What is sensory processing disorder? ?Describe and discuss the symptoms. How does this relate to autism? There is a great deal of discussion about the cause of au
What is sensory processing disorder? Describe and discuss the symptoms. How does this relate to autism?
There is a great deal of discussion about the cause of autism. post your insights and findings. Along with your textbook, use the following article and video
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-011-1413-8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIK2yXfrCfw
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e
John W. Santrock
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
1
Chapter 7
Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Chapter Outline
Physical Changes.
Cognitive Changes.
Language Development.
Early Childhood Education.
© McGraw Hill
Physical Changes: Topics
Body growth and change.
Motor and perceptual development.
Sleep.
Nutrition and exercise.
Illness and death.
© McGraw Hill
Body Growth and Change 1
Height and weight:
Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5 to 10 pounds per year during early childhood.
Growth patterns vary individually.
The two most important contributors to height differences:
Ethnic origin; and
Nutrition.
Growth hormone deficiency: absence of growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland to stimulate the body to grow.
© McGraw Hill
Body Growth and Change 2
The brain:
Brain growth slows during early childhood.
The brain reaches 95 percent of adult volume by 6 years.
Myelination: nerve cells are covered and insulated with a layer of fat cells.
This increases the speed and efficiency at which information travels through the nervous system.
Children’s brains undergo rapid, distinct spurts of growth, especially in the frontal lobes.
Contextual factors such as poverty and parenting quality affect brain development.
© McGraw Hill
Body Growth and Change 3
FIGURE 1: A MYELINATED NERVE FIBER
A myelin sheath, shown in gray, encases the axons (shown in pink).
Steve Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
© McGraw Hill
Motor Development 1
Gross motor skills:
Most preschool children are more active than they will ever be at any later period in the life span.
Gross motor skills require an effort to stay upright and move around.
Simple movements, like hopping, jumping, and running at age 3.
Athletic movements at home and school at age 4.
Adventurous, hair-raising stunts in gyms and on playground equipment at age 5.
© McGraw Hill
Motor Development 2
Fine motor skills:
Still clumsy at 3 years.
Improved fine motor coordination at 4 years.
Body coordination by 5 years.
Perceptual development:
Age 4 to 5 years: detection of boundaries between letters.
By first grade, children can focus the eyes and sustain attention effectively on close-up objects.
© McGraw Hill
Sleep
Recommended sleep: 10 to 13 hours each night without interruption.
Problems include narcolepsy, insomnia, and nightmares.
Sleep problems are linked with negative outcomes:
Attention problems.
Worse school readiness profiles.
Being overweight.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (A D H D).
More daily screen time is associated with a decrease in sleep time.
© McGraw Hill
Nutrition and Exercise 1
Overweight young children:
Serious health problems can develop when meals exceed recommendations.
Eating behaviors are strongly influenced by caregivers’ behavior.
Categories for obesity, overweight, and at risk for being overweight are determined by body mass index (B M I).
Computed by a formula that takes into account height and weight.
The United States has the second highest rate of childhood obesity.
© McGraw Hill
Nutrition and Exercise 2
Obesity prevention guidelines, daily, for young children:
Five or more servings of fruits and vegetables.
Two hours or less of screen time.
Minimum of 1 hour of physical activity.
Zero sugar-sweetened beverages.
Malnutrition in young children from low-income families:
Eleven million preschool children are experiencing malnutrition.
One common nutritional problem is iron deficiency anemia.
Exercise should occur daily.
© McGraw Hill
Illness and Death 1
In 2017 in the United States, the leading causes of death in young children were:
Accidents (unintentional injuries);
Congenital malformations;
Malignant neoplasms;
Homicide.
Children in poverty have higher rates of accidents, death, and asthma than do children from higher-income families.
Children exposed to tobacco smoke in the home are more likely to develop asthma and high blood pressure.
© McGraw Hill
Illness and Death 2
Characteristics that enhance young children’s safety:
Individual characteristics:
Social skills and emotion regulation;
Impulse control;
Use of personal protection.
