Considering the knowledge learned from previous articles regarding trauma think of at least two trauma informed teaching practices and interventions that could be presented to

Trauma-informed practices in a laboratory middle school

Heidi B. Von Dohlen, Holly H. Pinter, Kim K. Winter, Sandy Ward, & Chip Cody

Abstract: This article explores how a laboratory middle school (LMS) serving students from low-performing elementary schools and students with academic or social-emotional chal- lenges is developing as a trauma-responsive school. The authors explore the literature, school/community context, stu- dent cases, and the ways in which classroom and school-wide practices are trauma-informed. Trauma-informed practices focus on individual students as well as whole classroom and school-wide initiatives, potentially benefiting all, not only those students experiencing trauma. At LMS, a community of care system, evaluation committee, tribe and village meetings, the democratic classroom approach, project-based learning, as well as focused enrichment and remediation are all initiatives that have demonstrated some success. Documentation of such successes merits exploration in other middle schools. The LMS team seeks to understand and implement highest leverage practice as students are challenged academically, their socio- emotional needs are supported, and resiliency is built not only in the classroom but also in the lives of the young adolescents themselves.

Keywords: democratic classrooms, middle schools, social-emo- tional, trauma-informed practices, trauma-responsive

This We Believe characteristics:

● Educators value young adolescents and are prepared to teach them.

● The school environment is inviting, safe, inclusive, and supportive of all.

“One out of every 4 children attending school has been exposed to a traumatic event that can affect learning and/or behavior” (The National Child Traumatic Stress Network, 2008, p. 4).

Understanding and responding to the developmental needs of young adolescents has long been the bedrock of the middle school concept. As stated in This We Believe (National Middle School Association [NSMA], 2010), “The curriculum, pedagogy, and programs of middle grades schools must be based upon the developmental readiness, needs, and interests of young adolescents” (p. 5). The Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) opened the door for state and local policy makers to address safety and mental health issues, which includes trauma, on a more substantial level. This includes providing tools, funding, and organizational infrastructure to assist students, and providing learning supports for them to succeed.

Schools struggle to adequately support students experi- encing trauma, adversely impacting students’ learning and social success. School officials and policy makers must first seek to understand the impact of trauma, and then provide support to mitigate the negative impacts trauma has on our students (McInerney & McKlindon, 2014). The National Association for School Psychologists (NASP, 2015) reported children spend much of their day in school where caring adults are available to help them. Therefore, schools have important roles to play in providing a stable safe space for children and connecting them to caring adults. For schools to be trauma-responsive, however, educators must observe and respond to classroom behaviors through a different lens (Terassi & de Galarce, 2017).

Cole, Eisner, Gregory, and Ristuccia (2013) asserted if educators had at least a foundational knowledge of the research on trauma, they would not only be able to opti- mally support students in trauma, but also those impacted by their peers’ trauma. Trauma-responsive educators are present and focused with their students, aware of students’

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body language and non-verbal cues, calm in their interac- tions with students, remain positive even when students are off-task, provide structured routines, and de-escalate students’ emotions while remaining in control of their own emotions (Walkley & Cox, 2013).

This article explores how a laboratory middle school (LMS) serving students from low-performing elementary schools and students with academic or social-emotional challenges is developing as a trauma-responsive school. The authors explore the literature, school/community context, three students’ cases, and the ways in which classroom and school-wide practices are trauma-informed.

Review of literature In 1998, a study at Kaiser Permanente in California on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and childhood trauma and their relationship to health risk behavior, disease, and early death in adulthood (Felitti et al., 1998) shocked theworld and precipitated more research into the field of the long-term impacts of trauma on children. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) defined trauma as “an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotion- ally harmful or life threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2018, p. 7). According to The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN, 2008), children and adolescents experience trauma when they have persistent reactions to the trauma affecting their daily lives even after the event or situation has ended.

Three main types of trauma include acute, chronic, and complex. The NCTSN’s Complex Trauma Task Force, a collective of professionals representing a dozen univer- sities, hospitals, trauma centers, and health programs across the United States first explored he term complex trauma in 2003. This term emerged from the recognition that many people experience multiple adversities over the course of their lifetime (National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee, 2008). Some examples of trauma cited by NASP (2015) include violence, abuse, neglect, terrorism, and traumatic loss.

In a longitudinal study conducted on rural adoles- cents, researchers found two out of every three children had experienced a traumatic event by their 16th birthday (Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2007), and “one in

five adolescents has had a serious mental health disorder, such as depression and/or anxiety disorders, at some point in their life” (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services Office of Adolescent Health, 2017a). Students exposed to trauma experience higher levels of depression, anxiety, and other impairments (Copeland et al., 2007).

