October 8, 2022

In chapter six you learned about learning. :) The book points out the three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.? 1) Briefly

In chapter six you learned about learning. 🙂 The book points out the three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

1) Briefly describe the key points from each of these learning styles.

2) Which learning style do you think is most effective? As a child, do you remember your parents using any of these? If so, which ones and give an example.

should be a minimum of 200 words and contain a scholarly reference that is NOT your textbook or videos I provided.

Chapter6Notes.pptx

Chapter 6: Learning

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Chapter Preview

Classical Conditioning

Observational Learning

Health and Wellness

Operant Conditioning

Factors That Affect Learning

Photo credit: Brand X Pictures/Punchstock

For chapter 6

Learning Theory

Learning

a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

Behaviorism

Associative Learning /

Conditioning

Observational Learning

Note: “durable” is an excellent gloss for “relatively permanent.” “Exposure, practice, & repetition” are what a behaviorist means by “experience”

Classical Conditioning

Types of Learning

Helps to explain voluntary behavior.

Performing well in swim competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequence).

Photo credits: © Punchstock RF, © Photodisc Collection/Getty Images RF,

Operant Conditioning

Types of Learning

Helps to explain involuntary behavior.

Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office].

Classical Conditioning

Note: The instructor may wish to point out that in the example of classical conditioning, getting stuck with a needle was NOT a consequence of the subject’s behavior (namely, being fearful)– after all, what doctor would punish fearful patients by sticking them whenever they express fear?

Rather, the fear response is shifted from being elicited by a natural [reflexive] stimulus (namely, pain) to a once neutral stimulus, the sight of a doctor’s office. Hence, Classical Conditioning is characterized as a shift in stimulus control.

Classical Conditioning

Food

(Stimulus)

Drool

(Response)

Sound

(Stimulus 2)

UCR

UCS

No Response

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Innate S-R Association

Neutral Stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus

Unconditioned Response

Acquisition/Learning

Conditioned Stimulus

Conditioned Response

Pavlov’s research

Classical Conditioning

Food

(Stimulus)

Drool

(Response)

Sound

(Stimulus 2)

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Contingency: CS regularly followed by UCS

Contiguity: Time between CS & UCS

Note: Rescorla points out that the nature of contingency that best promotes classical conditioning is the same as the contingency a researcher might use to infer cause and effect (as if the CS causes the UCS)

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

Photo credit: The Granger Collection, New York

Suggestion: Instructor might point out that the frame labeled “conditioning” is not repeated merely once, but dozens of times.

Classical Conditioning

Bang

Fear

Rabbit

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Phobias

Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert.

Photo credit: Courtesy of Professor Benjamin Harris

Classical Conditioning

Ad Actors

Fun

Product

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Application

Advertising

Photo credit: © Stockbyte/Getty Images

The positive associations with gorgeous actors having a grand time can become associated with a product they are shown using in a commercial ad.

Classical Conditioning

Medicine in Pill

Pain Relief, immune response

Pill

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Application

Placebo Effect

immune and endocrine responses

Photo credit: Jon Feingersh/Getty Images

Through classical conditioning, the sight of or act of taking a pill with medicine soon comes to elicit the same pain relief as the medicine itself produces.

You may want to point out in the next slide that precisely the opposite effect occurs with drug tolerance.

Classical Conditioning

Drug Effect

Body Counteracts Drug

Drug Paraphernalia

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Application

Drug Tolerance / Habituation

Photo credit: © Rick Gomez/Corbis RF

Note: The body naturally protects itself by attempting to neutralize the affects of psychoactive drugs (this is an unlearned reflex). Through classical conditioning, the body learns to anticipate the drug in the presence of drug paraphernalia, and begins neutralizing the drug before it is actually consumed. Thus, the body must take in even more of the drug to get the same effect. This is how classical conditioning creates drug tolerance. Also, this is why simply seeing drug paraphernalia can trigger withdrawal symptoms or “cravings”.

Classical Conditioning

Illness

Nausea

New Taste

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Paired

Learned Association

Application

Taste Aversion

Photo credit: Royalty-Free/CORBIS

Note: Unlike conventional classical conditioning, taste aversion can occur under very impoverished learning conditions. In particular, a powerful taste aversion can be learned with just one exposure (rather than dozens) where the UCR does not occur for several hours (instead of within a split second). This is considered a counterexample to Pavlov’s theory, and shows that not all S-R associations stand on equal footing. Some are biologically primed, or as we shall see toward the end of the presentation, biologically “prepared”.

Classical Conditioning

Food

(Stimulus)

Drool

(Response)

Sound

(Stimulus 2)

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Generalization

CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS

Suggestion: Generalization is easily illustrated with sounds from markedly different bells, one on which the subject is trained, the second on which the subject is tested for generalization.

Classical Conditioning

Food

(Stimulus)

Drool

(Response)

Sound

(Stimulus 2)

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Discrimination

CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs.

Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS

Eventually the subject learns that one bell works and the other doesn’t

Classical Conditioning

Extinction

CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS

Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating.

Spontaneous Recovery

CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning.

When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated.

Extinguishing Eating

Hunger

Eating

Food Cues

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Eating in the Absence of Hunger

Photo credit: © D. Hurst/Alamy Stock Photo

Repeatedly

Attended Without Hunger

Extinguished Association

Classical Conditioning

Bullying

Fear

School

UCR

UCS

Unlearned

Reflex

Repeatedly

Paired

Learned Association

Counterconditioning

Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR

Means: CS paired with new UCS

Friend

Fun

This diagram illustrates how school itself can become aversive when associated with bullies, but pleasant when associated with kindly friends. Thus, to counteract the association with bullies, keep the bullies away (extinction) and replace them with kindly friends (producing an incompatible response).

