Why would a person purposely?starve to death? ?What are the socioemotional?components? ?What are the characteristics of individuals who are more likely to develop
Why would a person purposely starve to death? What are the socioemotional components? What are the characteristics of individuals who are more likely to develop anorexia nervosa? Are there any successful therapeutic approaches for this disorder? View the YouTube video below for further guidance
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LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e
John W. Santrock
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter 11
Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter Outline
The Nature of Adolescence.
Physical Changes.
Issues in Adolescent Health.
Adolescent Cognition.
Schools.
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The Nature of Adolescence 1
Adolescents face:
Dramatic biological changes;
New experiences; and
New developmental tasks.
Negative stereotyping of adolescence has been extensive.
However, acting out and boundary testing are time-honored ways in which adolescents move toward accepting, rather than rejecting, parental values.
Ethnic, cultural, gender, socioeconomic, age, and lifestyle differences influence the actual life trajectory of each adolescent.
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The Nature of Adolescence 2
Research on adolescent development can lead to wise and effective social policy decision making.
Youth benefit when they have caring adults in their lives in addition to parents or guardians.
Caring adults serve as role models, confidants, advocates, and resources.
Coaches, neighbors, teachers, mentors, after-school leaders.
Only 20% of U.S. 15-year-olds report having meaningful relationships with adults outside their family who are helping them to succeed.
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Physical Changes: Topics
Puberty.
The brain.
Adolescent sexuality.
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Puberty 1
Puberty: a brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for rapid physical development.
Puberty is not a single, sudden event.
Pinpointing its beginning and end is difficult.
Among the most noticeable changes are signs of sexual maturation and increases in height and weight.
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Puberty 2
Male pubertal characteristics:
Increase in body size.
Appearance of pubic hair, armpit hair, facial hair, chest hair.
Voice change.
Female pubertal characteristics:
Marked weight and height gains.
Pubic hair growth.
Breast growth.
Menarche: a girl’s first menstruation.
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Puberty 3
FIGURE 1: PUBERTAL GROWTH SPURT
On average, the peak of the growth spurt during puberty occurs two years earlier for girls (11½) than for boys (13½).
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Puberty 4
Hormonal changes:
Hormones: powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried throughout the body by the bloodstream.
Testosterone is associated in boys with genital development, increased height, and deepening of the voice.
Estradiol is a type of estrogen that in girls is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development.
Hormones may contribute to psychological development; but social factors are significant.
Behavior and mood can also affect hormones.
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Puberty 5
Timing and variations in puberty:
In the United States, the average age of menarche has declined significantly since the mid-nineteenth century.
Factors include higher BMI and obesity.
Experiences linked to earlier pubertal onset include nutrition, an urban environment, low SES, adoption, father absence, family conflict, maternal harshness, child maltreatment, and early substance use.
For boys, the pubertal sequence begins around 10 to 13½ years of age and ends around 13 to 17.
For girls, menarche normally occurs between ages 9 and 15.
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Puberty 6
FIGURE 2: AGE OF MENARCHE IN NORTHERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THE UNITED STATES IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES
Notice the steep decline in the age at which girls experienced menarche in four northern European countries and the United States from 18 45 to 19 69. Recently the age at which girls experience menarche has been leveling off.
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Puberty 7
Body image:
Preoccupation with body image is strong throughout adolescence.
Girls are less happy with their bodies and have more negative body images.
One study found both boys’ and girls’ body images became more positive as they moved from the beginning to the end of adolescence.
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Puberty 8
Early and late maturation:
Early-maturing boys view themselves more positively and have more successful peer relations.
Late-maturing boys report a stronger sense of identity in their thirties.
More time to explore life’s options.
Focus on physical status instead of career and achievement.
Recent research confirms that it is more advantageous to be an early-maturing boy than a late-maturing boy.
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Puberty 9
Early-maturing girls show greater satisfaction early but less satisfaction later.
More likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, or have disorders.
Struggle for earlier independence, have older friends, have sexual intercourse earlier, and more at risk for physical and verbal abuse in dating.
