Becoming an adult is a developmental process and is rarely associated with chronological age in Western cultures. Instead, adulthood is associated with achieving the foll

Chapter 13 Young Adulthood: Physical and

Cognitive Development

Summary Becoming an adult is a developmental process and is rarely associated with chronological age in Western cultures. Instead, adulthood is associated with achieving the following tasks:

• (1)

accepting responsibility for oneself,

• (2)

making independent decisions, and

• (3)

becoming financially independent (Arnett & Tanner, 2006).

The developmental phase of emerging adulthood, or young adulthood, marks this transitional period from adolescence to adulthood. Arnett (2004) proposed that this developmental phase of the lifespan is characterized by five key characteristics: identity exploration, self-focus, instability, feeling-in-between, and opportunity. In addition to these defining features, emerging adulthood ushers in a variety of physical and cognitive changes.

Young adults experience a peak in their physical performance. Biological systems are highly efficient and the senses are decidedly acute. Physical strength, coordination, dexterity, agility, and flexibility also peak. Most individuals are healthiest during young adulthood and are often exempt from health issues associated with serious illness. While young adults experience peak physical functioning and health, many engage in poor lifestyle practices that compromise their health and may lead to untimely death. The most common lifestyle habits that affect the health of young adults include tobacco use, alcohol and illicit drug use, poor diet and lack of exercise, sleep deprivation, and sexually risky behaviors. A particularly

dangerous lifestyle behavior that increases in young adulthood is binge drinking. Binge drinking is defined as having five or more drinks in a row at least one day in the past month. Binge drinking peaks around age 21 years and declines throughout the remainder of young adulthood. While binge drinking behaviors are short-lived for most young adults, it is associated with numerous health issues and risky behaviors. As a professional counselor, it is important to help young adults understand the impact of lifestyle habits on their health and well-being, and to adopt healthy lifestyle practices.

It is now widely accepted that individuals experience gains in cognition during young adulthood. These gains are due in large part to the continuing maturation of the brain. Specifically, the brain of a young adult undergoes synaptic pruning and enhanced myelination. Synaptic pruning and myelination ensure that young adults have fewer, but more selective and stronger, synaptic connections, which enhance the efficiency of cognitive processing (Kuhn, 2006; Steinberg, 2004) and the ability to evaluate abstract material. Developmental theorists use the term postformal thought to characterize advances in adult cognition. Postformal thought is distinct from Piaget’s formal operational stage of cognitive functioning and is defined by the following achievements:

• (1)

relativistic thinking,

• (2)

flexibility and pragmatics,

• (3)

tolerance for ambiguity and contradictions, and

• (4)

cognitive-affective complexity.

William Perry (1970, 1999) was one of the first developmental theorists to delineate adult stages of cognitive development beyond Piaget’s formal operational stage. According to Perry’s nine-stage theory, individuals move from dualistic thought, an absolute adherence to authority and experts, to relativistic

thinking, which recognizes the contextual nature of knowledge and involves committing to one’s own worldviews rather than relying on outside authority. Kitchener (1983) also proposed that young adults move to a position of relativism and develop reflective judgment to help solve life’s ill-defined problems. In addition to adopting relativistic thinking, young adults experience enhancements in cognitive-affective complexity. This increased capacity to integrate one’s emotions and pragmatic reasoning when solving problems leads to decreased emotional reactivity. Young adults also demonstrate marked increases in divergent thinking and creativity. Specifically, they are able to draw on ideas from numerous disciplines and generate multiple solutions for a problem. Finally, individuals undergo changes in their moral judgment in young adulthood. Kohlberg’s highest stage, postconventional moral reasoning, emerges in mid-adolescence to early adulthood due to the emergence of relativistic thinking and increasingly encountering life’s ill-defined problems. As a result, young adults come to rely less on external standards when making ethical decisions and more on a personal moral code rooted in universal ethical principles. As the expansion of the Internet has increased our access to information and ability to share information globally, young adults today demonstrate moral relativism. They recognize that moral standards vary across cultures and that diverse individuals may have different ways of interpreting right and wrong (Stein & Dawson-Tunik, 2004).

Chapter 14 Young Adulthood Social, Emotional, and Career

Development Young adulthood is a developmental period that marks the transition from adolescence to adulthood. In young adulthood, many of the identity issues individuals faced as adolescents have been resolved. Therefore, young adults are able to invest in establishing intimate relationships with partners, friends, and family, and achieve the developmental milestones often associated with this developmental period (e.g., starting a family, managing a home). During young adulthood, significant energy is also invested into selecting and starting a career, achieving job satisfaction, and striving for work–life balance. The achievement of such tasks ushers in a variety of social/emotional and career development changes.

