In thinking about the nature versus nurture debate, exp
In thinking about the nature versus nurture debate, explain why you think nature, nurture, or both has/have the strongest impact on development. Include information from the video and scholarly resources to support your viewpoint. Please give specific examples from your own development or the development of someone you know.
Be sure to provide the URL link(s) and/or title(s) to any resource used as reference in your post.
Video link:
Essentials of Understanding Psychology
Robert S. Feldman | Thirteenth Edition
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Chapter 9 Development
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MODULE 27: Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue
How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors?
What is the nature of development before birth?
What factors affect a child during the mother’s pregnancy?
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Developmental Psychology
Study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life
Nature-nurture issue: Degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior
Behavioral geneticists – Study the effects of heredity on behavior
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Figure 1: Characteristics Influenced Significantly by Genetic Factors
Physical Characteristics
Height
Weight
Obesity
Tone of voice
Blood pressure
Tooth decay
Athletic ability
Firmness of handshake
Age of death
Activity level
Intellectual Characteristics
Memory
Intelligence
Age of language acquisition
Reading disability
Mental retardation
Emotional Characteristics and Disorders
Shyness
Extraversion
Emotionality
Neuroticism
Schizophrenia
Anxiety
Alcoholism
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5
Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture
Genetically control laboratory animals and place in varied environments
Findings from animal research provide important information that cannot be obtained for ethical reasons by using human participants
Identical twins: Twins who are genetically identical
Source of information about the relative effects of genetic and environmental factors
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Developmental Research Techniques
Cross-sectional research: Compares people of different ages at the same point in time
Assess differences among groups of people
Longitudinal research: Investigates behavior as participants age
Assess change in behavior over time
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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (1)
Chromosomes: Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information
Genes: Parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted
Composed of sequences of DNA
Control the development of systems of the human species – Heart, circulatory system, brain, lungs, and so forth
Shape the characteristics that make each human unique
Determines child’s sex by a particular combination
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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (2)
Human genome project
Scientists mapped the specific location and sequence of every human gene
Revolutionized health care because:
Scientists identified the particular genes responsible for genetically caused disorders
Led to the:
Identification of risk factors in children
Development of new treatments for physical and psychological disorders
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The Earliest Development (1)
Zygote: New cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm
First 2 weeks are known as the germinal period
Embryo: Developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs
Embryonic period – Entered by the developing individual, two weeks after conception
Organs are clearly recognizable, despite being at a primitive stage of development
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The Earliest Development (2)
Fetus: Developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth
Fetal period
Movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them
Age of viability: Point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely
Prenatal development involves passing through several sensitive periods
Time when organisms are susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli
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The Earliest Development (3)
Preterm infants – Born before week 38
Unable to develop fully in utero, infants are at higher risk for illness, future problems, and death
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Genetic Influences on the Fetus
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Sickle-cell anemia
Tay-Sachs disease
Down syndrome
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Prenatal Environmental Influences
Teratogens: Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect
Mother’s nutrition
Mother’s illness
Mother’s emotional state
Mother’s alcohol and/or drug use, including nicotine
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Figure 3: Environmental Factors and Development
| Environmental Factor | Possible Effect on Prenatal Development |
| Rubella (German measles) | Blindness, deafness, heart abnormalities, stillbirth |
| Syphilis | Intellectual disability, physical deformities, maternal miscarriage |
| Addictive drugs | Low birth weight, addiction of infant to drug, with possible death after birth from withdrawal |
| Nicotine | Premature birth, low birth weight and length |
| Alcohol | Intellectual disability, lower-than-average birth weight, small head, limb deformities |
| Radiation from X-rays | Physical deformities, intellectual disability |
| Inadequate diet | Reduction in growth of brain, smaller-than-average weight and length at birth |
| Mother's age—younger than 18 at birth of child | Premature birth, increased incidence of Down syndrome |
| Mother's age—older than 35 at birth of child | Increased incidence of Down syndrome |
| DES (diethylstilbestrol) | Reproductive difficulties and increased incidence of genital cancer in children of mothers who were given DES during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage |
| AIDS | Possible spread of AIDS virus to infant; facial deformities; growth failure |
| Accutane | Intellectual disability and physical deformities |
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Alternative Paths to Conception
In Virto Fertilization (IVF)
Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT)
Surrogacy
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MODULE 28: Infancy and Childhood
What are the major competencies of newborns?
What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood?
How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?
