphasizes the study of external, observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes or subjective experiences.

Stimulus-Response Associations: Behavior is seen through learning by associating specific stimuli and corresponding responses (Bosnjak et al., 2020).

Emphasis on Learning: Behaviorism emphasizes the role of learning in developing and modifying behavior (Bosnjak et al., 2020). It suggests that behaviors are acquired through conditioning processes rather than being innate or instinctual.

Primary Period of Life Emphasized

Behaviorist theories focus on behavior across the lifespan, from infancy to adulthood.

Strengths of Behaviorism

Scientific Approach: Behaviorism emphasizes objective and measurable behaviors, making it amenable to scientific study.

Practical Applications: Behaviorist principles have been successfully applied in various fields, such as education, therapy, and behavior modification (Bosnjak et al., 2020).

Emphasis on Environmental Factors: Behaviorism highlights the role of the environment in shaping behavior, emphasizing the potential for behavior change through modifying environmental conditions (Ajzen, 2020).

Weaknesses of Behaviorism

Neglect of Cognitive Processes: Behaviorism overlooks the influence of internal mental processes, cognition, and subjective experiences, which are now crucial in understanding human behavior (Ajzen, 2020).

Limited Scope: By limiting its attention to perceptible behavior, behaviorism may not capture intricate human encounters, passions, and inner conditions (Bosnjak et al., 2020).

Lack of Individual Differences: Behaviorist beliefs pass by the significance of singular diversities in demeanor, such as individuality qualities, which can impact how persons respond to ecological stimulants.

References

Bosnjak, M., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Selected recent advances and applications.  Europe's Journal of Psychology,  16(3), 352.

Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions.  Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies,  2(4), 314-324.

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Students Name: Turissa Keys

University: Walden University

Professor: Carl Valdez, Ph.D.

Course: Themes and Theories of Psychology

Date: 07/16/2023

Theories Selected:

Social Cognitive Theory

Self-Determination Theory

The Rationale for Selection:

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory, created by Albert Bandura, offers a structure to comprehend the effect of social media on emotional well-being. This hypothesis spotlights the return relationship between people, their condition, and their conduct. It lifts the job of impressive learning, self-adequacy convictions, and individual office in forming human behavior (Beauchamp et al., 2019). Social Cognitive Theory can help explain the sources and advancement of how social media use affects emotional well-being outcomes. The theory expresses that people learn through observation and duplication of others' activities, which also applies to social media use (Beauchamp et al., 2019). Taking a gander at others participating in harmful practices or experiencing negative results on social media can prompt the selection of comparative approaches or the improvement of adverse mental outcomes, for example, low confidence, melancholy, or uneasiness.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory (SDT), pioneered by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on self-driven motivation and the psychological necessities that influence human conduct. This hypothesis accentuates the significance of autonomy, skill, and connection in promoting personal growth and prosperity. In the social media setting, SDT can uncover how achieving these psychological needs affects people's experiences and results.

Social media platforms often provide opportunities for self-expression and connection, which can satisfy individuals' need for relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2022). However, excessive social media use or engagement in certain behaviors (e.g., seeking validation through likes or comments) may compromise individuals' autonomy and lead to external regulation or dependence on social media for self-worth.

Both theories selected have strengths and limitations. Social Cognitive Theory provides valuable insights into the observational learning processes and the role of self-efficacy, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of how social media influences mental health outcomes. Self-Determination Theory focuses on intrinsic motivation and psychological needs, highlighting the importance of autonomy and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2022). It offers a framework for designing interventions that promote healthy social media use and foster positive well-being.

References

Beauchamp, M. R., Crawford, K. L., & Jackson, B. (2019). Social cognitive theory and physical activity: Mechanisms of behavior change, critique, and legacy.  Psychology of Sport and Exercise,  42, 110-117.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2022). Self-determination theory. In  Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and well-being research (pp. 1-7). Cham: Springer International Publishing.

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