Less likely to graduate from high school
May cohabit and marry earlier.
Physical maturity does not equal cognitive maturity, and girls may get involved with problem behaviors with long-term negative effects.
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Puberty 10
FIGURE 3: EARLY- AND LATE-MATURING ADOLESCENT GIRLS’ PERCEPTIONS OF BODY IMAGE IN EARLY AND LATE ADOLESCENCE
The sixth-grade girls in this study had positive body image scores if they were early maturers but negative body image scores if they were late maturers (Simmons & Blyth, 19 87). Positive body image scores indicated satisfaction with their figures. By the tenth grade, however, it was the late maturers who had positive body image scores.
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The Brain 1
The corpus callosum, where fibers connect the brain’s left and right hemispheres, thickens in adolescence.
Improves the ability to process information.
The prefrontal cortex, which is the highest level of the frontal lobes involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control, does not finish maturing until emerging adulthood or later.
The limbic system, the part of the brain where emotions and rewards are processed, is almost completely developed in early adolescence.
Amygdala: the limbic system structure especially involved in emotion.
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The Brain 2
FIGURE 4: THE CHANGING ADOLESCENT BRAIN
Access the text alternative for slide images.
Takayuki/Shutterstock
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Adolescent Sexuality 1
Adolescence is a bridge between the asexual child and the sexual adult.
It is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation, of sexual fantasies and realities, and of incorporating sexuality into one’s identity.
Insatiable curiosity about sexuality.
Concern with sexual attractiveness.
May experience vulnerability and confusion.
In the United States, the sexual culture is widely available to adolescents.
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Adolescent Sexuality 2
Developing a sexual identity:
Mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense of sexual identity involve:
Learning to manage sexual feelings.
Developing new forms of intimacy.
Learning how to regulate sexual behavior.
An adolescent’s sexual identity involves:
Activities and interests.
Styles of behavior.
An indication of sexual orientation.
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Adolescent Sexuality 3
Some gay and lesbian youth struggle with same-sex attractions in childhood, avoid heterosexual dating, and gradually recognize their sexual identity by late adolescents.
Others follow a different pathway.
For some, the awareness of same-sex attraction is abrupt, in late adolescence.
The majority also experience some degree of other-sex attractions.
The process is more stressful than for heterosexual youth, often including disclosing their sexual identity to family members.
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Adolescent Sexuality 4
The timing of adolescent sexual behaviors:
In a U.S. national survey conducted in 2017, 57.3% of twelfth-graders reported having experienced sexual intercourse.
Compared with 30% of ninth-graders.
Sexual initiation varies by ethnic group in the United States.
Oral sex is common among U.S. adolescents.
How adolescents initiate their sex lives may have positive or negative consequences for their sexual health.
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Adolescent Sexuality 5
FIGURE 5: SEXUAL ACTIVITY OF U.S. ADOLESCENTS FROM 19 91 TO 2017
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Adolescent Sexuality 6
Risk factors in adolescent sexual behavior:
Many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences.
Early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors.
Substance abuse, especially in early adolescence, is linked to sexual risk practices.
Family factors that affect risk:
Family connectedness.
Parent-adolescent communication about sexuality.
Parental monitoring.
Siblings’ sexual activity.
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Adolescent Sexuality 7
Peer, school, sport, and religious contexts also affect risk.
Association with more deviant peers increases risk.
School connectedness and academic achievement decrease risk.
Sports engagement—more sexual risk taking for boys who play sports; lower sexual risk taking for girls who do so.
Importance of religion.
Cognitive factors implicated in sexual risk-taking include weak self-regulation, and impulsiveness.
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Adolescent Sexuality 8
Too many adolescents still do not use contraceptives, use them inconsistently, or use those that are less effective than others.
Some organizations suggest long-acting reversible contraception (L A R C) for adolescents.
Some forms of contraception, such as the pill, do not protect against S T Is.
Sexually transmitted infections (S T Is): infections contracted primarily through sexual contact, including oral-genital and anal-genital contact.