According to Havighurst (1952), successful adaptation to adulthood involves completing a series of developmental tasks in young adulthood. Such tasks often include selection of a mate, learning to live with a partner, starting a family, raising children, managing a home, starting an occupation, and assuming civic responsibilities. Successful development depends on both completion and timing of these tasks. Individuals who are off time with regard to the social clock may experience difficulty in their developmental trajectory due to the negative consequences associated with going against the societal norms that dictate the age by which certain life events should occur.

One of the major developmental tasks of young adulthood involves the establishment of intimate relationships. Erik Erikson (1963) asserted that the establishment of intimate relationships involves having a genuine concern for another’s needs and a willingness to sacrifice one’s own needs at certain times. Individuals who fail to form intimate relationships risk becoming socially isolated. Young adulthood encompasses the establishment of both friendships and long-term, romantic relationships. According to Sternberg (1986), long-term relationships are sustained by consummate love. Consummate love involves passion, intimacy, and commitment. Our ability to

form and sustain intimate relationships is also dependent on attachment styles. Adult attachment styles are influenced by early relationships with primary caregivers and reflect the degree to which adults avoid intimacy and being dependent on others, and experience anxiety about being rejected or abandoned by others (Fraley & Shaver, 2000).

Levinson (1986), like Erikson, believed that changes to an individual’s life structure occur as the person encounters the key developmental tasks of young adulthood. Young adulthood, according to Levinson, is characterized by exploration, opportunity, and the accomplishment of financial independence, marriage, parenthood, and starting a career. While young adulthood is generally viewed as a time when opportunity and optimism abound, the occurrence of psychological disorders actually increases. This spike in mental illness may be attributed to the many developmental tasks and life demands that young adults face.

Young adults today experience more freedom and flexibility with regard to their lifestyle and vocational choices. The number of single young adults has increased sharply in recent years. Likewise, cohabitation rates are also increasing dramatically, as many young adults choose to live with a sexual partner outside of marriage. Marriage rates in young adulthood have declined, as many young adults prefer to establish themselves in a career and achieve financial independence before settling down. Similarly, young adults are choosing to have fewer children and start a family later in life.

In addition to forming intimate relationships, finding a partner, and starting a family, young adults devote much of their time to choosing and establishing a career. The career development process in young adulthood often begins with the selection of a career. Individuals must gain knowledge about themselves and the world of work in order to make a career decision that will lead to long-term satisfaction. Young adults spend time exploring their vocational interests, abilities, values, and occupational characteristics. They must also learn to take advantage of unplanned social, educational, and occupational events in order to create vocational opportunities for

themselves. In addition to career exploration, young adults invest in vocational preparation opportunities to prepare for their future careers. Most high school graduates will attend two- or four-year academic institutions, but young adults can also pursue training through vocational education or school-to-work programs. Young adults not only choose a career and receive vocational training, but also must make the transition to the workforce. A successful transition to the workforce involves achieving job satisfaction and developing a vocational identity. As individuals transition to the workforce and establish their career, they may experience conflict between work and family obligations. Young adults often strive to find a balance between work demands and family responsibilities.

Chapter 15 Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive

Development

Middle adulthood is described as the age range from the mid- 30s to about the mid-60s; currently this is Generation X and the Baby Boomers. Despite the similar ages of the baby boomers and the Xers, they are vastly different. The Vietnam War, civil rights movement, and women’s movement influenced not only developmental growth but also interpersonal relationships.

The aging process is universal and is evident for everyone. However, Western society has developed a strong desire to stop the aging process by means of Botox and plastic surgery. If untreated, sagging skin and sunspots appear as aging occurs. Hair will begin to thin and turn gray in both men and women. Weight gain is common, along with loss of height, which can lead to osteoporosis. With aging also comes a loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia) and a deterioration of the senses. Most commonly, presbyopia, or the inability to focus on close objects, develops around the age of 40. Hearing loss is another common part of the aging process, though most hearing loss in middle adulthood is due to occupational hazards. The sense of smell also begins to deteriorate over time, affecting the taste of food. The sense of taste will degenerate for salty and bitter, but the ability to taste sweet and sour remains stable.

