Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries

physics project

I have written an essay for my fourth year university class. My professor wants it in AIP citation style, which I am having a very hard time with.
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1. Adjust the cover page for AIP style.
2. Adjust the formatting of the essay itself to AIP style, if needed.
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Kepler?s Three Laws of Planetary Motion: A Revolutionary Contribution to Astronomy
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2023

Introduction
Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. His contributions to astronomy are of particular significance, as Kepler helped to refine and improve our understanding of the movements of celestial bodies (Westman). This essay focusses on Kepler’s contributions to astronomy, examining his key discoveries and insights that have had a lasting impact on our understanding of the universe. In particular, this essay strives to explore Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion, which remain among the most important contributions to the field of astronomy (Westman).
The reason for writing about Kepler’s contributions to astronomy is to provide a better understanding of the scientific revolution that occurred during the Renaissance, and to highlight the ways that Kepler’s work has contributed to modern-day astronomy. This topic is of great interest to scientists, historians, and the public alike, as it sheds light on the ways in which scientific knowledge is advanced over time. Additionally, understanding the contributions of historical figures like Kepler can help to inspire future generations of scientists and encourage a deeper appreciation for the wonders of the universe.
Discovery and Observation / Historical Background
Towards the later part of the 16th century, the predominant view of the universe was that of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. According to Aristotle, the Earth was at the center of the universe, and the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars revolved around it in circular orbits (Kuhn). This view was supported by the work of the astronomer Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD, who developed a geocentric model of the universe (Kuhn). However, observations made by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the early 16th century challenged this view. Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the universe, where the Sun was at the center, and the planets revolved around it in circular orbits (Guerlac).
Johannes Kepler, who was initially a supporter of the geocentric model, later became convinced of the heliocentric model posited by Copernicus (Spelda). Kepler believed that the motion of planets around the Sun could be explained by mathematical laws rather than circular orbits. Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion were based on his observations of the orbit of Mars. He relied on and used the observations of Mars’ position by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, who had recorded the planet’s position every night for several years (Spelda).
Kepler’s first law of planetary motion states that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun, with the Sun at one of the foci of the ellipse. Kepler discovered this law by analyzing the data on the orbit of Mars collected by Tycho Brahe (Spelda). Kepler realized that Mars’ orbit could not be circular and proposed that it must be an ellipse with the Sun at one of the foci (Urone and Hinrichs). Kepler’s second law of planetary motion states that planets move faster when they are closer to the Sun and slower when they are farther away (Urone and Hinrichs). Kepler’s third law of planetary motion relates the period of a planet’s orbit to its distance from the Sun (Urone and Hinrichs). These laws allowed astronomers to calculate the distances between planets and the Sun.
Kepler’s observations and discoveries were challenged primarily because he lacked access to the advanced technology available to modern astronomers (Koyre). Instead, Kepler relied on his mathematical and observational skills to make accurate measurements and calculations. Kepler’s work was also challenging at the time because it challenged the traditional view of the universe and was met with resistance from some in the scientific community (Koyre).
What We Know
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion were revolutionary in the sense that they challenged the traditional geocentric view of the universe (Koyre). His laws showed that the planets did not move in perfect circles around the Earth, as previously believed, but instead, they orbited around the Sun in elliptical paths (Koyre). This discovery allowed for a better understanding of the mechanics of the solar system, paving the way for further research and discoveries.
These laws of planetary motion provided a foundation for Isaac Newton’s theory of universal gravitation (Markowsky). Kepler’s work on planetary motion was a significant step in the scientific revolution, as it challenged prevailing beliefs and paved the way for new discoveries (Koyre). Kepler’s discoveries also led to the development of more advanced telescopes and astronomical tools, which have been used to explore and study the universe further. Moreover, Newton’s laws provided a mathematical explanation for Kepler’s observations, linking the orbits of planets to the forces of gravity (Markowsky).
What We Don?t Know
Despite the significant contributions made by Kepler to astronomy, there are still many unanswered questions about the universe that scientists are actively researching. One question that remains unanswered is the nature of dark matter and dark energy. These are mysterious substances that make up a significant portion of the universe but cannot be observed directly (Siegel). Researchers are currently working to understand the properties of dark matter and dark energy and their effects on the universe. However, these questions are challenging to answer because dark matter and dark energy cannot be detected with current technology (Siegel).
The difficulty in answering these types of questions lie in the fact that they involve objects and phenomena that are difficult to observe and measure directly. Dark matter, for example, does not interact with light or any other form of electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to telescopes and other traditional instruments used for astronomical observations (Woodall). Instead, scientists rely on indirect observations and mathematical models to study these objects, making their research challenging and time-consuming. However, new technologies and advanced computer simulations are constantly being developed to help answer these questions (Woodall). This provides hope for future breakthroughs in the understanding of the universe.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Johannes Kepler’s contribution to astronomy, particularly his three laws of planetary motion, revolutionized our understanding of the motion of celestial bodies. Kepler’s laws challenged the traditional view of the universe and demonstrated that the universe was more complex than previously thought (Koyre). Despite the advancements made as a result of Kepler?s work, there are still many unanswered questions about the universe that scientists are actively researching. For example, the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Nevertheless, Kepler’s discoveries have laid the foundation for further scientific discoveries, and future research will continue to shape our understanding of the universe.

Bibliography
Westman, Robert. 2023. Johannes Kepler. Britannica.
Website article
Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957). The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674171039.
Book
Guerlac, Henry. (1968). Copernicus and Aristotle?s Cosmos. Journal of the History of Ideas. Vol. 29. No. 1. Pp. 109-113.
Journal article
Urone, Paul, and Hinrichs, Roger. (2020). Kepler?s Laws of Planetary Motion. In ?Physics?. OpenStax.
Chapter in a book named ?Physics?
Koyre, Alexandre. (2008) ?The Astronomical Revolution?. 1st edition. Routledge Publishing. London, England. Pages 362-364.
Book
Markowsky, Greg. (2011). A retelling of Newton?s work on Kepler?s laws. Expositiones Mathematicae. Vol 29. No. 3. Pp. 252-282.
Journal article
Siegel, Ethan. (2019). This Is Why Dark Energy Is The Biggest Unsolved Problem In The Universe. Forbes.
Website article
Woodall, Tatyana. (2022). Astronomers create new technique to assist in search for dark matter. Ohio State University.
Website article

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