September 7, 2022

In this journal entry, reflect on at least two things you learned or discovered through the Chapter’s readings. Reflect on how a particular topic in the chapter was interesting, challenging

In this journal entry, reflect on at least two things you learned or discovered through the Chapter's readings. Reflect on how a particular topic in the chapter was interesting, challenging, boring, surprising to you and how you may apply a particular concept or theory you learned in the reading in your current or future profession.

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Schmalleger_CJ_Brief_lecture_ch02_accessiblePPT.pdf

Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 2

The Crime Picture

Crime Data and Social Policy

• Crime statistics provide an overview of criminal activity

• A statistical picture of crime can be a powerful tool for

creating social policy

• The objectivity of crime statistics has been questioned

• Public opinion about crime is not always realistic and is

greatly influenced by the news media

The Collection of Crime Data

• Two major sources of crime statistics

– Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR /NIBRS), run

by the FBI

– National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), run by

the Bureau of Justice Statistics

• Offender self-reports

– Based on surveys asking respondents to reveal

involvement in illegal activity

– Not national in scope, not conducted regularly

Figure 2.1The Criminal Justice

Funnel

Development of the UCR Program (1 of 2)

• Began in 1930 when Congress designated the FBI to

implement a national crime statistics program

– In the first year, the FBI received reports from 400

cities in 43 states, covering 20 million people

– Today, approximately 18,000 agencies provide

information

• Uses standardized definitions of offenses to ensure

uniformity in reporting

Development of the UCR Program (2 of 2)

• Originally included a Crime Index to allow comparisons

over time

• Made up of 7 Part I offenses

– Murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault,

burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft

– An eighth Part I crime, arson, was added in 1979

• Crime Index skewed by large numbers of larceny-theft

offenses

• The Crime Index was discontinued in 2004

The National Incident-Based

Reporting System (NIBRS) (1 of 2)

• Development initiated in 1988

• A significant redesign of the original UCR Program

• Incident-driven, not summary-based

• Gathers many more details about each criminal incident

• 8 Part I offenses replaced with 52 Group A offenses

The National Incident-Based

Reporting System (NIBRS) (2 of 2)

• FBI began accepting crime data in NIBRS format in

January 1989.

• The NIBRS format has not been fully adopted and

changes continue to be made.

• Major advantages of NIBRS

– Sheer increase in volume of data collected

– Ability to break down and combine crime offense data

Table 2.1 Differences between

Traditional UCR and Enhanced UCR/

NIBRS Reporting (1 of 2)

Traditional UCR Enhanced UCR/NIBRS

Consists of monthly aggregate crime

counts

Consists of individual incident records

for the eight major crimes and 38 other

offenses, with details on offense, victim,

offender, and property involved

Records one offense per incident, as

determined by the hierarchy rule, which

suppresses counts of lesser offenses in

multiple-offense incidents

Records each offense occurring in an

incident

Does not distinguish between attempted

and completed crimes

Distinguishes between attempted and

completed crimes

Collects assault information in flve

categories

Restructures definition of assault

Table 2.1 Differences between

Traditional UCR and Enhanced UCR/

NIBRS Reporting (2 of 2)

Traditional UCR Enhanced UCR/NIBRS

Collects weapon information for murder,

robbery, and aggravated assault

Collects weapon information for all violent

offenses

Provides counts on arrests for the eight

major crimes and 21 other offenses

Provides details on arrests for the eight

major crimes and 49 other offenses

Distinguishes between personal (violent)

and property crimes

General categories of crime consist

of crimes against persons, property,

and society

Sees robbery as a personal crime Classifies robbery as a properly crime

Historical Trends (1 of 4)

• The first major shift in crime rates occurred in the early

1940s

– Crime decreased due to the large number of young

men who entered military service during WWII

Historical Trends (2 of 4)

• The second shift occurred between 1960 and 1989

– Dramatic increase in most forms of crime

– Postwar baby boomers reaching crime-prone age

– Growing police professionalization increased the

number of reports

– Tumult of the 1960s

– Increase in drug-related criminal activity

– Blurring of social norms

Historical Trends (3 of 4)

• The third shift occurred between 1990 and 2017

– Significant decrease in rates of most major crimes

– Strict laws, expanded justice system

– National efforts to combat crime, better prepared

agencies, innovative police programs

– Strong victims’ movement

– Sentencing reform and “get tough on crime” initiatives

– “War on drugs”

– Advances in forensic science technology

Historical Trends (4 of 4)

