July 17, 2022

Define nationalistic terrorism. 2.? Define the term endemic terrorism. 3.? Describe political conditions in Nigeria and Somalia. 4.? Explain the emergence of terrorism after the 1

READING ASSIGNMENT #3 (CHAPTER 7: Nationalistic and Endemic Terrorism; CHAPTER 8: Background to the Middle East & Chapter 9 • Terrorism in Israel and Palestine )
Assignment Type: Canvas
Due Date: July 17, 2022
Possible Points: 100, Duration: 4-6 Hours
Deliverable Length: 5-6 pages

TEXTBOOK REFERENCES REQUIRED.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BELOW:

1. Define nationalistic terrorism.

2. Define the term endemic terrorism.

3. Describe political conditions in Nigeria and Somalia.

4. Explain the emergence of terrorism after the 1967 Six-Day War.

5. Describe the difference between Shi’ites and Sunnis.

6. Who is Yasser Arafat?

7. Identify factional groups that emerged from squabbles among the Palestinians.

Assignment #3

Brandi Ingram

International Terrorism

Dr. Montgomery

Grambling State University

07/11/2022

Form of terrorism created by artificial divisions or tribes, families, and ethnic groups. Results from European imperialism and the creation of artificial national boundaries that link unrelated tribal and ethnic groups.

After the 1967 Six-Day War, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), began a series of terrorist attacks against civilian Israeli positions.

Sunnis believed that four rightly guided Caliphs (Rushadin) served as the true successors to Mohammed. The Shi’ites only recognized Ali; they wanted Hussien to lead a purified Islamic movement, returning to the simple principles of his grandfather, Mohammed. He was killed with a small band of followers at Karbala in 680. One of the most important events in Shi’ite history.

Mohammed Abdel Rahmen Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was born about 570 on the Western calendar in the Arabian city of Mecca. Mohammed was to be a prophet to the Arabs.

Terrorism and Homeland Security, 9e

CHAPTER 8 Jonathan R. White

Learning Objectives, Part 1

Define the Middle East as a historical, geographical, and cultural metaphor.

Briefly sketch the origins of Islam.

Describe the difference between Shiites and Sunnis.

Discuss the historical significance in the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the birth of Zionism.

Learning Objectives, Part 2

Summarize the impact of World War I on the Middle East.

Describe the formation of Israel and the Arab-Israeli wars.

Explain the emergence of terrorism after the 1967 Six-Day War.

Briefly sketch the history of modern Iran.

Background to the Middle East, Part 1

Problems in the Middle East can be associated with multiple factors over the past two centuries.

The origins of the problems can be found in:

Imperialism

Poverty

Government corruption

Political repression

Religious fanaticism

Background to the Middle East, Part 2

Terrorism with all of these problems and further complicates virtually every issue.

Fear of a regional war over development of a nuclear arsenal or a nuclear exchange is of concern in a politically unstable region.

Mohammed’s Revelation

Mohammed was born about 570 on the Western calendar in the Arabian city of Mecca.

God is vast, all encompassing, and without form.

The pronoun he is used, but God is gender neutral.

What can be known about God comes from revelations from the four major Prophets: Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed.

Mohammed was to be a prophet to the Arabs.

Muslim Community at Medina

Muslims believe Mohammed created the perfect Islamic community at Medina, combining a just government with religion.

Because of their victory at Badr, Muslims increasingly came to believe that God was on their side and that their cause would be championed in heaven.

Mohammed suddenly died in 632.

The Shiite-Sunni Split, Part 1

Question of leadership spawned debate and eventually a civil war:

According to Arabic tradition, Mohammed’s male heir should lead the community.

Nevertheless, Mohammed claimed to have revealed a new law that said the importance of the community would take precedence over tribal rules.

The Shiite-Sunni Split, Part 2

Sunnis believe that Four Rightly Guided Caliphs (Rushadin) served as the true successors to Mohammed.

Shiites only recognize Ali.

They wanted Hussien to lead a purified Islamic movement, returning to the simple principles of his grandfather, Mohammed.

He was killed with a small band of followers at Karbala in 680; one of the most important events in Shiite history.

The Golden Age of Arabs

Two dynasties, the Umayyads (661–750) and the Abbasids (750–1258), ruled the area in the years following Mohammed.

The Twelvers came to believe that twelve divinely inspired men were sent by God to lead the community.

Martyrdom and voluntary sacrifice became the trademark of the Twelve Imams.

Middle East Issues

Three critical events took place that helped to shape the modern Middle East:

The Ottoman Empire, the Turk-based government that ruled much of the Middle East, was falling apart in the 19th century.

Palestinian Arabs were wary of the Jewish settlers and tensions rose.

After WWI, the Middle East was divided, not with respect to the area’s political realities, but to share the spoils of victory.

Three Sources of Violence

Political control of Israel and Palestine

Who would rule the Arab world

Relations between the Sunnis and Shiites

Stated another way, these problems are:

The Palestinian question (control of Palestine)

Intra-Arab rivalries and struggles

The future of revolutionary Islam

Early Zionist Movement

As Jewish settlers bought land, they purchased large parcels next to each other.