Despite clear scientific evidence, our education system has largely ignored issues related to trauma and learning (McInerney & McKlindon, 2014); however, neurobiologi- cal research proves exposure to childhood trauma causes brain and hormonal changes and impedes learning and social-emotional development in children and adolescents (Judicial Council of California, 2014; Urban Education Institute, 2017). Trauma can negatively impact grades, absences, and reading ability, while increasing discipline issues leading to suspensions and expulsions. Trauma impairs learning by negatively impacting attention, mem- ory, cognition, focus, and organization. Additionally, trauma can cause physical and emotional stress in students such as headaches or stomach aches, poor control of emotions, and unpredictable behaviors (National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee, 2008).

Schools often identify trauma when a student demonstrates aggressive behavior. Schools are primarily reactive to students experiencing trauma after a significant behavioral incident occurs; however, educators can help prevent aggressive behavior by “ … being aware of stu- dents’ emotional states and responding with proactive de- escalation classroom management practices. Actions as simple as greeting students at the door and asking them to complete a daily mood chart can help teachers under- stand and react better to students’ behavior” (Urban Education Institute, 2017, p. 21). Trauma-responsive edu- cational practices acknowledge schools as safe spaces with trusting relationships between students and educators, understand trauma and how trauma impacts children’s brain development and behavior, utilize proactive beha- vioral supports, de-escalate challenging student behaviors, and keep students in the classroom (Walkley & Cox, 2013), and support educators to utilize self-care to miti- gate the impact of trauma-related stress on themselves (Jennings, 2019).

It is important to note that not all experiences of trauma lead to a traumatic response or trauma-related disorder or diagnosis. But when signs and symptoms of traumatic stress endure over time (one month or longer), disrupt a child’s or adult’s daily life, impact their social and emotional health, and meet specific diagnostic

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criteria, the impacts of trauma can be far reaching (National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee, 2008). For youth involved with the juvenile justice system, the prevalence of youth exposed to com- plex trauma is believed to be higher than their same-aged peers (Judicial Council of California, 2014; Wolpaw & Ford, 2004). One study found over 90% of juvenile detai- nees reported having experienced at least one traumatic event (Arroya, 2001). Children experiencing poverty are especially susceptible to experiencing multiple adverse experiences (McInerney & McKlindon, 2014).

The NCTSN (2008) identified observable behaviors for middle school students experiencing trauma. Some of these behaviors included anxiety, fear, and worry; irrit- ability; angry outbursts; withdrawal; increased absentee- ism; changes in academic performance; avoidance behaviors; over- or under-reacting to physical contact, sudden movement, and noises such as bells or doors slamming. Additionally, the NCTSN cautions educators to also be aware of students who may not demonstrate overt symptoms of trauma, and therefore, do not receive the support they need. With support, students can recover from trauma within a few weeks or months, while others require support to heal over a longer period of time.

Childhood trauma can have a negative impact on many parts of students’ lives including academic pro- blems, behavioral issues, emotional problems, and tru- ancy. These negative impacts, combined with mental health or substance abuse make students much more likely to become court-involved (Judicial Council of California, 2014). Trauma can also significantly alter our brain’s function and the high levels of stress triggered by trauma can impede development (Judicial Council of California, 2014; Walkley & Cox, 2013)). Terrasi and de Galarce (2017) found a strong likelihood that added stress compromises a child’s executive functioning abilities. Without the full development of executive functions, stu- dents will struggle with concentration, language acquisi- tion and processing, decision making, and memory. Children in trauma often experience deficiencies in abstract reasoning, impulsiveness, and developmental coordination disorder (Damian, Knieling, & Ioan, 2011).

Just as trauma may impair cognitive functioning, it may also lead to difficulties with social and behavioral functioning which manifest as often-misunderstood beha- vioral problems in the classroom. Students may display impulsive, aggressive, or defiant behaviors. Such beha- vioral difficulties may result in harsh disciplinary practices,

involvement of the justice system, or school dropout-par- ticularly as schools struggle to accurately assess and iden- tify trauma and the associated symptoms (Smithgall, Cusick, & Griffin, 2013). Schools are two times more likely to retain students experiencing trauma. They also score lower on standardized tests and are more likely to be placed in special education programs (Cole et al., 2013).