During middle adulthood the reproductive system goes through a process of climacteric, the loss in the ability to reproduce. With advances in technology, men and women are able to have children later into the aging process through assisted reproductive technology (ART). Between the ages of 45 and 55 women experience the cessation of menstruation, called menopause. Men, on the other hand, lose testosterone at a much slower rate and continue to be fertile well into their later years. However, a common problem men face in middle adulthood is erectile dysfunction (ED), known more commonly as impotence. Sexuality continues to develop in middle adults; there is no longer the burden of unwanted pregnancy or menstruation, allowing for more sexual freedom.

Primary and secondary changes occur in all systems, including the cardiovascular system. Due to lifestyle choices and biological predispositions, atherosclerosis and hypertension are some common cardiovascular problems faced during middle adulthood. The respiratory system primarily changes during the 20s and 30s; however, during middle adulthood the lungs’ vital capacity begins to diminish. In order to help with diminished lung capacity, middle-aged adults are encouraged not to smoke, which helps to prevent emphysema. Men in particular show changes in the urinary system with the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), an enlargement of the prostate gland. Women sometimes develop urinary incontinence (UI) or uncontrolled loss of urine.

With aging comes a variety of health concerns besides the normal decrease in biological functions. Injury in middle adulthood becomes harder to recover from and may lead to more long-term disability. Heart disease is the leading cause of death; a common form of heart disease seen in middle adulthood is coronary heart disease (CHD). Cancer is the second leading cause of death in middle adulthood, the most common type being skin cancer. There are also many risk factors that negatively impact health during middle adulthood. Smoking is responsible for about one out of every five deaths in the United States. Alcohol is responsible for risky behavior with immediate risks and long-term conditions such as hypertension, liver disease, depression, and anxiety. Obesity is a risk factor because it contributes to hypertension, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. Poor nutrition is another risk factor that can be prevented by a healthy lifestyle and proper diet.

Risk factors are especially important when looking at disease through a multicultural perspective. Demographics are shifting, with the non-Hispanic White population decreasing and the former minorities increasing. African-Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Alaska Natives have much higher rates of heart disease, cancer, obesity, and intentional injury/suicide.

Avoiding disease and disability through prevention is a current trend in health care and an important choice in aging successfully. Having an actively engaged lifestyle that consists of

engaging with others can prevent isolation and foster fulfillment. Good nutrition and exercise help maintain a healthy physical and cognitive self, helping to increase successful aging.

Complex mental abilities are performed at a higher level during middle adulthood. Cognitive function varies from person to person; however, those who actively use their skills tend to keep their intellectual function longer. Men reach their cognitive peak before women, who reach theirs during middle adulthood. However, women who have declining levels of estrogen are at risk for memory loss and dementia. Reaction time and processing speed tend to decrease with age. Older adults also have difficulty manipulating working and episodic memory, but semantic memory is maintained and can increase over the lifespan. Due to higher levels of expertise, knowledge, and organization, practical problem-solving skills excel in middle adulthood. Wisdom increases along with fluid and crystalized abilities.

Mental illness is represented in middle adulthood by a variety of factors. Women are more likely to reach a depressive peak in middle adulthood. Overall, mental illness and psychological disorders begin to drop off at the age of 45. Mental disorders are more likely due to income levels than to age. Middle adulthood typically sees the highest stress levels. Men are prone to externalize problems, whereas women are prone to internalize problems; without proper coping mechanisms this can lead to severe depression.

Biologically, middle age appears to present a decrease in organ function and an increase in medical concerns. Psychologically, middle-aged adults are shifting to a new role, with more sexual freedom and healthier options. Healthy lifestyles become increasingly important during middle adulthood as they can help counteract the natural aging process.

Chapter 16 Reading Middle Adulthood Social/Emotional,

Family, Career, and Spiritual Development

Middle adulthood is defined as the period from the mid-30s to approximately 65 years of age. This developmental stage currently contains two generational age groups: Baby Boomers and Generation X (“Xers”). The two groups have commonalities and distinctive characteristics that set each apart from the other. Baby Boomers are typically considered optimistic and idealistic. People from Generation X are viewed as more logical and practical. However, both groups are very independent and self-reliant. While there are similarities, there are developmental differences in experiences. Baby Boomers may be nearing the end of their careers and child-rearing, considering retirement, and enjoying grandchildren. Xers may have as much as a decade or two of work left and may be in the midst of raising children. Baby Boomers directly experienced some of the most significant social movements in the past 50 years (the Vietnam War, civil rights and women’s movements), while the Xers experienced these indirectly. These common social experiences allow for a more cohesive understanding of the group.

