This video provides an excellent basis for the analysis of social structure, social relations, and public institutions during a period of major upheaval in the US. In particular, you can use
This video provides an excellent basis for the analysis of social structure, social relations, and public institutions during a period of major upheaval in the US. In particular, you can use it to think about and apply sociological theories from the conflict and social order traditions. The point is not that one theory or perspective is right or wrong for conducting an analysis, but rather that different theories are going to frame different kinds of questions and pose different kinds of answers in attempting to explain what was happening during that historical period.
For your first post, focus on conflict theory. How would a conflict theorist explain what is happening in the story? Which specific conflict theories from the Marxian and Weberian traditions seem to be most relevant? You will need to complete this post in order to see what others are contributing to the discussion.
Major funding for American Experience is provided by the Alfred P Sloan Foundation. National corporate funding is provided by Liberty Mutual and the Scotts Company. American Experience is also made possible by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and by public television viewers. Funding for the re-release of Eyes on the Prize made possible by the Ford Foundation and the Gilder Foundation.
In 1954, the Supreme Court said black children would go to school with white. The South said, never.
In the name of God, whom we all revere, in the name of liberty we hold so dear, in the name of decency, which we all cherish, what is happening in America?
Was this the start of a new civil war?
[MUSIC – "KEEP YOUR EYES ON THE PRIZE"]
Desegregation is against the Bible. I find my scripture for this in Genesis 9:27, where God did segregate and separate the three sons of Noah, sending one out to be a servant while the other two remain in the Tabernacle. I say that God has given nowhere in His Bible any right to man to end the curse that he's placed upon any human [INAUDIBLE].
All the people of the South are in favor of segregation. And Supreme Court or no Supreme Court, we are going to maintain segregated schools down in Dixie.
It wasn't funny then. It's still not funny. But suddenly we have the 14th Amendment that took 100 years, brought on by the Civil War, suddenly must be complied with. Equal treatment under the law. And that was a resistance. They are not going to get equal treatment. What do you mean? Go to school with my little darling? Now that is why resistance.
In the late 1950s, the battle for civil rights was fought in the classrooms of the South. The Supreme Court had ruled in a case called Brown versus Board of Education that segregated schools were unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment. Many Southerners saw the decision as an attack on their heritage and traditions. The battle lines were drawn.
I think we were not really quite prepared for the extent to which the South would resist the implementation of the Brown decision. In fact, the shutting down of the NAACP in Alabama, the resistance evidenced in places like Virginia and Arkansas, the legislative investigations committees in Florida and in other states, really frightened us.
And the white resistance could also be violent. In February, 1956, a black woman named Autherine Lucy was quietly admitted to the all-white University of Alabama. But the night after she arrived, students and townspeople began a riot.
–six, eight, we don't want to integrate. Two, four, six, eight, we don't want to integrate.
The university suspended Lucy temporarily, it said, for her own protection. And Autherine Lucy sued, claiming that mob rule was being allowed to overturn the law.
What's brought about these actions, I feel, is that lawless elements outside the campus set themselves over and above the law. Their actions brought great discredit to our nation.
The charge has been made, and made by some fairly moderate people, gr gradualists you might call them, that the NAACP, whose general counsel you are, is moving too far, too fast, that following the decision of the Supreme Court, you would have been well advised to let things move along gradually for awhile, that you can't overthrow the prejudices of 300 years overnight.
You can't, or maybe you can override prejudice overnight. But the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863, 90-odd years ago. I believe in gradualism. I also believe that 90-odd years is pretty gradual.
Autherine Lucy won her case, but the Board of Trustees expelled her anyway, for saying the university had used the riots to keep her out. Across the South, the Lucy case gave resisting whites hope. If they were willing to use violence to fight the law, it seemed they could keep black children in black schools. And it seemed the federal government would not step in. After the riots, the president spoke only of extremists on both sides. He worried, like much of the country, about moving too fast on school integration.
I personally believe if you try to go too far too fast in laws in this delicate field that has involved the emotions of so many millions of Americans, you're making a mistake. I believe we've got to have laws that go along with education and understanding, and I believe if you go beyond that at any one time, you cause trouble rather than benefit.
It was over year before the black community would find its chance to fight back, here in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957. Little Rock was a moderate southern city in a moderate southern state. By 1956, both the state universities and the city buses were integrated. Its school board made plans to desegregate slowly. The first year, 1957, nine black teenagers would attend one school, Central High. Little Rock's black leaders were hopeful.
We have a very enlightened group of people in Arkansas. And they have accepted everything else. They accepted bus integration without any fanfare, and they are, they will take the school integration as just another going to school.
