Neuroimaging techniques, such as PET, enable scientists to visualize and measure brain activity. Specifically, this type of scan reveals which brain areas are being used for diff
Neuroimaging techniques, such as PET, enable scientists to visualize and measure brain activity. Specifically, this type of scan reveals which brain areas are being used for different cognitive tasks. When the various images are pieced together, one can see the pathways for information processing. For example, if someone is processing a visual image while in a PET scanner, a scientist can see the flow of the information sent to the primary visual cortex, and then he or she can view the general pathways as the image is identified and as it moves on to higher-order processing.
Answer the following questions:
- How does PET scan work? State how they are different from MRI and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Why is radioactively labeled glucose often used as a metabolic tracer? What does it mean if glucose is being absorbed or used in one area more than another?
- What are neural networks, and how do neural networks relate to localized and global brain functioning? What does our knowledge of neural networks tell us about how the brain processes information? How do PET scans and fMRI allow us to see the flow of information throughout networks?
- Do people only use a small percentage of their brain? Use what you know about neural networks and functional imaging scans to address this belief. Do you believe that we only use 10 percent of our brain capacity? Would someone be able to demonstrate via various cognitive tasks that no part of the brain sits in the cranium unused?
Respond to at least two of your classmates
To support your work, make sure to utilize your course and text readings. When asked, also utilize outside sources. As in all assignments, make sure to cite your sources in your work and provide references for those citations utilizing APA format.
Week 2 Discussion
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Cristina MCBRIDE posted Jul 20, 2022 8:28 PM
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Cristina McBride
· How does PET scan work? State how they differ from MRI and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Why is radioactively labeled glucose often used as a metabolic tracer? What does it mean if glucose is being absorbed or used in one area more than another?
A PET scan is called a positron emission tomography scan. {MayoClinic, 2019)} This scan helps with taking images of the body's tissues and organs to see how they function and their condition. Using radioactive chemicals or a tracer that is placed in your arm or in your veins they see how normal and abnormal the organs are. A PET scan can help detect diseases, and the tracer will be absorbed or go into places it detects these diseases. So when the tracer goes into different places it means there might be one or more places to look into for any diseases or issues. The difference between a PET scan and MRI is that a PET scan uses radiation and takes a long time, also more expensive. The MRI doesn't use radiation and shorter time to do. MRI usually works with the spinal area of the body.
· What are neural networks, and how do neural networks relate to localized and global brain functioning? What does our knowledge of neural networks tell us about how the brain processes information? How do PET scans and fMRI allow us to see the flow of information throughout networks?
A neural network is a connection of neurons. Neural networks are made up of billion of tiny neurons which connect to each other and they process information. They also detect brain patterns by connections. They are also called the problem solvers of the human brain. Simple words they are many tiny neurons that take data and show us how the brain works. MRI and PET while both take images differ in ways. They both measure how much activity and blood flow in it. They both show the waves and activity the brain is having while you think, sleep, and even doing stuff. They use radiation and chemicals to do these test.
· Do people only use a small percentage of their brain? Use what you know about neural networks and functional imaging scans to address this belief. Do you believe that we only use 10 percent of our brain capacity? Would someone be able to demonstrate via various cognitive tasks that no part of the brain sits in the cranium unused?
No, we don't use 10%, I feel we use a lot more than that. Do I feel we use the whole brain, no but more 10%. PET scan and MRI has shown us how the brain works, and the activity it has when we are up and sleep. They show that blood flow moving around the brain while doing test such as eating, sleeping, reading, and evening thinking. {Cherry, 2022} The test has shown that we actually use a huge portion of our brain. I feel there are parts of the brain that might not be used as much as others, but I feel the whole brain functions as a whole. I feel that there's many test done in past and present that shown us that parts not as active as other, but not unused.
