Miami Dade College Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming Article Summary

Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

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20201207021226the_mechanics_of_breathing_during_swimming.15

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The Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming MICHAEL G. LEAHY, MCKENZIE N. SUMMERS, CARLI M. PETERS, YANNICK MOLGAT-SEON, CAITLIN M. GEARY, and A. WILLIAM SHEEL School of Kinesiology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, CANADA ABSTRACT T he respiratory system does not typically exhibit adaptations to endurance training; however, crosssectional studies consistently show that highly trained swimmers have larger lungs than their terrestrial counterparts (1–3). Whether the larger lungs in highly trained swimmers is the result of a selection bias or adaptations to chronic swim training is unknown. There is some evidence to suggest that the greater lung volumes in swimmers can be explained, in part, by enhanced inspiratory muscle strength, which has been adapted from exercising while immersed in water (2,4).Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

Swimming requires entrained breathing patterns, optimized for buoyancy and stroke efficiency (5). During swimming, respiration is synchronized with the rhythm of movement and requires a forced inspiratory phase within the biomechanical constraint of the stroke cycle (6). Entrained breathing can have a substantial effect on breathing frequency ( fb) and tidal volume (VT), which can lead to variable degrees of hypoxemia and hypercapnia (7–10). Relative to terrestrial exercise such as cycling, a higher VT observed during swimming is likely attributed to a combination of entrained breathing, hydrostatic pressure on the thorax, and exercising in a prone or supine body position (10,11). Therefore, ventilatory mechanics are altered during swimming owing to the mechanics of limb movement for propulsion and intermittent face immersion. In addition to the effect on breathing patterns, the horizontal body position and hydrostatic pressures while swimming increases flow resistance. For example, increased thoracic blood flow while swimming in a prone or supine position engorges pulmonary arterial circulation causing smaller airways (92 mm) to constrict and lung compliance to decrease (12,13). Moreover, the body position while swimming causes the diaphragm to shift upward, thereby truncating vital capacity and increasing residual volume (14). As such, the altered hemodynamic properties of the thorax may also alter pulmonary mechanics during swimming.Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

During immersion in a supine position, intrathoracic pressure increases relative to depth (typically by ~6–7 cm H2O), which increases the elastic forces on lung tissue (15,16). Previous studies observing work of breathing (Wb) while submerged in an upright position at rest showed greater elastic work and dynamic work due to increased flow Address for correspondence: William Sheel, Ph.D., 2553 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3; E-mail: [email protected]. Submitted for publication June 2018. Accepted for publication January 2019. 0195-9131/19/5107-1467/0 MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISEÒ Copyright Ó 2019 by the American College of Sports Medicine DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001902 1467 Copyright © 2019 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. APPLIED SCIENCES Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC1y0abggQZXdgGj2MwlZLeI= on 12/06/2020 LEAHY, M. G., M. N. SUMMERS, C. M. PETERS, Y. MOLGAT-SEON, C. M. GEARY, and A. W. SHEEL. The Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 51, No. 7, pp. 1467–1476, 2019. Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

The thorax undergoes unique conditions while swimming. Hydrostatic pressure from water immersion places an external load on the thorax and increases airway resistance, and the horizontal body position results in central venous engorgement and an associated reduction in lung compliance. The aforementioned factors likely increase the work of breathing (Wb); however, this hypothesis remains untested. Purpose: This study aimed to compare Wb during freestyle swimming relative to cycling and to characterize the differences in the cardiorespiratory responses to swimming relative to cycling in the same individuals. Methods: Eight collegiate swimmers (four men and four women, age = 22 T 2 yr) performed an incremental swim test while tethered to a resistance apparatus. On a separate day, subjects performed an incremental cycle test. During swimming and cycling, metabolic and ventilatory parameters were measured using a customized metabolic cart, and inspired Wb was quantified using an esophageal balloon catheter. Results: Swimming and cycling elicited statistically similar levels of peak oxygen uptake (3.87 T 0.92 vs 4.20 T 0.83 LIminj1, P = 0.143). However, peak minute ventilation (V̇E) (118 T 3 vs 154 T 25 LIminj1) and heart rate (164 T 19 vs 183 T 8 bpm) were significantly lower during swimming relative to cycling (both P G 0.05). Inspired Wb was higher at a V̇E of 50 LIminj1 (+27 T 16 JIminj1), 75 LIminj1 (+56 T 23 JIminj1), and 100 LIminj1 (+53 T 22 JIminj1) during swimming compared with cycling (all P G 0.05). Periods of interbreath apnea were observed while swimming (duration = 0.13–2.07 s). Conclusion: We interpret our findings to mean that the horizontal body position and hydrostatic pressure on the chest wall requires swimmers to generate greater inspiratory pressures to sustain adequate V̇E during exercise. Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