There are many transitional issues experienced throughout the midlife developmental period. Some middle-aged adults are referred to as the sandwich generation, which refers to adult children who are raising their own children while caring for their aging parents. One out of every eight Americans aged 40– 60 falls into the sandwich generation experience. Some common concerns of sandwich generation caregivers are balancing roles, delineating boundaries, maintaining healthy relationships, and maintaining positive mental and emotional health. Another transitional issue presented is the question of the midlife crisis. There are varying perspectives on the midlife crisis. Erikson emphasized the struggle occurring during generativity versus stagnation, while Levinson interprets this period as a transition rather than a crisis. Another perspective on the midlife crisis is one that proposes that this transitional period is affected by environmental and personal experience.

There are several theories of psychosocial development pertaining to middle adulthood. Levinson’s seasons of life theory is a concentrated view of psychosocial development based on the sequences of life. Peck’s tasks of ego integrity attempt to more clearly define the image of middle adulthood through three major developmental tasks or challenges. These developmental tasks include ego differentiation versus work- role preoccupation, body transcendence versus body preoccupation, and ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation. Vaillant’s adaptation to life theory concluded that a person’s life course is shaped by meaningful relationships with important people. Individuals in their 40s tend to reduce the amount of time spent on individual achievement, and an increasing focus on contributions to others; individuals in their 50s tend to increase the sense of community by becoming other centered rather than self-centered.

In Erikson’s developmental theory, the generativity versus stagnation stage is most closely related to middle adulthood, suggesting that adults tend to be occupied with creative and meaningful work, along with issues surrounding their family, and gain strength through giving back to others and contributing to the betterment of society. If this transitional period is not met with a sense of reevaluating self-meaning, then middle-aged adults enter stagnation. Sheehy suggested that the developmental stages individuals encounter are passages that are accompanied by predictable crises. Sheehy proposed that the passages are the same for men and women, but may result in differential effects. Gould’s adult development theory charts the phases of internal cognizance, in which an adult discharges several misconceptions and myths carried over from childhood. In Gould’s theory of development, individuals in middle adulthood develop a sense of acceptance of mortality, leading to a feeling of freedom, a sense of self-acceptance, and responsibility for oneself. Maslow defined self-actualization as the act of experiencing life in its fullness, which involves an individual becoming completely absorbed in something without defenses and self-consciousness.

There are significant issues related to gender identity, marriage, intimate relationships, and stress that occur in middle

adulthood. There is an increase in masculine traits in women and feminine traits in men. There may be an increase in confidence and assertiveness for women, while there is an increase in sensitivity and consideration for men. Marriage and intimate relationships in midlife are significantly different than in earlier developmental stages of life. These differences include the amount of time invested in the relationship and a greater sense of social well-being, satisfaction, happiness, and self- admiration. Also, because of an increased amount of life experience, middle-aged adults tend to be less impulsive, postponing actions to combat stressful situations.

In terms of family development issues in middle adulthood, there are several that may impact a middle-aged individual, including a family crisis (e.g., birth or addition of a family member, loss), becoming a grandparent, having an adult child leaving the home or returning, and divorce. The divorce rate during middle adulthood is higher than it has been in generations past. One possible explanation for this is that people are generally more individualistic and choose their own personal happiness over their marriage.

During this developmental stage, people may face career challenges as well. Evaluation of career satisfaction and personal happiness is typically done during midlife. Many factors can come into play when contemplating a career change or retirement. Changes in the economy, death of a spouse, divorce, outsourcing, and technology are found to be the leading causes. Due to financial insecurity and lack of opportunity, those in midlife are looking for new careers using their existing skill sets, going back to school, or attending training programs to gain new skills.

Planning for retirement can elicit diverse feelings. Some welcome the idea, looking forward to exploring their interests and spending time with friends and family, while others fear the prospect. Without proper financial support, the options for retirement are slim. The impact on retirement due to lack of finances is being seen in the Baby Boomer generation, as a recent AARP survey found that 40% of Baby Boomers plan to continue working indefinitely (Roper, 2011).

Regarding spirituality in middle adulthood, the majority of adults fall in the fifth stage (conjunctive faith) of the six-stage model of spirituality. In this stage, an individual has developed their own beliefs about spirituality that are not based solely on what they have been told throughout their lives. Religion and spirituality become more concrete than in previous stages. Middle-aged adults begin to come to terms with things outside of spirituality, such as children leaving home and the stark reality of death.

