Andrew Jacksons Presidency is surrounded with controversy. From increased presidential authority and his battle with the national bank, to the push for a limited government and the Indian Re

U.S. History

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Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 1: The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1 The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter 2: Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.1 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2 Religious Upheavals in the Developing Atlantic World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.3 Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.4 New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange . . . . 52

Chapter 3: Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.1 Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2 Colonial Rivalries: Dutch and French Colonial Ambitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.3 English Settlements in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.4 The Impact of Colonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Chapter 4: Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.1 Charles II and the Restoration Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.2 The Glorious Revolution and the English Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.3 An Empire of Slavery and the Consumer Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.4 Great Awakening and Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 4.5 Wars for Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Chapter 5: Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests, 1763-1774 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.1 Confronting the National Debt: The Aftermath of the French and Indian War . . . . . . 126 5.2 The Stamp Act and the Sons and Daughters of Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.3 The Townshend Acts and Colonial Protest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.4 The Destruction of the Tea and the Coercive Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 5.5 Disaffection: The First Continental Congress and American Identity . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Chapter 6: America's War for Independence, 1775-1783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 6.1 Britain’s Law-and-Order Strategy and Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 6.2 The Early Years of the Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 6.3 War in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.4 Identity during the American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 7: Creating Republican Governments, 1776–1790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 7.1 Common Sense: From Monarchy to an American Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.2 How Much Revolutionary Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 7.3 Debating Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 7.4 The Constitutional Convention and Federal Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Chapter 8: Growing Pains: The New Republic, 1790–1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 8.1 Competing Visions: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 8.2 The New American Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 8.3 Partisan Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 8.4 The United States Goes Back to War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Chapter 9: Industrial Transformation in the North, 1800–1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 9.1 Early Industrialization in the Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 9.2 A Vibrant Capitalist Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 9.3 On the Move: The Transportation Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 9.4 A New Social Order: Class Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Chapter 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 10.1 A New Political Style: From John Quincy Adams to Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . 274 10.2 The Rise of American Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

10.3 The Nullification Crisis and the Bank War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 10.4 Indian Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 10.5 The Tyranny and Triumph of the Majority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Chapter 11: A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 1800–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 11.1 Lewis and Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 11.2 The Missouri Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 11.3 Independence for Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 11.4 The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 11.5 Free Soil or Slave? The Dilemma of the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Chapter 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 12.1 The Economics of Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 12.2 African Americans in the Antebellum United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 12.3 Wealth and Culture in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 12.4 The Filibuster and the Quest for New Slave States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Chapter 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 13.1 An Awakening of Religion and Individualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 13.2 Antebellum Communal Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 13.3 Reforms to Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 13.4 Addressing Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 13.5 Women’s Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Chapter 14: Troubled Times: the Tumultuous 1850s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 14.1 The Compromise of 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 14.2 The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Republican Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 14.3 The Dred Scott Decision and Sectional Strife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 14.4 John Brown and the Election of 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Chapter 15: The Civil War, 1860–1865 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 15.1 The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 15.2 Early Mobilization and War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 15.3 1863: The Changing Nature of the War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 15.4 The Union Triumphant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Chapter 16: The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 16.1 Restoring the Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 16.2 Congress and the Remaking of the South, 1865–1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 16.3 Radical Reconstruction, 1867–1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 16.4 The Collapse of Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Chapter 17: Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 17.1 The Westward Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 17.2 Homesteading: Dreams and Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 17.3 Making a Living in Gold and Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 17.4 The Loss of American Indian Life and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 17.5 The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens . . . . . . . . 506

Chapter 18: Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business, 1870-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 18.1 Inventors of the Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 18.2 From Invention to Industrial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 18.3 Building Industrial America on the Backs of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 18.4 A New American Consumer Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Chapter 19: The Growing Pains of Urbanization, 1870-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 19.1 Urbanization and Its Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 19.2 The African American “Great Migration” and New European Immigration . . . . . . . 554 19.3 Relief from the Chaos of Urban Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 19.4 Change Reflected in Thought and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

Chapter 20: Politics in the Gilded Age, 1870-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

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20.1 Political Corruption in Postbellum America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 20.2 The Key Political Issues: Patronage, Tariffs, and Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 20.3 Farmers Revolt in the Populist Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 20.4 Social and Labor Unrest in the 1890s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

Chapter 21: Leading the Way: The Progressive Movement, 1890-1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 21.1 The Origins of the Progressive Spirit in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 21.2 Progressivism at the Grassroots Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 21.3 New Voices for Women and African Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 21.4 Progressivism in the White House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

