Chapter 7 discusses intelligence.? Using the book and outside research, complete the following tasks.? Define intelligence. Do you agree with the definition?? Why
Chapter 7 discusses intelligence. Using the book and outside research, complete the following tasks.
Define intelligence. Do you agree with the definition? Why or why not? Look at the theories of intelligence in the book and decide which you think is the most accurate. Use outside research to support your opinion.
This assignment is between 2-3 pages. You will need to have outside research and APA citations
PSYCHOLOGY 2e
Chapter 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE
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COLLEGE PHYSICS
Chapter # Chapter Title
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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
The 19th-century Girl with a Book by José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior, the 20th-century sculpture The Thinker by August Rodin, and Shi Ke’s 10th-century painting Huike Thinking all reflect the fascination with the process of human thought. (credit “middle”: modification of work by Jason Rogers; credit “right”: modification of work by Tang Zu-Ming)
Cognition, most simply, is thinking. It encompasses the processes associated with:
Perception
Knowledge
Problem-solving
Judgement
Language
Memory
COGNITION
Sensations and information are received by our brains, filtered through emotions and memories, and processed to become thoughts.
CONCEPTS & PROTOTYPES
In 1930, Mohandas Gandhi led a group in peaceful protest against a British tax on salt in India.
Prototype – the best example or representation of a concept.
E.g. Mahatma Gandhi could be a prototype for the category of civil disobedience.
How does the brain organize information?
Concepts – categories of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories.
Used to see relationships among different elements of experience.
Can be complex and abstract (e.g. the idea of justice) or concrete (types of birds).
NATURAL & ARTIFICIAL CONCEPTS
Natural concepts:
Created “naturally” through either direct or indirect experience.
E.g. our concept of snow.
Artificial concepts:
Defined by a specific set of characteristics.
E.g. Properties of geometric shapes (squares, triangles etc).
(credit a: modification of work by Maarten Takens; credit b: modification of work by “Shayan (USA)”/Flickr)
SCHEMATA
(credit: “Gideon”/Flickr)
Schema – a mental construct consisting of a collection of related concepts.
When a schema is activated, we automatically make assumptions about the person/object/situation.
Role schema – makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave.
What assumptions come to mind about a librarian?
Event schema (cognitive script) – a set of routine or automatic behaviors.
Can vary widely among different cultures and countries.
Dictate behavior.
Make habits difficult to break.
E.g. when riding in an elevator, we automatically stand facing the door.
EVENT SCHEMA
Event schemas are difficult to change because they are automatic.
When we receive a text, our event schema is to pick up our phone and reply. The problem is that this automatic reaction will arise even in situations when it is not safe to reply.
Texting while driving is dangerous, but it is a difficult event schema for some people to resist.
Research suggests that just the event schema of regularly checking our phone makes it increasingly difficult to resist picking it up while driving.
LANGUAGE
Language – a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another.
Components of Language
Lexicon – the words of a given language.
Grammar – the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon.
Phoneme – a basic sound unit (ah, eh,).
Morphemes – the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning.
Language is constructed through semantics and syntax.
Semantics – the meaning we derive from morphemes and words.
Syntax – the way words are organized into sentences.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Noam Chomsky – proposed that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined.
Language develops in the absence of formal instruction.
Language acquisition follows similar patterns in children from different cultures/backgrounds.
Critical period – proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life.
Being deprived of language during the critical period impedes the ability to fully acquire and use language.
The Case of Genie
The effects of language deprivation during the critical period can be seen in the case study of Genie.
Was found at age 13 after being raised in neglectful and abusive conditions.
Grew up with virtually no social interaction and was unable to speak when found.
With help, Genie was able to acquire vocabulary but was not able to learn the grammatical aspects of language.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
| Stages of Language and Communication Development | ||
| Stage | Age | Developmental Language and Communication |
| 1 | 0–3 months | Reflexive communication |
| 2 | 3–8 months | Reflexive communication; interest in others |
| 3 | 8–13 months | Intentional communication; sociability |
| 4 | 12–18 months | First words |
| 5 | 18–24 months | Simple sentences of two words |
| 6 | 2–3 years | Sentences of three or more words |
| 7 | 3–5 years | Complex sentences; has conversations |
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
Trial and error – continue trying different solutions until problem is solved.