Chapter 17 Later Adulthood and Old Age Physical and

Cognitive Development

The average lifespan expectancy for individuals has increased dramatically since 1900, particularly in countries with sufficient medical care. The primary reasons people are living longer than ever before are attributable to more effective public health measures, with support from health care improvements and reductions in infant and child mortality (Olshansky et al., 2005). In this chapter, statistics were provided related to aging, taking into account the intersection of race/ethnicity, nationality, socioeconomics, sexual orientation, and gender, among other cultural characteristics. While aging, accompanied by declines in bodily functioning, is inevitable, many people who are living longer are living better. Older adults who have successfully navigated the developmental tasks outlined throughout this text are more likely to have established a firm foundation for successful aging (Baltes, 1997).

Physical changes that occur in later adulthood were reviewed; many of these are affected by environmental factors and genetics. The remarkable ability humans have to adapt to age- related changes was highlighted, as were different physiological and evolutionary theories of aging, including the wear and tear theory, systems biology concepts, and damage-based theories of aging. Although the theories differ, each is supported by research.

Next, the focus shifted to health, illness, and functionality in later life. As adults age, they often experience one or more chronic illnesses. However, because of the increased emphasis on prevention and wellness, older adults are much more likely to experience healthy, active lifestyles than ever before. With this in mind, we realize that aging has its physical drawbacks. Changes in body systems associated with aging include changes in blood pressure, vision, hearing, and skin elasticity. The senses of touch and taste tend to decline, and numerous age-associated changes occur in the body’s structural support framework: bone

mass, muscle strength, and connective tissues. Hormonal levels, which begin changing during middle adulthood, continue to decrease. Additional changes in the cardiovascular system, cognition, and ambulatory skills can be limiting. The effects of these limitations vary depending on older adults’ coping skills and support systems (Yancu, 2011). Cognitive development and decline are important considerations when studying later adulthood. The aging brain is characterized by both structural and functional changes. Variations in cognitive functioning depend on a range of lifestyle and health-related factors. Many older adults may not show evidence of cognitive decline, whereas other individuals may demonstrate pronounced decline (e.g., individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease or various forms of cognitive dementia). Cognition is complex, and factors such as crystallized and fluid intelligence, processing speed, and memory changes are all components of cognition that may be affected by the aging process. In general, education, mental engagement, nutrition, and levels of physical activity can influence cognitive performance in later adulthood. However, when organic factors destroy brain cells, the resulting cognitive deficits are medical in nature and are unlikely to be influenced by the above-mentioned preventive factors.

Although many do not want to think about the end of life, death is universal to the human experience. Death may come expectedly, at the end of a long life, or it may come as a result of illness, trauma, or other unexpected events. Though death is associated with aging, readers were challenged to think about their own views of death and dying. For example, when does “death” actually occur? In some instances, a person may be kept alive by medical intervention, even though he or she has experienced permanent, irreversible brain damage and the person is living in what is called a persistent vegetative state. It is important for older adults to engage in advanced care planning, giving them choices in making decisions regarding whether or not they want life-sustaining treatment when they are no longer able to speak for themselves.

In sum, laughter, wine, and chocolate; these were three things to which Madame Jeanne Calment attributed her longevity when at the age of 120 years and 164 days, she passed into the Guinness

Book of World Records as the world’s oldest human in 1995 (Guinness, 2014). Regardless of the cause, Mme. Calment’s lengthy existence shows that humans have the potential to live more than 120 years. (She lived to see her 122nd birthday.) Now that we know how long we can live (longevity), it’s time to focus on how we live (vitality) for a very long time!

Chapter 18 Relationships and Psychosocial Aspects of

Later Adulthood

The degree to which people are involved in social relationships in later adulthood is largely dependent on their social networks and support systems. Topics such as sexual relations (yes, older adults do engage in sexual activity), marriage, divorce, remarriage, widowhood, and relations with children, grandchildren, and siblings were discussed. Other important social relationships include friendships, which may be particularly poignant during older adulthood, particularly when friends outlive one another. LGBT relationships are not always viewed positively by society. However, older adults are as diverse in their sexual orientations, attitudes, and behaviors as younger individuals. Counselors can be instrumental in advocating for the rights and privileges deserved by this population. They also can be instrumental

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