They established governing councils for their farmland and refused to sell land back to Arabs.

They were acting in defiance of the sultan’s refusal to allow Jewish self-government.

World War I and Contradictory Promises

Balfour Declaration of November 1917 promised to create the state of Israel.

Sykes negotiated a treaty with the French to extend spheres of British and French influence in the old Ottoman empire.

At the end of the war, the British created a series of Arab countries dominated by strong, traditional family groups.

The Birth of Israel

Exhausted by WWII, the British sought a UN solution to their quandary in Palestine.

On May 15, 1948, the UN recognized the partition of Palestine and the modern nation-state of Israel.

Arabs attacked the new Jewish state and the Irgun’s terrorism fell by the wayside.

Both Arabs and Jews shifted to conventional warfare and would fight that way until 1967.

The Six-Day War

In 1967, the Israelis demonstrated their superiority over all their Arab neighbors—although better equipped and outnumbered, in six days Israel doubled its territory and soundly defeated its opponents.

After the 1967 Six-Day War, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) began a series of terrorist attacks against civilian Israeli positions.

Arab States Split

One group, represented by King Hussein of Jordan, was anxious to find a way to coexist with Israel.

A few nations, like Egypt, simply wanted to avenge the embarrassment of the Six- Day War.

Represented by the Baath Party, groups of Arab socialists called for both Arab unity and the destruction of Israel.

Middle East Terrorism Categories

Suicide bombings and other attacks on Israeli and Western positions in Lebanon

Militias fighting other militias in Lebanon

State-sponsored terrorism from Libya, Syria, and Iran

Freelance terrorism to high-profile groups

Terrorism in support of Arab Palestinians

Attacks in Europe against Western targets

Israeli assassinations of alleged terrorists

Uniquely Persian

Iranians are not Arabs; they are Persians, and they have strong ethno-national ties to the ancient Persian Empire.

When the Arab and Mongol armies rode through Persia over the next centuries, the Persians maintained their historical cultural identity.

Iranians developed a hierarchy of Shiite Islamic scholars, including local prayer leaders, masters of Islam, ayatollahs, and grand ayatollahs.

British Influence and Control, Part 1

Oil production had a tremendous impact on the way that the British used Iran.

Anglo-Persian Oil Company was formed and the British started took oil profits out of Iran.

Although direct economic imperialism has ended in Iran, Iranians still regard Western oil companies as an extension of the old British arrangement.

British Influence and Control, Part 2

The British believed Iran might be the next country that the communists would target.

The British searched for a leader to stem the potential Soviet threat.

Reza Shah Pahlavi: with British support, he became shah of Iran.

Reza Shah had befriended Hitler, and he saw German relations as a way to balance British influence.

Prelude to the 1979 Revolution, Part 1

After Reza Shah’s reign was over, his son became the modern shah of Iran, but his ascent was traumatic.

In August 1953, Pahlavi returned to the office that had been denied him during Iran’s brief fling with democracy.

He created a secret military police force, SAVAK, to locate and destroy his enemies.

Prelude to the 1979 Revolution, Part 2

SAVAK infiltrated Shiite opposition groups in Tehran, and the army attacked Qom.

There were thousands of arrests.

Demonstrators were ruthlessly beaten or, in some cases, shot in the streets.

By 1963, many potential opponents were murdered or held in custody.

The shah ordered Khomeini deported to Iraq instead of executing him.

The Revolution, Part 1

Khomeini’s rise to power was a key to the revolution.

Under his leadership, the mosque came to be perceived as the only opposition to the shah and the hated SAVAK.

The shah pressured Saddam Hussein to remove Khomeini, who was forced to flee Iraq in fear for his life.

The Revolution, Part 2

The Iranian Revolution of 1979 caused another form of terrorism to spread from the Middle East.

The Iranian Revolutionary Guard arrived in the Bekaa Valley and established the nucleus of a new type of revolutionary force, Hezbollah.

The Call to Karbala

Khomeini used a mixture of repressive tactics and political strategies to consolidate his power in Iran; he is best understood within the Shiite tradition of Islam.

The Ayatollah Khomeini was guided by the message of Karbala, and he removed Islamic scholars and political leaders who disagreed with his message.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 1

The Middle East is a cultural concept. It can refer to a geographical area, but the boundaries are not distinct.

Islam is one of the world’s great monotheistic religions. Believers contend that God is revealed through prophets and that Mohammed was the last and greatest Prophet. God’s holy law is revealed in the Quran, and Islamic law can be interpreted by the sayings and actions of Mohammed.

Islam has many different branches. The two main branches—the Shiites and the Sunnis.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 2

The Arabs and Israelis engaged in a series of conventional wars from 1948 to 1973, and the Israelis demonstrated their military superiority in each one. Afterwards the Palestinians turned to terrorism as a method for confronting Israeli military superiority.