Although trauma can have negative effects on stu- dents’ development and functioning, adolescents can be resilient with support from caring educators in safe school settings (Judicial Council of California, 2014). Although no single program exists to promote resiliency in youth, schools, along with other family and community efforts, can play a role by providing effective interventions and approaches which foster resilience in trauma-exposed youth (Moore, 2013). Schools can be trauma-sensitive by maintaining routines and giving students choices. Clear behavioral expectations and recognition of behavioral issues can help to mitigate disruptions to learning. Schools and educators can help by providing a safe place for students and developing awareness of environmental cues which may trigger a traumatized student. Shortened assignments, allowing additional time to complete assign- ments, and providing support for organization are other ways educators can mitigate the effects of trauma for students (National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee, 2008).

Finally, the National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee (2008) cautions educators who work with traumatized students to be aware of compassion fati- gue since working directly with children experiencing trauma can cause secondary traumatic stress to profes- sionals. Educators should resist working in professional isolation by seeking support from peers while maintaining confidentiality of the students. And one of the most important steps an educator can take is to seek help with his or her own personal traumas, and practice self-care.

School background & connection to whole school, whole community, whole child

Our state, regional university (SRU) designed and cur- rently operates a laboratory middle school (LMS) for 6th, 7th, and 8th grades as a school within a school in a local high school building. The SRU designed LMS in partner- ship with the local school system to explore innovative teaching approaches and applied learning opportunities that will help every student discover his or her full

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academic potential. At the beginning of the second year of service, LMS framed the scope and context of needs, data, and direction in the fact that no historical trends had yet been established. Congruent with research on trauma- sensitive schools by Craig (2016), LMS is working toward development as a trauma-responsive school focusing on safety, empowerment through choice, and collaborative partnerships between students, faculty, and staff.

School/student demographics

State legislation guiding laboratory schools dictates that students must meet certain qualifications to be enrolled, including residency in the county in which the school is located, previous enrollment in a low-performing school, or student identification as not meeting growth through various criteria (such as test scores, grades, or lack of achievement gain). Students may also meet an additional low performance category which includes a myriad of criteria: met end-of-grade proficiency, but earned poor grades; labeled twice exceptional as eligible for special education services; exhibited extreme behavioral issues; demonstrated lack of growth progress over time and/or did not meet growth targets; experienced social-emo- tional issues or contextual factors such as trauma, familial issues, etc.

LMS is located in a rural county with a population over 43,000; the state, regional university is its biggest employer. The population is majority white at 83%, while Native American is the largest minority group with almost 10%. The projected median household income is approximately $42,000. Eighty-eight percent of adults in the county have a high school diploma or greater, and 30% of adults have a bachelor’s degree or higher.

The current enrollment of LMS is 56 students: 22 females and 34 males. Approximately 75% of LMS stu- dents were enrolled previously in county public schools and 25% were either home schooled or enrolled in another school district. Approximately 76.8% of students identify as White, non-Hispanic; 14.3% identify as multi- racial; 5.4% Native American; 3.5% Hispanic; and none who identify as African American or Asian American. In addition, 21.4% of the LMS population is labeled as Exceptional Children (i.e., special education), 4% have 504 plans, 9% are gifted (several of these students are twice-exceptional, meaning they receive both EC and gifted services), and 48% receive free or reduced lunch.

Climate/school culture

The culture of the school reflects the collaboration with SRU by accessing resources and personnel. LMS students have access to daily health and physical education, regular music and arts activities, leadership experiences, and mentorship from experts in a variety of academic fields. Some SRU academic programs that support activities reach well beyond teacher education, including parks and recreation, international programs, music, theater and studio arts, engineering, school counseling, as well as business and leadership. These enrichment activities and clubs encourage students to learn more about themselves and others, as well as contribute to the school community. Collaboration with the local high school and SRU exposes the students to high school-aged students as well university interns and volunteers. SRU has strong partnerships with the local community as well as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) since the campus is located on Cherokee land.

Significant barriers

One significant barrier to wellness for adolescents is lack of mental health services. Deficiency in services is largely due to the stigma and cultural norms associated with psychotherapy or counseling. Furthermore, rural areas in the United States, much like the setting of LMS, have fewer adolescent psychiatrists (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services Office of Adolescent Health, 2017b) and adolescents living in these areas are less likely to receive mental health services than adolescents living in urban areas (Lipari, Hedden, Blau, & Rubenstein, 2016).