The black children were not getting a chance, and they needed it. They needed it more than anyone, and we were very strongly in favor of that and could see that integration would improve it. But we did, at that stage, have fears, and they were, I guess, just natural, inborn emotional fears. And so we needed some help from the officials, the state officials, the county and the city officials, and primarily from Governor Faubus as to what he told the people, whether it was the law or not.
Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas was a moderate by Southern standards, a man the black community had supported. But in his last election, he'd faced tough opponents, and he knew he'd need the segregationist vote if he wanted to be reelected. The night before school opened, Faubus made a decision.
I have, therefore, in accordance with the solemn responsibility and the oath of my office, taken the following action. Units of the National Guard have been and are now being mobilized with the mission to maintain or restore the peace and good order of this community. Advance units are already on duty on the grounds of Central High School.
The Arkansas National Guard ringed the school, with orders to admit only the white students. It shocked the country. State troops were now being used to prevent enforcement of federal law. At the center of the crisis were these nine teenagers, selected by the school board because of their excellent grades. The first day, eight of the nine went to school together, accompanied by their parents and ministers. They expected some harassment but no real trouble.
You could cut it with a knife, the tension outside the school, where these people who had come in from other parts of the state, other states– there were license plates from all other states that were there, people who come in and were outside our school.
The eight children and the adults with them were turned away by the National Guard. The ninth student, Elizabeth Eckford, had missed the call to gather with the others before school. Elizabeth Eckford walked alone, and met a mob.
Can you tell me your name, please? Are you going to go to school here at Central High? You don't care to say anything, is that right? This girl here, who is the first Negro, apparently, of high school age to show up at Central High School the day that the federal court ordered it integrated. She was followed in front of the school by an angry crowd, many of them shouting epithets at her.
Why it has to be the most frightening thing, I mean, because she had a crowd of white people behind her, threatening to kill her. She had nobody. I mean, there was not a black face in sight anywhere. Nobody that she could turn to as a friend, except that this woman came out of the crowd and guided her through the mob and onto the bus, and got her home safely.
The black parents and the NAACP went back to court. The leader of the state organization, Daisy Bates, became the students' strongest supporter. The national NAACP saw this case as a showdown for desegregation, and they assisted the local lawyers.
Well, we consider this case important as one of the segregation cases, but in addition to the fact that this one involves the appearance of the National Guard on the scene. And for the first time in any of our cases, it's the action of the governor that eventually will have to be brought into court.
Then you see it as a state-federal conflict of authority?
Oh, I don't think there's any question about that.
The question was whether the federal government would assert its authority. The pressure on the president increased. Defiance of federal law seemed to be spreading, from Little Rock here to North Little Rock, to Nashville, Tennessee, and to Charlotte, North Carolina. Some people blamed Eisenhower for this resistance, saying his lack of leadership on civil rights encouraged the extremists.
President Eisenhower's position was that he was the president of all the people. He felt that his role was to talk to the moderates throughout the country, including the southern states. He felt that, and was told by many advisers, that Governor Faubus could be reasoned with, and that an amicable solution could be found to the Little Rock crisis.
In mid September, the president and the governor had a meeting at Eisenhower's vacation home in Newport, Rhode Island.
The president thought that he had persuaded Governor Faubus to go back and allow the black children to enter the high school peaceably. And it was quite a surprise to him, and he felt let down, when the Governor Faubus decided against allowing the black children to enter the high school.
Eisenhower had convinced Faubus that ultimately, the state could not resist federal authority. Faubus changed his tactic. He simply removed the National Guard, leaving only city police in an explosive situation as the Little Rock Nine entered Central High School.
We entered the side of the building. Thousands of people out front. And we were entering the side, and I could just get a glimpse of this group, and then the car, I could hear on the car radio, I could hear that there was a mob. And I knew what a mob meant. And I knew that the sounds that came from the crowd were very angry. So we entered the side of the building very, very fast.
We just got a report here on this end that the students are in. They're trying– turn the camera down that way. You can see from here some of the action occurring down there.
The three of us represented the black press. That was all. And we were on the mall in front of the school, and the word got to the crowd outside that "the niggers are in the school. " Then they said to us, "You come out here as a decoy, and let other people slipping in to the side of this building." So I said, "Hello no," like that, you see.
The crowd turned on Hicks and on his companions, Moses Newson and Alex Wilson.
Somebody had a brick in his hand. And instead of throwing the brick, because he was too close, he hit Alex Wilson up beside his head with this brick. Cliff Wilson was more than six feet tall, an ex-Marine and he went down like a tree.