References
Cherry, K. (2022, April 19). Do You Really Use Only 10 Percent of Your Brain? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/10-percent-of-brain-myth-2794882
MayoClinic. (2019). Positron emission tomography scan – Mayo Clinic. Mayoclinic.org. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/pet-scan/about/pac-20385078
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Neurodevelopment.html
Neurodevelopment
The nervous system of an embryo begins to form within weeks of fertilization. At about two weeks, the neural tube develops. It fills with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and starts to expand. The anterior part of the tube develops into the brain as neurons and supporting cells are produced.
As you know, neurons are cells that convey electrical and chemical messages throughout the brain. Neuronal cells must be created by cell division, and they must mature in a prescribed way during specific time periods. The creation and maturation of cells can be divided into four stages of early development: proliferation, differentiation, myelination, and synaptogenesis.
Proliferation is a time when billions of new cells are created by cell division. Some cells stay in an early, unspecified stage, and we refer to them as stem cells. Others begin to transform and take on different shapes and functions. They become various types of neurons or glia cells and start their migration to their predestined locations. Migration occurs when the cells follow chemical paths that lead them to their destinations.
When it is time to migrate, the cells start to differentiate (to become different). Differentiation is the second stage; it is when axons and dendrites form. Axons grow first, and later, dendrites begin to emerge. Depending on their preprogrammed locations and functions, neurons differ in their shapes and stored chemical components.
Myelination is the third stage of neuronal growth and development. In this stage, axons that are predetermined to become myelinated become coated with sections of lipids. The lipid sections are covered by glia cells called oligodendrocytes. The spinal cord is myelinated first, and then, the brain becomes myelinated in a hierarchical order, with the forebrain area, which contains the frontal lobes, being myelinated last. The myelination process occurs gradually for decades.
Additional Materials
View a Pdf Transcript of Brain Developing from the Neural Tube
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Brain Developing from the Neural Tube
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Neuroanatomy.html
Neuroanatomy
The human brain is a complex structure responsible for expressing innate abilities and retaining learned information. Our brain holds the memories and expressions that make up our personality; it is the physical configuration of who we are.
The cerebellum is part of the hindbrain—one of the major divisions of the brain. Along with the cerebellum, the hindbrain contains the medulla and pons; both structures can be found in the brain stem—a complex projection that mediates many basic and life-sustaining bodily processes.
The thalamus is much like a relay station for signals in the brain; the hypothalamus is associated with regulation of hormones and the drive system. The hippocampus is related to memory and the basal ganglia are related to expression and movement.
The four ventricles—cavities in the brain that contain the cerebral spinal fluid—sit in the middle of the brain. This fluid serves at least two purposes—it helps remove waste from the brain and provides some cushioning during sudden movements and impacts.
The CNS is one of the two major divisions of the body; the other division is called the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The long axonal projections of the spinal cord link the brain and the PNS. The PNS has two divisions—somatic and autonomic. The somatic system conveys incoming sensory information to the CNS and is responsible for motor messages that are sent from the CNS to the PNS. When you reach out to touch a key on your keyboard, your brain is rapidly sending electrical impulses along your spinal column, and this information goes to your hands so that you may execute voluntary typing movements. As your fingers touch the keys, the information travels in the reverse fashion to your brain so that you are aware of your sensations.
Additional Materials
View a Pdf Transcript of The Brain
View a Pdf Transcript of The Hindbrain
View a Pdf Transcript of Four Ventricles of the Brain
View a Pdf Transcript of Midsagittal View of the Brain
media/week2/SU_PSY4490_W2_L2_S1_G1.pdf
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© 2012 South University
The Brain
If you study the outer surface, you will see numerous indentations, sulci, and bumps that are
called gyri. The sulci and gyri result from the brain folding as it develops. It is similar to what
would happen if you take a scarf and stuff it into a small glass container. If you do that, you
will see some of the scarf and see indentations where part of the scarf is folded and sits on
the inside.