• A fourth shift in crime trends may be on the horizon

– Economic uncertainty, increasing numbers of ex-

convicts back on the streets, increased teen

populations and gang activity

– Social disorganization due to natural disasters

– Mass shootings, inner-city murders, increasing

influence of gangs

UCR/NIBRS in Transition (1 of 2)

• FBI crime clock illustrates crime frequency

• Crime clock includes two categories of offenses

– Violent/personal crimes: murder, forcible rape, robbery,

aggravated assault

– Property crimes: burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle

theft, burglary, arson

• Based on crimes reported to or discovered by the police

UCR/NIBRS in Transition (2 of 2)

• John Augustus of Boston, Massachusetts, is recognized

as the father of probation

– Volunteered to supervise over 1,800 offenders to

alieve jails

• Massachusetts was the first state to pass a probation

statute in 1878

– Remaining states quickly followed

Figure 2.4 The FBI Crime Clock, Which

Shows the Frequency of the

Commission of Major Crimes in 2017

Table 2.2 Major Crimes Known to the Police,

2017

Offense Number Rate per 100,000 Clearance Rate (%)

Personal/Violent Crimes

Murder 17,284 5.3 61.6

Rape 99,856 30.7 34.5

Robbery 319,356 98.0 29.7

Aggravated assault 810,825 248.9 53.3

Property Crimes

Burglary 1,401,840 430.4 13.5

Larceny-theft 5,519,107 1,694.4 19.2

Motor vehicle theft 773,139 237.4 13.7

Arsona 36,660 13.2 21.7

U.S. Total 8,978,067 2,758.3

a Arson can be classified as either a property crime or a violent crime, depending on whether personal injury or loss of

life results from its commission. It is generally classified as a property crime, however. Arson statistics are incomplete for

2017, and are not included in other annual crime rate calculations in this chapter.

Murder (1 of 2)

• The unlawful killing of a human being

– First-degree murder: criminal homicide that is planned

– Second-degree murder: intentional killing but generally

unplanned

• Smallest numerical category in Part I offenses

• Most commonly committed using firearms, especially

handguns

Murder (2 of 2)

• Multiple murders

– Spree killings: killings at two or more locations with

almost no time break between murders

– Mass murder: killing four or more victims at one

location, within one event

– Serial murder: killing several victims in three or more

separate events

• Murder has the highest clearance rate of any major crime

Rape

• Unlawful sexual intercourse achieved through force and

without consent

• UCR definition changed in 2012 to be gender-neutral

• Statistics include attempted rape by force or threat of

force, but not statutory rape

• Least reported of all violent crimes

• Most rapes committed by someone known to the victim

Robbery

• The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is

in the immediate possession of another by force or

violence and/or by putting the victim in fear

• Strong-arm robbery occurs through intimidation, rather

than with a weapon

• Street/highway robbery occurs outdoors

• Most common targets are individuals

Figure 2.5 Robbery Types, 2017

Aggravated Assault

• Two types of assaults

– Simple (misdemeanor)

– Aggravated (felony)—involves weapon or victim

requires medical assistance

• Mostly committed using blunt objects or with hands, feet,

and fists

• Assailants often known to victims, making this crime

relatively easy to solve

Burglary

• The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or

theft

• Considered a property crime although it may involve

personal confrontation

• UCR/NIBRS uses three classifications

– Forcible entry

– Unlawful entry where no force is used

– Attempted forcible entry

• Clearance rate low

Larceny-Theft

• The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property from

the possession of another

• Most frequently reported Part I offense

• May be the most underreported crime category because

small thefts rarely come to the attention of the police

Figure 2.7 Larceny-Theft Distribution,

2017

Identity Fraud: A New Kind of

Larceny

• Involves obtaining credit, merchandise, or services by

fraudulent personal representation

• Fastest-growing type of crime in America

• Became a federal crime in 1998 with the passage of the

Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act

• May be perpetrated through the use of high technology

Motor Vehicle Theft

• The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle, which

includes any self-propelled vehicle that runs on land and

not on rails

• Very highly reported because insurance companies

usually require police reports before reimbursing car

owners

• Low clearance rate

• Carjacking involves violence

Arson

• Any willful or malicious burning, with or without intent to

defraud, a dwelling, public building, motor vehicle, etc.