Chapter 22: Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 22.1 Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 22.2 The Spanish-American War and Overseas Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 22.3 Economic Imperialism in East Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 22.4 Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 22.5 Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

Chapter 23: Americans and the Great War, 1914-1919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 23.1 American Isolationism and the European Origins of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 23.2 The United States Prepares for War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 23.3 A New Home Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 23.4 From War to Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 23.5 Demobilization and Its Difficult Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692

Chapter 24: The Jazz Age: Redefining the Nation, 1919-1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 24.1 Prosperity and the Production of Popular Entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 24.2 Transformation and Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 24.3 A New Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715 24.4 Republican Ascendancy: Politics in the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

Chapter 25: Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? The Great Depression, 1929-1932 . . . . . . . . 731 25.1 The Stock Market Crash of 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 25.2 President Hoover’s Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 25.3 The Depths of the Great Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 25.4 Assessing the Hoover Years on the Eve of the New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

Chapter 26: Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 26.1 The Rise of Franklin Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 26.2 The First New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 26.3 The Second New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

Chapter 27: Fighting the Good Fight in World War II, 1941-1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 27.1 The Origins of War: Europe, Asia, and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796 27.2 The Home Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 27.3 Victory in the European Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 27.4 The Pacific Theater and the Atomic Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945-1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829 28.1 The Challenges of Peacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 28.2 The Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833 28.3 The American Dream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842 28.4 Popular Culture and Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 28.5 The African American Struggle for Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

Chapter 29: Contesting Futures: America in the 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863 29.1 The Kennedy Promise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 29.2 Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 29.3 The Civil Rights Movement Marches On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878 29.4 Challenging the Status Quo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887

Chapter 30: Political Storms at Home and Abroad, 1968-1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

30.1 Identity Politics in a Fractured Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 30.2 Coming Apart, Coming Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 30.3 Vietnam: The Downward Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 30.4 Watergate: Nixon’s Domestic Nightmare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 30.5 Jimmy Carter in the Aftermath of the Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

Chapter 31: From Cold War to Culture Wars, 1980-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 31.1 The Reagan Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 31.2 Political and Cultural Fusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 31.3 A New World Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 31.4 Bill Clinton and the New Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949

Chapter 32: The Challenges of the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 32.1 The War on Terror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 32.2 The Domestic Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 32.3 New Century, Old Disputes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 32.4 Hope and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983

A The Declaration of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 B The Constitution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 C Presidents of the United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 D U.S. Political Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 E U.S. Topographical Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 F United States Population Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 G Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049

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Preface

Welcome to U.S. History, an OpenStax College resource. This textbook has been created with several goals in mind: accessibility, customization, and student engagement—all while encouraging students toward high levels of academic scholarship. Instructors and students alike will find that this textbook offers a strong foundation in U.S. history in an accessible format.

About OpenStax College OpenStax College is a non-profit organization committed to improving student access to quality learning materials. Our free textbooks go through a rigorous editorial publishing process. Our texts are developed and peer-reviewed by educators to ensure they are readable, accurate, and meet the scope and sequence requirements of today’s college courses. Unlike traditional textbooks, OpenStax College resources live online and are owned by the community of educators using them. Through our partnerships with companies and foundations committed to reducing costs for students, OpenStax College is working to improve access to higher education for all. OpenStax College is an initiative of Rice University and is made possible through the generous support of several philanthropic foundations. Since our launch in 2012 our texts have been used by millions of learners online and over 1,200 institutions worldwide.

About OpenStax College’s Resources OpenStax College resources provide quality academic instruction. Three key features set our materials apart from others: they can be customized by instructors for each class, they are a “living” resource that grows online through contributions from educators, and they are available free or for minimal cost.

Customization OpenStax College learning resources are designed to be customized for each course. Our textbooks are developed to meet the scope and sequence of a typical course and; therefore, provide a solid foundation on which instructors can build, and our resources are conceived and written with flexibility in mind. Instructors can select the sections most relevant to their curricula and create a textbook that speaks directly to the needs of their classes and student body. Teachers are encouraged to expand on existing examples by adding unique context via geographically localized applications and topical connections.

U.S. History can be easily customized using our online platform (http://cnx.org/content/col11740/latest/). Simply select the content most relevant to your current semester and create a textbook that speaks directly to the needs of your class. U.S. History is organized as a collection of sections that can be rearranged, modifie

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