Family/home characteristics:
Child management and parenting skills;
Parent protective behaviors;
Home safety equipment.
School/peer characteristics:
Home/school partnerships;
Absence of playground hazards;
Injury prevention and safety promotion policies/programs
Community characteristics:
Positive activities for families;
Active surveillance of hazards;
Effective prevention policies.
© McGraw Hill
Illness and Death 3
The state of illness and health of the world’s children:
Devastating effects on the health of young children occur in countries with high poverty rates.
A dramatic increase in deaths has resulted from HIV/AIDS, especially in poor countries.
Kent Page/AP Images
© McGraw Hill
Cognitive Changes: Topics
Piaget’s preoperational stage.
Vygotsky’s theory.
Information processing.
© McGraw Hill
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 1
Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage, from about 2 to 7 years of age.
Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
They form stable concepts and begin to reason.
In this stage, children do not yet perform operations: reversible mental actions that allow them to do mentally what they formerly did physically.
© McGraw Hill
17
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 2
Symbolic function substage: the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present.
Between about 2 and 4 years of age.
Children’s thought is still limited by egocentrism and animism.
Egocentrism: the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s.
Animism: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.
Intuitive thought substage: children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to many questions.
Between 4 and 7 years of age.
© McGraw Hill
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 3
Centration and the limits of preoperational thought:
Centration: a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
Conservation: the awareness that altering an object or substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties.
© McGraw Hill
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 4
FIGURE 3: THE THREE MOUNTAINS TASK
View 1 shows the child’s perspective from where he or she is sitting. View 2 is an example of one of the photographs the child would be shown, along with other photographs taken from different perspectives. It shows what the mountains look like to a person sitting at spot B. When asked what a view of the mountains looks like from position B, the preoperational child selects a photograph taken from location A, the child’s view at the time. A child who thinks in a preoperational way cannot take the perspective of a person sitting at another spot.
© McGraw Hill
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 5
FIGURE 4: THE SYMBOLIC DRAWINGS OF YOUNG CHILDREN
(a) A 3½-year-old's symbolic drawing. Halfway into his drawing, the 3½-year-old artist said it was a “pelican kissing a seal.”
(b) This 11-year-old’s drawing is neater and more realistic but also less inventive.
Wolf, D., and Nove, J. “The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children,” Courtesy of D. Wolf and J. Nove. Copyright Dennie Palmer Wolf, Annenberg Institute, Brown University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
© McGraw Hill
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 6
FIGURE 5: PIAGET’S CONSERVATION TASK
The beaker test is a well-known Piagetian test to determine whether a child can think operationally—that is, can mentally reverse actions and show conservation of the substance. (a) Two identical beakers are presented to the child. Then the experimenter pours the liquid from B into C, which is taller and thinner than A or B. (b) The child is asked if these beakers (A and C) have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child says “no.” When asked to point to the beaker that has more liquid, the preoperational child points to the tall, thin beaker.
Access the text alternative for slide image
Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit
© McGraw Hill
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 7
FIGURE 6: SOME DIMENSIONS OF CONSERVATION: NUMBER, MATTER, AND LENGTH
© McGraw Hill
Vygotsky’s Theory 1
Children think and understand primarily through social interaction.
Zone of proximal development (Z P D): the range of tasks too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance.
Closely linked to the idea of the Z P D is scaffolding—that is, changing the level of support and instruction provided.
As competence increases, less guidance is given.
© McGraw Hill
Vygotsky’s Theory 2
FIGURE 7: VYGOTSKY’S ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development has a lower limit and an upper limit. Tasks in the ZPD are too difficult for the child to perform alone. They require assistance from an adult or a more-skilled child. As children experience the verbal instruction or demonstration, they organize the information in their existing mental structures so that they can eventually perform the skill or task alone.
Access the text alternative for slide image
Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC
© McGraw Hill
Vygotsky’s Theory 3
Language and thought:
Children use speech to communicate socially and to help them solve tasks.
Young children also use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior.
Private speech refers to this use of language for self-regulation.