As a university laboratory school working in coopera- tion with the local county school system, LMS is located within the local high school campus. SRU’s partner school system provides the physical space, bus transportation, food services, technology support for student devices, and classroom instructional technology as part of a memorandum of agreement and lease between the uni- versity and school system. With space at a premium, it is often difficult to reserve locations for smaller groups, which is a need for diagnostic assessments, school coun- seling sessions, speech language or physical therapy, tar- geted academic interventions, and enrichment activities. These barriers, at times, hinder professional services available to students. Because of the space needs, SRU and the local school system have expanded the partnership to include a large, additional space for reservation within the

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high school. This redesigned space now includes a classroom of 15 to 25 students, a conference area, small group tables and chairs, and more. Our hope is that this newly available space will at least partially address space as a barrier.

Student cases

The authors present three students below who exhibit behaviors associated with trauma. The cases articulate the student experiences and illustrate varied strategies that educators may employ when working with students experiencing trauma. These young adolescent students come from different backgrounds and their behaviors manifest in unique ways within the day-to-day life of school. One year into the existence of LMS, various ele- ments of success have emerged for each of these students. LMS staff and SRU faculty stakeholders have explored new systems of support. Even though challenges still exist, classroom, school-wide and specific, individually-focused trauma-informed practices help students navigate their middle school experiences and increase resiliency within the school day.

Damien. Damien is a highly mobile student who changes schools about every two years usually associated with his ever-changing home life structure. At the end of any given school day Damien and his teachers are often uncertain as to which caregivers’ home he will return. There are daily questions about who, if anyone, will be there to greet Damien. When at his father’s house, Damien reports that he is left alone to either work at his father’s business or to care for his two young siblings. While Damien reports having a good relationship with his mother, she lives farther away and is not a consistent presence in his life. Their relationship seems to consist of friendship rather than a parent/child dynamic. Damien’s grandmother is a consistent and supportive adult in his life. Teachers readily note when Damien stays with her, he shows up to school in clean clothes with a healthy lunch, which is not common with mom or dad.

At his previous schools, Damien was in the office or in-school-suspension more often than in the classroom. Although he has well above average academic abilities, Damien struggles in the context of a traditional classroom. He meticulously analyzes most elements of the classroom, from the activities to the way teachers interact with him, and he constantly questions why systems exist and why systems which to him, hold no logic or value constrain

him. Damien often gets frustrated when he feels as if teachers are not considering his ideas or questions and he often characterizes his teachers’ verbal interactions with and toward him as dismissive. Damien’s frequent absences seem to make him feel endlessly lost in class, as if despite his best efforts, he is consistently behind. He has limited coping mechanisms for frustrations, and continuing vio- lent, aggressive, verbal outbursts typically result in Damien’s removal from the classroom. LMS teachers continue to work to find solutions to deescalate Damien’s explosive, verbal reactions to frustration.

Damien has historically struggled in his relationship with his teachers. There are moments where LMS faculty perceive his words as threatening and hurtful. Nevertheless, he is a 13-year-old boy with cognitive abilities well-beyond his years despite an unstable family support network and an inability to communicate in a calm man- ner. Teachers have worked closely with mental health professionals, the school interventionist, his caregivers, and each other to consistently support Damien’s needs. Ongoing interventions range from attempts to meet basic needs, such as making sure the snack pantry is stocked when Damien arrives at school hungry to those strategies targeted at his academic needs, such as implementation of a 504 Plan in his second year at LMS. Teachers look for ways to communicate with Damien during instruction in order to maximize positive interactions. They talk as a team to pinpoint triggers that elicit heightened struggles during instruction, and experiment with communication strategies that might diffuse these tense situations (including avoidance of certain words or phrases). For example, if Damien gets frustrated during discussion, tea- chers have found general coping mechanisms such as “take a deep breath,” or “I hear what you are saying,” exacerbate Damien’s frustrations rather than diffuse them.

Julie. Julie is an eighth-grade student who has experienced multiple sources of trauma that contribute to her struggles in school. Julie’s grandmother primarily supports her as her mother does not have the financial means to support Julie in addition to her other children. Physical challenges throughout Julie’s life have led to multiple surgeries to help her walk. While her physical condition limits her at times, she can participate in most activities provided by LMS. In her prior schools, Julie was reported to exhibit attention-seeking behaviors by engaging peers negatively, stealing items from peers and teachers, and disengaging from academics. Teachers

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perceive Julie as guarded and they attribute this characteristic to Julie’s personal experiences outside of school. She does not trust others easily and will put on a “tough girl” facade at times. This is sometimes problematic in her interactions with other students who see her actions as mean and hurtful. She has suffered bullying for many years and her coping mechanism is to bully others. Beyond the physical and social challenges she endures, Julie also requires an Individualized Education Program to provide academic support in reading, writing, and mathematics instruction, as well as physical therapy on a bi-monthly basis.