Nearly half the new S T I infections each year in the U. S. occur in 15- to 24-year-olds.
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Adolescent Sexuality 9
Adolescent pregnancy:
The United States has one of the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy and childbearing in the industrialized world.
Note that where teens are just as sexually active, such as in the Netherlands, the pregnancy rate is still significantly lower.
Adolescent pregnancy creates health risks for both the baby and the mother.
Low birth weight, neurological problems, childhood illness.
Most mothers drop out and never catch up economically.
Adolescent mothers often have depression and a second child, but education and L A R C help reduce rates of both.
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Adolescent Sexuality 10
FIGURE 6: BIRTH RATES FOR U.S. 15- TO 19-YEAR-OLD GIRLS FROM 19 80 TO 2018
Source: National Center for Health Statistics (2019, July). Births in the United States, 2018. NCIS Data Brief No. 346. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
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Issues in Adolescent Health: Topics
Adolescent health.
Substance use and abuse.
Eating disorders.
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Issues in Adolescent Health
To improve adolescent health, adults should aim to:
Increase health-enhancing behaviors.
Eating nutritious foods, exercising, wearing seat belts, getting adequate sleep.
Reduce adolescents’ health-compromising behaviors.
Drug abuse, violence, unprotected sex, dangerous driving.
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Adolescent Health 1
Behaviors linked to both good and poor health habits in adulthood begin during adolescence.
Nutrition and exercise:
National data indicate over 20% of 12- to 19-year-olds are overweight.
Fast-food meals, high in fat, are implicated, along with limited intake of fruits and vegetables, less exercise, and more sedentary activities—including high amounts of screen time.
Being obese in adolescence predicts obesity in adulthood.
Exercise is linked to numerous positive physical, cognitive, and emotional outcomes.
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Adolescent Health 2
Sleep:
Only about 25% of U.S. adolescents get eight or more hours of sleep on an average school night.
Low amounts of sleep and inconsistent sleep patterns are associated with:
Inattention.
Emotional and peer-related problems.
Higher anxiety and levels of suicidal ideation.
Factors include electronic media, caffeine, and changes in the brain coupled with early school start times.
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Adolescent Health 3
FIGURE 7: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN U.S. ADOLESCENTS’ SLEEP PATTERNS ON AN AVERAGE SCHOOL NIGHT
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Adolescent Health 4
Leading causes of death in adolescence:
Unintentional injuries—almost half of all deaths.
Suicide.
Homicide.
The majority of accidents involve a motor vehicle.
Risky driving and driving under the influence may be more important contributors than lack of experience.
Of growing concern is the practice of mixing alcohol and energy drinks.
A high rate of intoxication is also found in adolescents who die as pedestrians or with a vehicle other than an automobile.
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Substance Use and Abuse 1
Although overall drug use by adolescents has declined in recent decades, the United States still has one of the highest rates of adolescent drug use of any developed nation.
Marijuana is the illicit drug most widely used.
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Substance Use and Abuse 2
Alcohol:
Binge drinking is defined as having five or more drinks in a row in the last two weeks.
Males engage in binge drinking more than females.
Adolescents who drive under the influence are a special concern.
Thirty percent of high school seniors have been in a car with a driver who was under the influence.
One in four twelfth-graders in the last 12 months consumed alcohol mixed with energy drinks, and this combination was linked to their unsafe driving.
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Substance Use and Abuse 3
Smoking:
Cigarette smoking is one of the most serious yet preventable health problems among adolescents and emerging adults.
An increasing percentage of adolescents today perceive cigarette smoking as dangerous, and they are less accepting of being around smokers.
However, a substantial number are now using e-cigarettes, which produce a vapor that users inhale.
In most cases the vapor contains nicotine, but specific formulas are not regulated.
E-cigarettes have a gateway effect for cigarette smoking and marijuana use.
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Substance Use and Abuse 4
The roles of development, parents, peers, and education:
Parents play an important role in preventing adolescent drug abuse.
Positive relationships with parents, parental monitoring, and regularly eating dinner together as a family are all linked with a lower likelihood of substance abuse problems.