Key Words: INTERBREATH APNEA, PULMONARY FUNCTION, SWIMMING, WORK OF BREATHING APPLIED SCIENCES resistance from reduced lung volumes (16). A higher Wb during exercise increases the mechanical and metabolic demand placed on the respiratory muscles (17–19). It is established that the aquatic environment imposes significant challenges to a swimmer_s ability to maintain adequate alveolar ventilation such as frequent breath holds, immersion of the thorax, and a prone body position. Additional challenges include, but are not limited to, other factors such as increased buoyancy with increased lung volume and the effect of stroke efficiency on metabolic work. Given these challenges, it can be hypothesized that Wb would be greater during swimming compared with terrestrial exercise, thereby increasing mechanical stress on the tissues and metabolic demand for working respiratory muscles.

Although previous studies have explored the effects of water immersion on Wb at rest (15,16), no study to date has investigated Wb during freestyle swimming. Moreover, the dynamic operating lung volumes during swimming have yet to be characterized. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to assess Wb and operating lung volumes during freestyle swimming compared with terrestrial exercise in the same individuals. Given the increased respiratory muscle strength of swimmers (1), the hydrostatic pressures applied to the chest wall during immersion, and the horizontal body position associated with swimming, we hypothesized that the Wb while freestyle swimming would be greater compared with cycling, at all ventilations. We further hypothesized that freestyle swimming would result in increased expiratory reserve volume (ERV) and decrease inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) relative to cycling. METHODS Subjects. Eight collegiate swimmers (four men and four women) participated in this study. Subjects were healthy nonsmokers and did not have a history of cardiopulmonary disease, apart from asthma. Airway hyperresponsiveness and dysfunction is prevalent in high-performance swimmers; however, only one subject in our study reported having been diagnosed with asthma (3). The subject presented with normal spirometry and used bronchodilators as prescribed by their physician.

Exercise testing was not controlled during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Previously, our laboratory demonstrated significant interand intrasubject variability with respect to hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle; therefore, we tested the women at random points throughout their menstrual cycle and oral contraceptives were not an exclusion criterion (20). All subjects were swimmers who competed at the collegiate and/or national level, swam for a minimum of 5 yr before testing, and currently trained a minimum of five 2-h sessions per week. Subjects provided written informed consent before participating, and all procedures were approved by the University of British Columbia Review Ethics Board (H16–02701). 1468 Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine Experimental overview. Subjects performed swimming and cycling exercise tests over two separate days in no specified order. On day 1, anthropometric and descriptive data were obtained, followed by pulmonary function testing and an incremental swim test at the University of British Columbia Aquatic Centre. On day 2, subjects performed pulmonary function testing and incremental cycle test in the Health and Integrative Physiology Lab. Time between day 1 and day 2 ranged from 7 to 21 d.