When they gain the skill to act without verbalizing, they have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of inner speech.
Private speech plays a positive role in development.
© McGraw Hill
Vygotsky’s Theory 4
Teaching strategies:
Assess the child’s Z P D.
Use the child’s Z P D in teaching.
Use more-skilled peers as teachers.
Place instruction in a meaningful context.
Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas.
© McGraw Hill
Vygotsky’s Theory 5
Evaluating Vygotsky’s theory:
Vygotsky takes a social constructivist approach: an approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and asserts that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.
Criticisms have surfaced:
Not specific enough about age-related changes.
Does not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development.
Overemphasized the role of language in thinking.
© McGraw Hill
Vygotsky’s Theory 6
| Theoretical Focus | Vygotsky | Piaget |
| Sociocultural Context | Strong emphasis | Little emphasis |
| Constructivism | Social constructivist | Cognitive constructivist |
| Stages | No general stages of development proposed | Strong emphasis on stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) |
| Key Processes | Zone of proximal development, language, dialogue, tools of the culture | Schema, assimilation, accommodation, operations, conservation, classification |
| Role of Language | A major role; language plays a powerful role in shaping thought | Language has a minimal role; cognition primarily directs language |
| View on Education | Education plays a central role, helping children learn the tools of the culture | Education merely refines the child’s cognitive skills that have already emerged |
| Teaching Implications | Teacher is a facilitator and guide, not a director; establish many opportunities for children to learn with the teacher and more-skilled peers | Also views teacher as a facilitator and guide, not a director; provide support for children to explore their world and discover knowledge |
TABLE 9: COMPARISON OF VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S THEORIES
© McGraw Hill
29
Information Processing 1
Attention:
The ability to focus mental resources on select information improves significantly in the preschool years.
Executive attention, a good predictor of self-regulation, involves:
Action planning;
Allocating attention to goals;
Error detection and compensation;
Monitoring progress on tasks; and
Dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 2
Sustained attention is focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment.
Also called vigilance.
Attention is still deficient in at least two ways:
Salient versus relevant dimensions; and
Planfulness.
As children are better able to understand their environment, they can sustain attention for longer periods.
Advances in comprehension and language development are particularly significant.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 3
FIGURE 10: THE PLANFULNESS OF ATTENTION
In one study, children were given pairs of houses to examine, like the ones shown here (Vurpillot, 19 68). For three pairs of houses, what was in the windows was identical (a). For the other three pairs, the windows had different items in them (b). By filming the reflection in the children’s eyes, researchers could determine what they were looking at, how long they looked, and the sequence of their eye movements. Children under 6 examined only a fragmentary portion of each display and made their judgments on the basis of insufficient information. By contrast, older children scanned the windows in more detailed ways and were more accurate in their judgments of which windows were identical.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 4
Memory:
The retention of information over time is central to cognitive development.
In short-term memory, individuals can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal.
The memory-span task assesses short-term memory using a short list of stimuli—usually digits—presented at a rapid pace, after which subjects are asked to repeat the list.
Short-term memory increases during early childhood.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 5
FIGURE 11: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN MEMORY SPAN
In one study, from 2 years of age to 7 years of age children’s memory span increased from 2 digits to 5 digits (Dempster, 19 81). Between 7 and 13 years of age, memory span had increased on average only another 2 digits, to 7 digits.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 6
How accurate are young children’s long-term memories?
There are age differences in children’s susceptibility to suggestion.
There are individual differences in susceptibility.
Interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children’s reports about highly salient events.
The accuracy of eyewitness testimony is dependent on type, number, and intensity of the suggestive techniques experienced.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 7
Autobiographical memory:
Autobiographical memory involves memory of significant events and experiences in one’s life.
In some areas (remembering a story, a song, or interesting event or experience), young children have been shown to have reasonably good memories.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 8
Executive function:
Executive function consists of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain’s prefrontal cortex.
In early childhood it involves developmental advances in:
Cognitive inhibition;
Cognitive flexibility;
Goal-setting; and
Delay of gratification.