The mob was getting past the wooden sawhorses because the policemen would no longer fight their own in order to keep, to protect us. And so someone made a suggestion that if they allowed the mob to hang one kid, they could then get the rest out. And a gentleman, whom I believe to be the assistant chief of police, said, "How you gonna choose? You gonna let them draw straws?" He said, "Ill get them out." And we were taken to the basement of this place. And we were put into two cars, grayish-blue colored Fords. And the man instructed him, he said, "Once you start driving, do not stop. "
The rioting was headline news. The nation and the world saw, unmistakably, the face of resistance. Finally, President Eisenhower realized he had to act, and he did, quickly. That night, he sent in the paratroopers of 101st Airborne Division.
An extreme situation has been created in Little Rock. This challenge must be met, and with such measures as will preserve to the people as a whole their lawfully protected rights. If resistance to the federal court order ceases at once, the further presence of federal troops will be unnecessary, and a blot upon the fair name and high honor of our nation in the world will be removed. Mob rule can not be allowed to override the decisions of our courts.
My fellow citizens, we are now an occupied territory. In the name of God, whom we all revere, in the name of liberty we hold so dear, in the name of decency which we all cherish, what is happening in America?
We got into the Jeep, into the station wagon, rather, and the convoy that went from Mrs. Bates' house to the school that had a Jeep in front, a Jeep behind. They both had machine gun mounts. And then the whole school was ringed with paratroopers and helicopters hovering around. We marched up the steps with this circle of soldiers with bayonets drawn. I figured that we had really, we had really gone into school that day. And walking up the steps that day was probably one of the biggest feelings I've ever had. I figured I had finally cracked it.
And there was a feeling of pride and hope, that yes, this is United States. Yes, there is a reason I salute the flag. And it's going to be OK, you know. If these guys just go with us the first time, it's gonna be OK. The troops did not, however, mean the end of harassment. It meant the declaration of war.
[MUSIC – RAY CHARLES, "WHAT'D I SAY"]
It was the beginning of a school year like no other at Little Rock Central High.
When we got in the school, they then assigned us an individual soldier to walk us from class to class. He waited outside the classroom, and every time the bell rang and classes changed, he would walk us. We'd have our own personal guard walking us to the next class.
The troops were wonderful. You know, there was some fear that they were dating the girls in high school, and that– I don't care what they were doing. They were wonderful. But they couldn't be with us everywhere. They couldn't be with us, for example, in the ladies' bathroom. They couldn't be with us in gym. You'd be walking out to the volleyball court, and someone would break a bottle and trip you on the ball. I have scars on my right knee from that.
Of course, we couldn't have a normal school. But we had to have as close to normal as possible, and you couldn't follow every student around with a guard into the– you know, the stories where that the male guards were going to the restrooms with the female black students. You couldn't do things like that, and you couldn't sit with them at the cafeteria. There wouldn't be any integration if you did that. So I'm proud of what we did, and what we didn't do.
Do you think you could get used to going to school with colored children?
Yes sir, I think so. I mean, if I'm going to have to do it, I might as well get used to it.
Well now, what about this? Do you think that the trouble is with the students here in the high school and in the schools of Little Rock, or is it with the parents, or is it with outsiders? Where is the trouble?
I think it's the parents. I mean, I saw, you know, all these crowds out here and the man kicking that Negro and everything.
And you don't sympathize with that sort of action at all?
No sir, I don't.
What do you think?
Well, I think it was just downright unAmerican. I think it was the most terrible thing that's ever been seen in America. I mean, yeah, I guess I'm sounding patriotic or something like that, but I always thought that all men were created equal.
And I began to change from being somebody who was, considered myself a moderate, who, if I had my way, would have said, let's don't integrate because it's the state's right to decide, to someone who felt a real sense of compassion for these students, and felt like they deserved something that I had. And I also developed a real dislike for the people that were out there that were causing the problems. It was very unsettling to me.
I never anything to do with any until we came here. I mean, we just– they never lived, well, what you'd say close enough to us, so I was just never around them, really.
Isn't that part of what makes it difficult, when you've lived 16 or 17 years of your life and then start doing something different all of a sudden?
Well, I think, like if a Spanish or a Chinese person came here, it wouldn't be hard to get along with them. It's just that the Negroes are what you might say more different to us than a Spanish person might be.
It's early morning here at 1121 Cross Street in Little Rock, and a new school day is dawning.
Melba?
Yes, mother?
You'd better hurry. You're going to be late for school.
Here I come.
As usual, the girl in the family is running a little late. The girl is Melba Patillo, 15 years old and–
You know, I worried about silly things like keeping my saddle shoes straight, what am I going to wear today? The things that a 15-year-old girl does worry about, you know, but also which part of the hall to
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