Heavy episodic drinking by parents is a risk factor for adolescent drinking.
Peers also play a significant role.
Academic success is a strong buffer.
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Eating Disorders 1
Anorexia nervosa: the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
Main characteristics:
Restricted energy intake.
Presence of intense fear of gaining weight.
Disturbance in how body weight is experienced.
Obsessive thinking about weight and compulsive exercise.
Anorexia is 10 times more likely in females.
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Eating Disorders 2
Bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern.
Characteristics and traits of bulimics:
Preoccupied with food.
Have an intense fear of becoming overweight.
Are depressed or anxious.
Have a distorted body image.
Typically fall within a normal weight range.
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Adolescent Cognition: Topics
Piaget’s theory.
Adolescent egocentrism.
Information processing.
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Piaget’s Theory 1
Around age 11, according to Piaget, the formal operational stage begins.
Formal operational thought is more abstract than concrete operational thought.
Increased verbal problem-solving ability.
Increased tendency to think about thought itself.
Thoughts of idealism and possibilities.
More logical thought.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about ways to solve problems.
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Piaget’s Theory 2
Evaluating Piaget’s theory:
Research indicates:
Much more individual variation than Piaget envisioned.
Culture and education exert stronger influences on cognitive development than Piaget maintained.
Most developmentalists agree cognitive development is not as stage-like as Piaget thought.
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Adolescent Egocentrism
Adolescent egocentrism is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents.
Imaginary audience: adolescents’ belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed (“on stage”).
Personal fable: the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves a sense of uniqueness and invincibility.
Research shows, however, that adolescents tend to portray themselves as vulnerable to premature death.
A recent study found greater use of social networking to be linked to a higher level of narcissism.
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Information Processing 1
Important characteristics of adolescents’ information processing and thinking, as identified by Deanna Kuhn:
Individuals approach cognitive levels that may or may not be achieved.
Considerable variation in cognitive functioning is present across individuals.
Adolescents are producers of their own development to a greater extent than are children.
The most important cognitive change is in executive function—especially, managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and to exercise self-control.
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Information Processing 2
Two categories of executive function:
Cool executive function: psychological processes involving conscious control driven by logical thinking and critical analysis.
Increases with age.
Hot executive function: psychological processes drive by emotion, with emotion regulation an especially important process.
Peaks at 14 to 15 years of age, then declines.
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Information Processing 3
Cognitive control and decision making:
Cognitive control: exercising effective control of thinking in a number of areas.
Focusing attention, reducing interfering thoughts, and being cognitively flexible.
Increases in adolescence and emerging adulthood.
Adolescence is a time of increased decision making, but also a time of intense emotions that can overwhelm decision making.
The social context plays a key role in adolescent decision making, especially with regard to risk-taking situations.
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Information Processing 4
Fuzzy-trace theory dual-process model: decision making is influenced by two systems—“verbatim” analytical, and gist-based intuition.
The verbatim analytical system is literal and precise.
Gist-based intuition is based on the simple, bottom-line meaning.
The two operate in parallel.
Valeria Reyna and colleagues propose that gist-based intuition benefits adolescent decision making more than analytical thinking does.
Adolescents need opportunities to practice and discuss realistic decision making.
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Information Processing 5
Critical thinking:
For individuals who still lack fundamental skills (such as literacy and math skills) in adolescence, potential gains in adolescent thinking are unlikely.
For most, certain cognitive changes in adolescence allow improved critical thinking:
Increased speed, automaticity, and capacity of information processing.
More breadth of content knowledge in a variety of domains.
Increased ability to construct new combinations of knowledge.
Greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies for applying or obtaining knowledge.
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Schools: Topics
The transition to middle or junior high school.
Effective schools for young adolescents.
High school.
Extracurricular activities.
Service learning.
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The Transition to Middle or Junior High School
Many changes—in the individual, in the family, and in school—are taking place at this time.
School satisfaction often plunges.
Top-dog phenomenon: moving from being the oldest, biggest, most powerful in elementary school to being the youngest
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