The part that you readily see and the part that is in the folds comprise the neocortex of the
brain. The neocortex is often referred to as gray matter because it is made up of neuronal cell
bodies. These cell bodies give that part of the brain a darker appearance than what you would
see if you look at the areas that contain myelinated axonal fibers that course through the
inside of the brain. These fibers are called white matter, and they connect various structures
and clusters of cell bodies throughout the brain.
This white matter forms a major bridge between the two hemispheres (halves) of the brain,
connecting the corresponding areas within the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes
of either side of the brain.
The table shows the various functions of the lobes of the brain.
Brain Lobe General Functions
Frontal Executive functions: Reasoning, prioritizing, and planning;
this is the part of the brain that makes humans most
different from other animals.
Parietal Spatial orientation: It contains the sensory strip, which
helps with our spatial awareness of sensory information
(e.g., knowing which part of our body was pricked).
Temporal It contains structures that mediate learning new information
and emotional reactions. It also contains the auditory-
processing areas.
Occipital This part of the brain is important for processing visual
information.
Look at the image of the whole brain; you will see the cerebellum, which sits below the rear of
the brain, below the occipital lobes.
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© 2012 South University
The cerebellum, which means “little brain” in Latin, is a highly complex structure that plays a
role in motor control and in cognitive functions.
It is a structure that is thought to exist only in jawed vertebrates and makes up a smaller
percentage of brain matter in humans compared to some other creatures such as birds, rats,
and elephants.
media/week2/SU_PSY4490_W2_L3_S1_G1.pdf
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The Hindbrain
Parts of the Hindbrain Function
Medulla Responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing.
Cerebellum Responsible for motor coordination and cognitive functions such as attention.
Pons Contains the reticular formation and part of the raphe system. It plays a primary role in increasing brain arousal and readiness.
media/week2/SU_PSY4490_W2_L5_S1_G1.pdf
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© 2012 South University
Four Ventricles of the Brain
media/week2/SU_PSY4490_W2_L5_S1_G2.pdf
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© 2012 South University
Midsagittal View of the Brain
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Brain Changes.html
Brain Changes
Ponder what would happen to the neural network if there were disruptions at different times during development. Depending on what is happening at a specific time, progress might be significantly slowed. In addition, if brain development is disrupted at certain times, progress might also end and everything that depends on the formation of that area or structure will be altered. The crucial developmental times are called critical periods of brain development. Let's look at the importance of these developmental periods.
There are periods during brain development when neurons are more vulnerable to being directly harmed by introduced chemicals or stressors. During these times, development might be significantly and irrevocably harmed. One well-known example of an environmental stressor is alcohol. Heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy might result in the child being born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Due to cell alterations, children with FAS have distinctive facial abnormalities, heart defects, motor problems, and cognitive deficits.
How can the environment alter brain development? This is possible because of the neuron's ability to adjust its morphology and neurochemistry. The neuron's capacity for adaptation is called neuroplasticity. Environmentally induced neuroplasticity takes place early in the life of the fetus as the fetus is affected not only by what the mother does and eats but also the environment in which the mother lives.
When the brain has been injured due to an ischemic stroke, for example, some of the brain tissue is lost and there is a corresponding change in behavior. Note that ischemia occurs when the blood flow to an area of the brain is interrupted, and during that time, the tissue beyond the blocked arterial branch is starved of oxygen and glucose.
Additional Materials
View a Pdf Transcript of Ischemic Stroke
media/week2/SU_PSY4490_W3_S10.pdf
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© 2012 South University
Ischemic Stroke
An ischemic stroke is caused when blood vessels are blocked. The tissue that is no longer receiving blood flow dies within seconds.
Page 2 of 2 PSY4490_Biological Psychology
© 2012 South University
This person has suffered an ischemic stroke in the left temporal-frontal region of the brain and will have trouble speaking and moving the right side of his face and arm.
This is the area of tissue loss as a result of the stroke. Neuroplasticity will enable this person’s brain to reorganize to compensate for damage. He may regain most of his preinjury functions as other neurons change their morphology and functional ability.
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