Pulmonary function. Forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expired volume in 1 s (FEV1), and FEV1/FVC were measured using a commercially available portable spirometer (SpiroLab 3; MIR, Rome, Italy) in accordance with standardized procedures and expressed in absolute terms and as a percentage of predicted normal values (21,22). Maximal exercise testing. On day 1, subjects performed a maximal incremental freestyle swim test while tethered to a resistance apparatus. The resistance apparatus consisted of a barrel and pulley system, connected to a waistband. Once fitted with a waist band, swimmers were instructed to maintain their position while swimming, approximately 4 m from the pulley apparatus secured on the pool deck. The resistance placed on the swimmer could be manipulated by filling barrels with set volumes of water. At the beginning of the incremental swim test, barrels were filled with 30 and 50 kg of water for women and men, respectively, and increased in 10-kg increments every 2 min until volitional exhaustion. On day 2, subjects performed an incremental exercise test on a cycle ergometer (Velotron; RacerMate, Seattle, WA).

The initial workload was 75 and 125 W for women and men, respectively, and the workload increased by 25 W every 2 min until volitional exhaustion. Before the incremental swim test, subjects were not instructed on how to breathe and were not informed of previous subjects breathing patterns. During both exercise tests, subjects breathed through a two-way nonrebreathing valve (Series 2700; Hans Rudolph, Kansas City, MO) connected to a mouthpiece. The valve was secured to a fixed apparatus and attached to a 1.1-kg weight to maintain its position under water and to ensure the comfort of the subject. Ventilatory and metabolic parameters were assessed using the same customized metabolic cart for both testing sessions, consisting of calibrated inspired and expired pneumotachographs (3813 Series; Hans Rudolph, Shawnee, KS) as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers (ML 206; ADInstruments, Dunedin, New Zealand). Flow, volume, and pressure. During both swimming and cycling, inspired and expired flows were measured using separate heated and calibrated pneumotachographs, in which subjects breathed freely through a two-way Y-shaped nonrebreathing valve (2730 Large; Hans Rudolph, Shawnee, KS). Before and after each exercise test, subjects completed a series of FVC maneuvers at different efforts to construct a maximal expired flow–volume curve for each subject, as previously described (23). On day 1, maneuvers were performed in a prone floating position, and in a cycle position on day 2.Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

Volume was calculated by integrating expired and inspired http://www.acsm-msse.org Copyright © 2019 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. MECHANICS OF BREATHING IN SWIMMERS Because of observable interbreath apnea, which will later be discussed, investigators could not justify quantifying and comparing expired Wb and, thereby, quantifying total Wb. Total inspired Wb was calculated during exercise and was determined as the sum of inspiratory resistive and inspiratory elastic work. Dynamic compliance was measured as the slope of the line between the pressure–volume points at end expiration and end inspiration. Therefore, values were determined via the differences in volume per difference in endinspiratory Peso and end-expiratory Peso. Data processing and statistical analysis. All data were sampled at 200 Hz using a 16-channel data acquisition system (PowerLab/16SP model ML 795; ADInstruments, Colorado Springs, CO) and stored for subsequent analysis. Cardiorespiratory parameters and Wb were compared between modes of exercise using paired t-tests at three discrete levels of minute ventilation (V̇E): 50, 75, and 100 LIminj1.

The alpha level was set to 0.05, and data are presented as mean T SD, unless otherwise noted. RESULTS Physical characteristics. Table 1 summarizes participant characteristics and pulmonary function data. Pulmonary function was equal to, or greater than, predicted values (22). All but one subject exceeded predicted FVC, averaging 118% T 16% of predicted. Lung function values were reduced in a swimming position compared with cycling in FVC (5.36 T 1.17 vs 5.72 T 1.51 L), FEV1 (4.21 T 1.02 vs 4.71 T 1.22 L), or FEV1/FVC (0.81 T 0.06 vs 0.85 T 0.08 L) (all P 9 0.05).