Operant Conditioning

To explain voluntary behaviors.

The consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence.

Photo credit: Fancy Collection / SuperStock

Operant Conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

consequence strengthens or weakens an S – R connection

B.F. Skinner

expanded on Thorndike’s work

shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior)

Note: An important contribution of B.F. Skinner was that he standardized the language scientists use to refer to learning. After all, Skinner’s undergraduate studies were not in Psychology, but English Literature.

Skinner worked with the U.S. military to train pigeons to guide missiles/torpedoes, per above illustration.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

behavior followed by rewarding consequence

rewarding stimulus is “added”

Negative Reinforcement

behavior followed by rewarding consequence

aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”

Photo credits: Francisco Cruz/Purestock/SuperStock,

Digital Vision/Getty Images

Note: It is important to stress that positive means “something is added,” that negative means “something is removed,” and that reinforcement is defined by the resulting effect on behavior (increase).

Activity/Demonstration: Ask students to generate examples of both positive and negative reinforcement.

Reinforcement

Teacher praises

Turn homework in on time

Behavior

What is the effect on the behavior?

Teacher stops criticizing

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases behavior.

Reinforcement

Skis go faster

Wax skis

Behavior

What is the effect on the behavior?

People stop zooming by on slope

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases behavior.

Reinforcement

Great music starts playing

Press an odd button on dashboard of friend’s car

Behavior

What is the effect on the behavior?

Annoying music stops playing

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases behavior.

Note: The scenario here is you sit down in a friend’s car and notice that there are several interesting buttons on the dash. You randomly press one out of curiosity.

Reinforcement

Avoid negative stimulus

Behavior

What is the effect on the behavior?

Negative stimulus never occurs

Avoidance Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases behavior.

Note: The consequence in avoidance reinforcement is indirect: It amounts to consequence prevention, which is far different from negative reinforcement. The latter is stimulus removal—an actual consequence.

Reinforcement

All kinds of attempts

Behavior

Nothing Works

Failure To Reinforce

Learned helplessness:

an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes

Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers

innately satisfying

Secondary Reinforcers

become satisfying through experience

repeated association with a pre-existing reinforcer

token economy

Note: A few decades ago, secondary reinforcement was proffered as an account of why young children cling to their mothers. Mom feeds the infant: Food (primary reinforcer) ; Mom (secondary). Keep in mind that Harlow’s research with monkeys and terry-cloth mothers has debunked this analysis. Social stimulation is definitely a primary reinforcer.

Types of Reinforced Behavior

Generalization

stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response

responding occurs to similar stimuli

Discrimination

stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

behavior decreases when reinforcement stops

Photo credit: Cardinal//Corbis

Note: Remind students that these concepts are a carryover from Classical Conditioning

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

Partial Reinforcement

fixed

variable

ratio

interval

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR)

reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors

Variable Ratio (VR)

reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (e.g., an average)

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Interval (FI)

reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed

Variable Interval (VI)

reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed

Photo credit: Center for Universal Design/CDC,

Ingram Publishing

Note: A commonly used but incorrect example of Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement is the weekly paycheck. By definition, a “fixed interval” of time is an interval of waiting, where behavior would be pointless because it will not be reinforced. Note that unlike waiting for the regularly scheduled mail delivery, waiting for a paycheck without working in the meantime is not conducive to eliciting reinforcement from one’s employer. The worker needs to work the entire week in order to receive a delayed reward. Waiting until payday before you start working—a bad idea. So the weekly paycheck is a delayed reward schedule, not a fixed interval schedule. On the other hand, waiting until payday to look for the check in the mail, that is indeed an interval schedule of reinforcement, but it is just a specific case of the original example of checking the mail.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Punishment

Punishment decreases behavior.

Positive Punishment

behavior followed by aversive consequence

aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”

Negative Punishment

behavior followed by aversive consequence

rewarding stimulus is “removed”

Reinforcement

Allergic reaction

Take aspirin for headache

Behavior

What is the effect on the behavior?

Lose sympathetic attention of spouse

Positive Punishment

Negative Punishment

Punishment decreases behavior.

Headache goes away

Negative Reinforcement

Photo credit: Brand X Pictures/Punchstock

Note: The answer to the question, “What is the effect on the behavior?” is not the same for the three consequences presented on this slide.

Reinforcement

Get pulled over and ticketed

Show off by speeding

Behavior

What is the effect on the behavior?

Lose $250 to pay ticket

Punishment decreases behavior.

Lose gangster who had been tailing you

Positive Punishment

Negative Punishment

Negative Reinforcement

Photo credit: moodboard/Corbis

Note: This example presumes that getting pulled over and ticketed is aversive in its own right, even if you only get a warning.

Operant Conditioning

Timing of Consequences

immediate versus delayed reinforcement

immediate versus delayed punishment

Applied Behavior Analysis

behavior modification

Delayed consequences work much differently (more effectively) on adult humans than on animals and small children.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs when a person

observes and imitates behavior (modeling).

Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory

Four Processes of Observational Learning

attention

retention

motor reproduction

reinforcement

Photo credit: blue jean images/Getty Images

Cognitive Factors in Learning

Do cognitions matter?

Does learning involve more than environment-behavior connections?

Purposive Behavior in Humans

goal directed

goal setting

self-regulation and self-monitoring

Cognitive Factors in Learning

Expectancy Learning

information value

Latent Learning/Implicit Learning

Insight Learning

Other Factors in Learning

Biological Constraints

instinctive drift

preparedness

Cult

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In chapter six you learned about learning. :) The book points out the three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.? 1) Briefly

In chapter six you learned about learning. 🙂 The book points out the three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

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