Algorithm – step-by-step problem-solving formula.
Heuristic – general problem-solving framework.
Short-cuts.
A “rule of thumb”.
Working-backwards – begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result.
Breaking large tasks into a series of smaller steps.
When do people use heuristics?
When one is faced with too much information.
When the time to make a decision is limited.
When the decision to be made is unimportant.
When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision.
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment.
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
| Method | Description | Example |
| Trial and error | Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved | Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning |
| Algorithm | Step-by-step problem-solving formula | Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer |
| Heuristic | General problem-solving framework | Working backwards; breaking a task into steps |
PUZZLE 1: SUDOKU
Problem solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people practice everyday with puzzles such as sudoku.
PUZZLE 2: SPATIAL REASONING
Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper.
ANSWERS
Figure 7.11
15
PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Functional fixedness – inability to perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.
Imagine you have a candle, thumbtacks and a box of matches. You need to mount the candle on the wall and light it. What do you do?
Very few people think to use the box as a holder for the candle which can be tacked to the wall because they are fixated on its normal function.
“Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result” – Albert Einstein.
Mental sets
Persistence in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past. (A set way of looking at a problem).
Becomes a problem when that way is no longer working.
(Credit: wikepedia)
BIASES
Knowledge and reasoning are used to make decisions. However, sometimes our ability to reason can be swayed by biases.
Anchoring bias – tendency to focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem.
Confirmation bias – tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs.
Hindsight bias – leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it wasn’t.
Representative bias – tendency to unintentionally stereotype someone or something.
Availability heuristic – tendency to make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision.
CLASSIFYING INTELLIGENCE
What is intelligence?
Psychologists have come up with many different ways to define intelligence.
Charles Spearman
Believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g.
Focused on commonalities amongst various intellectual abilities.
Raymond Cattell
Divided intelligence into two components.
Crystalized intelligence – acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it.
Knowing facts.
Fluid intelligence – the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.
Knowing how to do something.
TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
Robert Sternberg’s theory identifies three types of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
Howard Gardner proposed that each person possesses at least 8 intelligences.
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Bodily kinesthetic
Spatial
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
Inter and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined and called emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence – the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways.
CREATIVITY
Creativity – the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities.
Creative people usually:
Have intense knowledge about something.
Work on it for years.
Look at novel solutions.
Seek out the advice and help of other experts.
Take risks.
Creativity is often thought of as ones ability to engage in divergent thinking.
Divergent thinking – thinking “outside the box”.
– Used when more than one possibility exists on a situation.
Convergent thinking – ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem.
MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE
Measuring intelligence can come in many forms.
A person’s Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence.
How do psychologists ensure that tests function as valid measures of intelligence?
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Early 1900’s – Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school.
Louis Terman (a Stanford psychologist) modified Binet’s work by standardizing the administration of the test and testing thousands of children to establish a norm.
Standardization – the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent.
Norming – giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups.
The resulting data provide norms/referential scores used to interpret future scores.
Standardization and norming ensure that new scores are reliable.
ALFRED BINET
French psychologist Alfred Binet helped to develop intelligence testing. (b) This page is from a 1908 version of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. Children being tested were asked which face, of each pair, was prettier.
Figure 7.13
MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
David Wechsler’s definition of intelligence – ”the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.”
In 1939, Wechsler developed a new IQ test by combining several subtests from other intelligence tests.
Tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills.
One of the most extensively used intelligence tests.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V) is one of many versions used today that tests 1) verbal comprehension, 2) visual spatial, 3) fluid reasoning, 4) working memory and 5) processing Speed.
Flynn Effect
After years of use within schools and communities, periodic recalibration of WAIS lead to an observation known as the Flynn effect.
The observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last.
THE BELL CURVE
Are you of below-average, average, or above-average height?
Results of intelligence tests follow the bell curve.
In psychological testing, this graph demonstrates a representative sample/normal distribution of a trait in the human population.
Representative sample – a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population.
Usually requires a large sample size.
IQ BELL CURVE
The average IQ score is 100.