Mischel and colleagues’ studies using the “marshmallow experiment” linked delay of gratification in preschool with later academic success, coping, and competence.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 9
The child’s theory of mind:
Theory of mind: awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others.
From 18 months to 3 years, children begin to understand three mental states:
Perceptions;
Emotions; and
Desires.
From 3 to 5 years, they come to understand false beliefs.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 10
FIGURE 12: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN FALSE-BELIEF PERFORMANCE
False-belief performance—the child’s understanding that a person may have a false belief that contradicts reality—dramatically increases from
years of age through the middle of the elementary school years. In a summary of
the results of many studies,
gave incorrect responses about 80 percent of the time (Wellman, Cross,
& Watson, 2001). At 3 years, 8 months, they were correct about 50 percent of the time, and after that, they gave increasingly correct responses.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 11
FIGURE 13: THE SALLY AND ANNE FALSE-BELIEF TASK
In the false-belief task, the skit above in which Sally has a basket and Anne has a box is shown to children. Sally places a toy in her basket and then leaves. While Sally is gone and can’t watch, Anne removes the toy from Sally’s basket and places it in her box. Sally then comes back, and the children are asked where they think Sally will look for her toy. Children are said to “pass” the false-belief task if they understand that Sally looks in her basket first before realizing the toy isn’t there.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 12
At 5 to 7 years, children develop a deepening appreciation of the mind itself rather than just mental states.
They can see the mind as an active constructor of knowledge.
They realize the same event can be open to multiple interpretations.
Individual differences and factors that influence theory of mind:
Executive function and prefrontal cortex functioning.
Language development.
Socioeconomic status.
Children with autism have difficulty developing a theory of mind.
© McGraw Hill
Information Processing 13
FIGURE 14: AMBIGUOUS LINE DRAWING
In one study, children saw an ambiguous line drawing—a drawing that could be seen as either a duck or a rabbit. One puppet told the child she believed the drawing was a duck, while another puppet told the child he believed the drawing was a rabbit. Before the age of 7, children said that there was one right answer and that it was not okay for the two puppets to have different opinions.
© McGraw Hill
Language Development
Understanding phonology and morphology.
Changes in syntax and semantics.
Advances in pragmatics.
Young children’s literacy.
© McGraw Hill
43
Phonology and Morphology 1
During the preschool years, most children become:
Sensitive to the sounds of spoken words; and
Capable of producing all the sounds of their language.
As they move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules:
Plural and possessive forms of nouns;
Appropriate verb endings; and
Prepositions, articles, and forms of to be.
© McGraw Hill
Phonology and Morphology 2
FIGURE 15: STIMULI IN BERKO’S STUDY OF YOUNG CHILDREN’S UNDERSTANDING OF MORPHOLOGICAL RULES
In Jean Berko’s (19 58) study, young children were presented cards, such as this one with a “wug” on it. Then the children were asked to supply the missing word; in supplying the missing word, they had to say it correctly, too. “Wugs” is the correct response here.
Gleason, Jean Berko. “The Child’s Learning of English Morphology,” Word 14, 19 58, 154. Copyright 19 58 by Jean Berko Gleason. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
© McGraw Hill
Changes in Syntax and Semantics 1
Preschool children show a growing mastery of complex rules for how words should be ordered.
Vocabulary development is dramatic.
Fast mapping: a process in which young children learn the connection between a word and its referent quickly, only after limited exposure.
© McGraw Hill
Changes in Syntax and Semantics 2
Six key principles describe young children’s vocabulary development:
Children learn the words they hear most often.
Children learn words for things and events that interest them.
Children learn words better in responsive and interactive contexts than in passive contexts.
Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful.
Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning.
Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered.
© McGraw Hill
Advances in Pragmatics
Children learn culturally specific rules of conversation and adapt their speech in different settings.
As they get older, they become increasingly able to talk about things that are not here and not now.
Around 4 to 5 years of age, they learn to change their speech style to suit the situation.
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