• Not all agencies submit arson data and many provide

incomplete information

• Arson data only includes fires known to have been willfully

or maliciously set

• Clearance rate low

Part II Offenses

• Part II offenses are generally less serious than Part I

offenses

• Include a number of social-order (“victimless”) crimes

• UCR statistics only include recorded arrests, not crimes

reported to the police

Table 2.3 UCR/NIBRS Part II Offenses, 2017

Offense Category Number of Arrests

Simple assaults 1,062,370

Forgery and counterfeiting 55,604

Fraud 124,232

Embezzlement 15,967

Stolen property (e.g., receiving) 98,660

Vandalism 188,350

Weapons (e.g., carrying) 164,984

Prostitution and related offenses 36,248

Sex offenses (e.g., statutory rape) 48,525

Drug-abuse violations 1,632,921

Gambling 3,237

Offenses against the family (e.g., nonsupport) 94,062

Driving under the influence 990,678

Liquor-law violations 207,332

Public drunkenness 366,824

Disorderly conduct 353,151

Vagrancy 23,321

Curfew violations/loitering 30,131

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2017 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2018).

The National Crime Victimization

Survey (1 of 2)

• Based on victim self-reports

• First conducted in 1972

• Designed to uncover information on the dark figure of

crime—crimes that are not reported to the police and that

are unknown to officials

• Early victim self-report data showed that crimes of all

types were more prevalent that UCR statistics indicated

The National Crime Victimization

Survey (2 of 2)

• Involves a survey of a nationally representative sample of

about 90,000 households

• Only individuals aged 12+ are interviewed

• Collects data on crimes against individuals and

households

• Includes data on rape, sexual assault, robbery, assault,

burglary, personal and household larceny, motor vehicle

theft—definitions similar to those used by UCR/NIBRS

Comparisons of the UCR and the

NCVS (1 of 2)

• Difficulties with UCR/NIBRS Program

– Not all victims report crime

– Some crime types rarely reported

– High-tech and computer crime may be

underrepresented

– Victim reports may be inaccurate

– Reports filtered through multiple levels

– Only include data that creators consider appropriate

Comparisons of the UCR and the

NCVS (2 of 2)

• Difficulties with NCVS

– Responses subjective, respondents provide personal

interpretations

– Some victims less willing to respond

– Victims may be afraid to respond or may invent

victimizations

– No attempt to validate information against police

records or other sources

– Only includes data creators consider appropriate

Special Categories of Crime

• Crime Typology

– A classification of crimes along a particular dimension

– Used in the study and description of criminal behavior

– Social relevance is a central distinguishing feature of

any meaningful typology

Crime against Women

• Women less frequently victimized in all personal crime

categories except rape

– Women more likely to be injured during violent

victimization

– More likely to modify the way they life because of

threat of crime

• Major issues include date rape, familial incest, spousal

abuse, stalking, and exploitation through social-order

offenses such as prostitution and pornography

The Violence against Women Act (1 of 2)

• Title IV of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement

Act of 1994

• Increased federal penalties for repeat sex offenders,

requires mandatory restitution for sex crimes

• Provided grants to combat violent crimes against women

• Creation of hotlines, information, training programs for

professionals providing assistance to victims of sexual

assault

The Violence against Women Act (2 of 2)

• Increased grants for battered women’s shelters

• Encouraged arrest in cases of domestic violence

• Provided for creation of national domestic-violence hotline

• Recent reauthorizations included new provisions

– Protections for prospective foreign brides immigrating

to the United States

– Protections for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender

Americans

Crime against the Elderly

• Criminal victimization declines with age

• Older people (65+) generally experience the lowest rate of

victimization of any age group

• The elderly face special kinds of victimization that rarely

affect younger adults

– Risk of abuse and neglect by caregivers

– More often targeted by con artists

Hate Crime

• A criminal offense motivated by the offender’s bias against

a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or

ethnicity/national origin

• Most common motivation is racial bias, most common

offense is intimidation

• Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes

Prevention Act (2010)—expanded federal definition to

include crimes based on gender identity or disability

• Sometimes called “bias crimes”

Figure 2.8 Motivation of Hate-Crime Offenders, 2017

Corporate and White-Collar Crime (1 of 2)

• Identification doctrine

– Corporations can be treated as separate legal entities

and convicted of crimes

• Corporate crime:

– A violation of criminal statute by a corporate entity or

by its executives, employees, or agents for the benefit

of the corporation

Corporate and White-Collar Crime (2 of 2)

• White-collar crime

– Financially motivated nonviolent crime committed by

business and government professionals

• Sarbanes–Oxley Act (2002)

– Federal law creating tough provisions designed to

deter and punish corporate fraud and corruption

Organized Crime

• Organized crime

– The unlawful activities of the members of a highly

organized, disciplined association engaged in

supplying illegal goods or services

• Transnational organized crime

– Unlawful activity undertaken and supported by

organized criminal groups operating across national

boundaries

Gun Crime

• Supreme Co

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In this journal entry, reflect on at least two things you learned or discovered through the Chapter’s readings. Reflect on how a particular topic in the chapter was interesting, challenging

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