Standard deviations – describe how data are dispersed in a population.
One standard deviation in IQ testing is 15 points.
A score of 85 is one standard deviation below the mean (average).
Any score between one standard deviation above and below the mean is considered and average.
82% of the population have an IQ score between 85 and 115.
THE SOURCE OF INTELLIGENCE
Nature or Nurture?
Nature perspective – intelligence is inherited from a person’s parents.
The heritability of intelligence is often researched using twin studies.
Identical twins raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher correlation between IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together.
Nurture perspective – intelligence is shaped by a child’s developmental environment.
If parents present children with intellectual stimuli it will be reflected in the child’s intelligence level.
Most psychologists now believe levels of intelligence are a combination of both.
Range of reaction
Theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup.
Genetic makeup is a fixed quantity.
Whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon environmental factors.
GENETICS AND IQ
The correlations of IQs of unrelated versus related persons reared apart or together suggest a genetic component to intelligence.
LEARNING DISABILITIES
Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading.
Specific neurological impairments, not an intellectual/developmental problem.
Often affect children with average to above-average intelligence.
Exhibit comorbidity with other disorders.
Dysgraphia
A learning disability resulting in a struggle to write legibly.
Have difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper.
Dyslexia
An inability to correctly process letters.
Most common learning disability in children.
May mix up letters within words and sentences (letter reversals).
These written words show variations of the word “teapot” as written by individuals with dyslexia.
This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources.
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PSYCHOLOGY 2e
Chapter 8 MEMORY
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COLLEGE PHYSICS
Chapter # Chapter Title
PowerPoint Image Slideshow
MEMORY
Photographs can trigger our memories and bring past experiences back to life. (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
The study of memory looks at some of the following questions:
How do we process and store information?
Are there different types of memory?
How do we retrieve memories?
Why do we forget?
HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS
Memory is an information processing system like a computer. It is a set of processes used to encode, store and retrieve information over different periods of time.
Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system.
Storage is the retention of the encoded information.
Retrieval, is getting the information out of memory and back into awareness.
ENCODING
When you first learn new skills such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about driving. Once you know how to drive, you can encode additional information about this skill automatically.
(credit: Robert Couse-Baker)
Labels/codes it.
Organizes it with other similar information.
Connects new concepts to existing concepts.
Encoding occurs through 2 types of processing:
Automatic processing – encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words.
Usually done without conscious awareness.
E.g. remembering WHEN you last studied.
Effortful processing – encoding of details that takes time and effort.
E.g. WHAT you last studied, learning new skills.
When the brain receives information from the environment it:
TYPES OF ENCODING
Semantic encoding – encoding of words and their meanings.
Most effective form of encoding. Attaching meaning to information makes it easier to recall later.
Involves a deeper level of processing.
Visual encoding – encoding of images.
Words that create a mental image, such as car, dog and book (concrete words) are easier to recall than words such as level, truth and value (abstract words).
Acoustic encoding – encoding of sounds.
Self-reference effect – the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance.
STORAGE: BADDELEY & HITCH MODEL
Baddeley and Hitch proposed a model of storage where short-term memory has different forms depending on the type of information received.
Storing memories is like opening different files on a computer and adding information.
3 short-term systems:
Visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop.
According to the model, a central executive supervises the flow of information between the systems.
(Credit: mercercognitivepsychology)
STORAGE: A-S MODEL
Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory
Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.
Based on the belief that memories are processed the same way that a computer processes information.
SENSORY MEMORY
Sensory memory – storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes.
Stored for up to a couple of seconds.
First step of processing stimuli from the environment.
If the information is not important, it is discarded.
If the information is valuable then it moves into our short-term memory.
THE STROOP EFFECT
The Stroop effect was discovered while studying sensory memory and describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)
Short-term memory/working memory – a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory.
Lasts about 20 seconds.
Capacity is usually about 7 items +/-2 (discovered by George Miller).
Short-term memories are either discarded or stored in long-term memory.
Memory consolidation – Transfer of STM to long-term memory.
One way memory consolidation can be achieved is through rehearsal.
Rehearsal – the conscious repetition of information to be remembered.
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