Exercise data. Peak exercise data while swimming and cycling are presented in Table 1. On average, the peak oxygen consumption (V̇O2) achieved while swimming was 10% T 10% lower compared with cycling (P 9 0.05). A significantly lower peak V̇E and heart rate were observed while swimming relative to cycling (both P G 0.05). As well as peak exercise, inspired duty cycle was greater throughout all ventilations while swimming than while cycling (all P G 0.05; Fig. 1). No significant differences in fb or VT were noted at peak exercise (P 9 0.05). Peak inspired flow was significantly lower at peak exercise in swimming compared with cycling. No difference in peak expired flow at peak exercise was observed between exercise modes. During submaximal exercise, all subjects were able to achieve three levels of V̇E under both conditions: 50, 75, and 100 LIminj1 (Table 2). At a V̇E = 50 LIminj1, V̇O2 was significantly greater while swimming compared with cycling (P G 0.05); however, no significant differences were found at 75 and 100 LIminj1. A significantly reduced fb was observed at a V̇E of 50 LIminj1 while swimming; however, no significant differences were found at 75 and 100 LIminj1. Inspired time while swimming was lower at a V̇E of 50 LIminj1 (0.92 T 0.32 vs 1.38 T 0.26 s), 75 LIminj1 (0.79 T 0.27 vs 1.27 T 0.30 s), and 100 LIminj1 (0.63 T 0.22 vs 0.92 T 0.14 s) (all P G 0.05). No significant differences in expired Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercised Copyright © 2019 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

1469 APPLIED SCIENCES flow signals. Inspired duty cycle is defined as the relative inspiratory portion of the breathing cycling. Under the circumstances that subjects held their breath during the incremental swim test, periods of apnea were not included in the determination of the breathing cycle. Esophageal pressure (Peso) was measured using balloon tipped catheter (no. 47-9005; Cooper Surgical, Trumbull, CT) connected to a calibrated pressure transducer (MP45; Validyne, Northridge, CA) (19). The placement of the catheter was performed according to standard procedures, and the validity of Peso was confirmed based on the occlusion test (24,25). Tidal flow–volume and pressure–volume loops were generated by composite averaging data from 5 to 10 breaths during the rest period and within the last 30 s of each exercise stage. Operating lung volumes. Measurements of ERV and IRV were estimated based on condition-specific measures of FVC (i.e., swimming or cycling). At rest and during each stage of exercise, subjects performed inspiratory capacity (IC) maneuvers, as previously described (26). Before exercise on both days, subjects were thoroughly familiarized with performing IC maneuvers. While cycling, subjects were told to ‘‘completely fill up their lungs at the end of a normal breath out.’’ While swimming, subjects were given identical instructions, but they were prompted to perform an IC maneuver using a red marker placed in their field of vision.Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

IC maneuvers were completed at rest and within the last 10 s of every exercise stage. An additional IC maneuver was performed immediately before test termination. IRV was estimated FVC – (ERV + VT). Work of breathing. Wb was assessed at rest and during exercise, on both experimental days. At rest in the water, measures were taken while subjects were submerged in two positions: upright and prone. In the upright position, subjects were submerged up to their clavicles, arms crossed and resting on the pool deck. The prone position was used to simulate the freestyle body position. Subjects were asked to float in a prone position with a floatation device between their legs and arms stretched out overhead holding the edge of the pool deck. Resting Wb on day 2 was collected in a cycling position on the bike. Each resting position was held for a minimum of 2 min. Exercise Wb was derived from the area of the esophageal pressure–volume loops corresponding to each stage of exercise. Total Wb measured at rest was then partitioned into three components: inspiratory resistive, inspiratory elastic, and expiratory work (27). The estimation of inspiratory elastic work was calculated by the triangulation of the area of the esophageal pressure–volume curve between the start of inspiration and the end of inspiration. The estimation of inspiratory resistive work was calculated via the subsequent area outside the triangulated elastic work. The estimation of expired work was calculated by measuring the area of the expiratory portion of the esophageal pressure–volume curve outside the area of inspiratory elastic work (28). TABLE 1. Anthropometric and pulmonary function data.