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The Extraordinary Newborn (1)
Neonate: Newborn child
Factors causing neonate’s strange appearance
Squeezing of the incompletely formed bones during trip through the mother’s birth canal
Vernix – White greasy covering, for protection before birth
Lanugo – Soft fuzz, over the entire body
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The Extraordinary Newborn (2)
Reflexes: Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
Rooting reflex
Sucking reflex
Gag reflex
Startle reflex
Babinski reflex
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Figure 1: Voluntary Movement Milestones
Source: Adapted from Frankenburg et al., 1992.
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Development of the Senses: Taking in the World
Habituation: Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
Visual abilities grow rapidly after birth
Distinguishing different sounds
Recognizes mother’s voice at the age of 3 days
Distinguishing taste and smell
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Infancy Through Childhood
Physical development
Children gain triple their birth weight during first year of life
Increase in height by half during first year of life
From age 3 to adolescence, average growth of 5 pounds and 3 inches per year
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (1)
Attachment: Positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
Konrad Lorenz
Focused on newborn goslings
Labeled a process called imprinting
Imprinting – Behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object observed
Harry Harlow’s study on attachment
Wire monkey versus cloth monkey
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (2)
Assessing attachment
Ainsworth strange situation: involving a child and caregiver (typically mother)
Securely attached children
Avoidant children
Ambivalent children
Disorganized-disoriented children
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (3)
Father’s role
Number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly
Engage in more physical, rough-and-tumble activities
Nature of attachment to children can be similar to that of mother’s
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (4)
Social relationships with peers
Helps children interpret the meaning of others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately
Helps children learn physical and emotional self-control
Provides children with opportunities for social interaction, enhancing their social development
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (5)
Consequences of child care outside the home
High-quality care centers can positively impact the child
Children in child care are more considerate and sociable than other children
Children in child care interact more positively with teachers
Intellectually more stimulating
Low-quality child care provides little or no gain and may even hinder development
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (6)
Parenting styles and social development
Authoritarian parents: Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children
Permissive parents: Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them
Authoritative parents: Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them
Uninvolved parents: Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached
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Figure 7: Parenting Styles
| Parenting Style | Parent Behavior | Type of Behavior Produced in Child |
| Authoritarian | Rigid, punitive, strict standards (example: "If you don't clean your room, I'm going to take away your iPod for good and ground you.") | Unsociable, unfriendly, withdrawn |
| Permissive | Lax, inconsistent, undemanding (example: "It might be good to clean your room, but I guess it can wait.") | Immature, moody, dependent, low self-control |
| Authoritative | Firm, sets limits and goals, uses reasoning, encourages independence (example: "You'll need to clean your room before we can go out to the restaurant. As soon as you finish, we'll leave.") | Good social skills, likable, self-reliant, independent |
| Uninvolved | Detached emotionally, sees role only as providing food, clothing, and shelter (example: "I couldn't care less if your room is a pigsty.") | Indifferent, rejecting behavior |
Source: © Gary John Norman/Getty Images RF
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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (8)
Temperament: Basic, innate characteristic way of responding and behavioral style
Resilience – Ability to overcome circumstances that place children at high risk for psychological or even physical harm
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (1)
Psychosocial development: Development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (2)
Trust-versus-mistrust stage
Occurring from birth to age 1½ years
Develop feelings of trust or lack of trust
Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
Occurring during 1½ to 3 years of age
Develop independence or self-doubt
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (3)
Initiative-versus-guilt stage
Occurring between 3 to 6 years of age
Experiences conflict between independence of action and negative results of that action
Industry-versus-inferiority stage
Occurring between 6 to 12 years of age
Develop positive social interactions
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Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World (1)
The process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage: Stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols
Object permanence: Awareness that objects continue to exist even if they are out of sight
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Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World (2)
Preoperational stage: Period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development
Egocentric thought: Way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective
Principle of conservation: Knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects
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Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World (3)
Concrete operational stage: Period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism
Formal operational stage: Period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought
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Figure 8: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
| Cognitive Stage | Approximate Age Range | Major Characteristics |
| Sensorimotor | Birth—2 years | Development of object permanence, development of motor skills, little or no capacity for symbolic representation |
| Preoperational | 2 to 7 years | Development of language and symbolic thinking, egocentric thinking |
| Concrete operational | 7 to 12 years | Development of conservation, mastery of concept of reversibility |
| Formal operational | 12 years-adulthood | Development of logical and abstract thinking |
Source: © Farrell Grehan/Corbis
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Information-Processing Approaches (1)
The way in which people take in, use, and store information
Metacognition: An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes
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Information-Processing Approaches (2)
Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development – considering culture
Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves
Scaffolding – Provides support for learning
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