In Julie’s case, teachers at LMS have found the most beneficial way to support her is through relationship- building. While this is often true with adolescents, the behaviors attributed to the trauma in Julie’s life make personal relationships key to making strides toward aca- demic and social goals. Teachers have found small-group instruction whenever possible best meets this need. Additionally, the school has worked hard to create opportunities for Julie to be involved in developmentally appropriate social activities. Julie has developed a strong relationship with the physical education teacher. Because of this relationship, Julie has joined the school’s Girls on the Run (n.d.) club that integrates running with building confidence and empowering adolescent girls. Julie recently participated in a 5K race and is also active in the theater elective.

Nate. Nate also has a set of unique attributes impacting his school experiences. He comes from a large family structure including both parents, three siblings, grandparents, and several other women he refers to as “step-moms.” Nate’s family struggles financially and his mother is a full-time student at a local community college. Despite challenges, Nate’s family really desires success for the children and all family members try to support each other whenever possible. One of Nate’s largest barriers to success in prior school years has been a lack of impulse control. He is animated and energetic, and these qualities have contributed to disciplinary issues. One incident even involved Nate running away from school. In the first weeks working with Nate, teachers found him to be fiercely protective and loyal to his friends, excited about learning, but unorganized. With the school’s commitment to social and emotional development, teachers made intentional efforts to utilize positive framing and language techniques to recognize Nate’s strengths. In terms of academics, the teachers recognized the need to push and challenge Nate

because keeping him engaged in learning would diffuse some of the negative behaviors exhibited in school. In year two, the teachers highlight Nate as one of the biggest success stories: he has emerged as a leader among his peers, he is respectful in the classroom, and he is challenged academically as one of a select few students who participate in Math 1, a high school level course. Nate has indicated he notices the teachers at LMS are more accepting of a variety of students than what he has observed at former schools. Additionally, he appears to have benefitted from a wider range of academic choices and has indicated he feels more supported in this new environment.

Implementation of trauma-informed practices Schools utilizing a whole-school approach of trauma-respon- sive practices, including democratic processes, validate the voices of allmembers of the school community and promote healthy relationships and resilience in children (Blitz, Yull, & Clauhs, 2016). SAMHSA identified trauma-informed organi- zations as those that realize the impact of trauma, recognize the signs of trauma, respond by integrating knowledge about trauma into policies, procedures, and practices, and seek to actively resist re-traumatization (2018). SAMHSA also identi- fied six key principles of a trauma-informed approach: “ … safety, trustworthiness and transparency; peer support; colla- boration and mutuality; empowerment, voice, and choice; and cultural, historical, and gender issues” (2018, p. 10). These six principles are evident in the structures LMS has established to create a trauma-informed school. Some of the structures LMS utilizes to engage and support students aca- demically and social-emotionally are: A Community of Care Committee, an evaluation committee, daily homeroom meetings, monthly whole school meetings, student govern- ment, democratic classrooms, project-based learning, and individual intervention and enrichment activities. We describe these structures below.

The community of care

LMS adopted the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD, 2014) Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child model as a framework for creating collaborative school/community relationships and improving the learning and health of all students. From this framework the development of a Community

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of Care is evolving in which laboratory school personnel, college of education faculty, and community-based pro- fessionals coordinate supports to address students’ aca- demic, physical, and social-emotional needs. The goal of the Community of Care is to create a greater alignment between academic performance, health, and social-emo- tional development to provide a framework for creating school-community relationships focused on integrated services. SRU graduate counseling students, overseen by SRU Counseling Faculty, facilitate whole groups and provide individual counseling to students. Whole group sessions focus on topics such as social-emotional growth, conflict resolution, decision-making, goal setting, and peer interactions. In particular, the Community of Care seeks to emphasize the following core values: (1) utilizing experiential learning to guide students toward deep understanding; (2) focusing on health and well-being, specifically social and emotional development; (3) building a democratic community and embracing social justice; (4) developing cultural responsiveness within and outside of the learning community; (5) embracing the ideals of student-centered assessment; and (6) building family and community alliances.

The evaluation committee

An SRU faculty member leads an evaluation committee to inform academic and social-emotional initiatives at LMS. One instrument used by LMS is the REACH (Relationships, Effort, Aspirations, Cognition, Heart) survey (Search Institute, 2018) to collect data

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