Total (n = 8) Subject characteristics Age, yr Height, m Weight, kg BMI, kgImj2 21.9 T 2.0 1.84 T 0.06 79.3 T 10.5 23.3 T 2.0 Pulmonary function FVC, L FVC, % predicted FEV1, L FEV1, % predicted FEV1/FVC (%) FEV1/FVC, % predicted Peak metabolic data V̇O2, LIminj1 V̇CO2, LIminj1 RER HR, bpm VT, L fb, bpm V̇E, LIminj1 V̇E/V̇O2 V̇E/V̇CO2 TI/TTOT PEF, LIsj1 PIF, LIsj1 6.32 T 1.52 118.71 T 16.3 5.27 T 0.77 108.29 T 18.36 84.0 T 0.9 91.53 T 8.31 Swimming 3.96 T 0.95 4.52 T 0.84 1.03 T 0.04 166 T 21 3.06 T 0.91 43 T 11 122 T 33 31.8 T 8.7 26.8 T 2.72 0.56 T 0.03 6.47 T 1.25 4.60 T 0.78 Cycling 4.29 T 0.85 4.78 T 0.92 1.07 T 0.03 183 T 5* 3.17 T 0.76 49 T 7 155 T 27* 36.7 T 5.4 32.7 T 2.60 0.49 T 0.02* 6.37 T 1.50 6.04 T 1.06* APPLIED SCIENCES Values are presented as mean T SD. *P G 0.05 statistically significant between swimming and cycling.

BMI, body mass index; HR, heart rate; TI/TTOT, inspired duty cycle; PEF, peak expired flow; PIF, peak inspired flow. time were found between swimming and cycling at 50 LIminj1 (1.25 T 0.30 vs 1.18 T 0.24 s), 75 LIminj1 (1.09 T 0.31 vs 1.08 T 0.26 s), or 100 LIminj1 (0.84 T 0.25 vs 0.86 T 0.15 s, P 9 0.05). Operational lung volumes. From the first stage of exercise to peak exercise, subjects averaged a +8% T 27% (from 2.30 T 0.7 L to 2.37 T 0.58 L) increase in ERV while swimming and a 0% T 30% (from 2.36 T 0.73 to 2.58 T 1.34 L) change in ERV while cycling (all P 9 0.05). Three subjects demonstrated increases in ERV during both swimming and cycling, from first stage exercise to peak exercise. Of the three subjects, two presented with greater increases in ERV from first stage exercise to peak exercise while swimming compared with cycling (61% vs 17% and 8% vs j29%). From the first stage of exercise to peak exercise, IRV decreased by 1% T 6% (from 0.58 T 0.44 to 0.57 T 0. … Assignment: Mechanics of Breathing during Swimming

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Gesturing gives children new idea

The purpose of this study was to show how gesture can enhance math performance. It was an experimental research study that looked at how gesture effects children’s learning of math, particularly addition.  The independent variable was gesture with three different conditions; gesture, no gesture, and partial gesture. The dependent variable of the study was the difference between pre- and post- test scores on a math task. The mediator variable was the speech being used during the lesson.

The lesson was where the independent variable changed. Participants were brought in for the study and were first given a demographics worksheet. Once their demographics were determined, they were given a pre-test to be aware of prior knowledge. Once the pre-test was graded, a lesson was given either with gesture that was grouping through two fingers, no gesture or a partial gesture which was just pointing. Once the lesson on the math was given, the post-test was given. The experimenters then determined a difference from pre- to post- tests scores.

The major conclusion to this study was that the gesturing condition showed higher math scores than the partially correct which was higher than the no gesture condition, showing that the gesturing actually aided in the child remembering the math task by using their body to                                                                                                 perform it.

However in this study there was no speech within the lesson. The only speech used was “This side is equal to the other side.” This was the only speech used within the lesson. Since this was the only speech, the lesson was highly dependent on the use of the gestures, which in my opinion could be questionable. The questions arise, should gesture be tested with more verbal instruction. Does the gesture give the same effect? One may also ask, does this relate to older or younger kids who are learning a different type of math?

References

Goldin-Meadow, S., Cook, S. W, Mitchell, Z. A. (2009). Gesturing gives children new ideas about math.

Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(5), 313-317.