Modern Iran formed within the context of European imperialism. The British and the United States were instrumental in placing Iranian leaders on the throne.

Iran disavowed the United States after the 1979 Iranian Revolution.

Terrorism and Homeland Security, 9e

CHAPTER 7 Jonathan R. White

Learning Objectives, Part 1

Define nationalistic terrorism.

Describe revolutionary strategy in Cyprus.

Compare the style of terrorism in Algeria’s struggle for independence with terrorism in Cyprus.

Explain the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya.

Learning Objectives, Part 2

Summarize the terrorist issues facing Turkey.

Describe ethnic tensions in China’s Xinjiang province.

Explain the rationale behind China’s policy toward Uighar separatism.

Briefly summarize Sikh separatism in India.

Learning Objectives, Part 3

Define the term endemic terrorism.

Describe political conditions in Nigeria and Somalia.

Explain the rise and current status of Boko Haram.

Describe al Shabaab’s regional operations and global ambitions.

Cyprus 1955 to 1959

UK claimed Cyprus as a crown colony after World War I and established its Middle East military headquarters.

Grivas created the EOKA to overthrow the British government.

A series of attacks began in April 1955

In response to pressure from international allies British citizens, the United Kingdom bartered a deal with the EOKA in 1959.

The Battle for Algiers 1954 to 1962, Part 1

France invaded and occupied parts of North Africa in the 19th century.

France directly incorporated the northern part of Algiers and administered it.

The majority of Algerians deeply resented the loss of ethnic autonomy.

The FLN was formed and its purpose was violent revolution (blind terrorism).

The Battle for Algiers 1954 to 1962, Part 2

The FLN began its campaign in 1954, launching 70 clandestine attacks.

FLN stuffed women’s handbags with explosives, and they frequently targeted places with large numbers of French youth.

Algeria received independence in 1962 as counterterrorist tactics drove Algerian sympathy toward the FLN and French citizens lost their taste for a dirty war.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7bOr_U_92xE&feature=related

The Battle of Algiers is a 1966 war film based on occurrences during the Algerian War (1954 – 1962) against the French Government in North Africa. The film has been critically celebrated and often taken, by insurgent groups and states alike, as an important commentary on urban guerilla warfare. Slightly over two hours in length.

The Mau Mau in Kenya 1950 to 1960, Part 1

Rumors of a violent movement taking place in the Kikuyu tribal area

Rebel Kikuyas began assembling in the forests of western Kenya around 1950.

Fueled by anger over loss of land, they began burning fields of European farmers.

The Mau Mau in Kenya 1950–1960, Part 2

Differences between Mau Mau movement and previous revolts in Algeria and Cyprus:

Based in rural areas

Mau Mau was based on tribal rites and ceremonies

Violence was frequently typified by massacres

Overwhelming British military and police response with massive detainment and torture

Mau Mau insurgents suffered the brunt of casualties

Repression destroyed Mau Mau

The Mau Mau in Kenya 1950 to 1960, Part 3

Mau Mau movement failed in the field.

Governmental policy was ruthless.

Over 90,000 Mau Mau suspects were interned during the state of emergency.

Conditions of custody were appalling.

Thousands of suspects were tortured.

Kenya would gain its independence, and a former suspected Mau Mau exile would become its president.

Turkey’s Struggle with Terrorism

In 1994, several thousand Turkish young people began to attend militant private religious schools in Pakistan.

Pakistani-trained young people eventually resulted in a jihadist movement in Turkey lead by Habib Akdas.

Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)

Kurds are an ethnic group inhabiting parts of southern Turkey, northern Iraq, and northern Iran.

The PKK targets Europeans, Turks, rival Kurds, and Turkish government supporters.

By 1990, PKK leaders stated that they would strike only “legitimate” Turkish targets and began to speak of nationalism.

The Kurdish Conflict

When other groups received national sovereignty at the end of World War I, the Kurds remained divided among the three nations.

PKK turned to urban terrorism, targeting Turks throughout Europe and Turkey in the 1990s.

After years of challenges, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the PKK is a foreign terrorist group.

The Uighars

The Uighars are ethnic Turkmen, and they have lived in and governed parts of the Xinjiang province for 200 years.

The Chinese have settled the area with ethnic Chinese, displacing the Uighars.

China fights for Xinjiang because it has China’s largest oil and gas reserves.

China’s Problem in Xinjiang

Beijing has asked Washington to list militant Uighar organizations as terrorist groups, and the United States has been sympathetic to Chinese demands.

There are two problems with that classification:

Most Uighar terrorism is not part of the jihadist movement.

Many of the separatists are not violent and they do not endorse terrorism; they only want independence.

Sikh Separatism in India

After India was partitioned in 1947, some Sikhs sought independence in Punjab.

In 1984, Indian military forces entered the Sikhs’ most sacred site and engaged in a bloody battle with armed militants.

By 1988, more than a hundred people per month had lost their lives.

Sub-Sahara Africa

Endemic terrorism

Form of terrorism created by artificial divisions of tribes, families, and ethnic groups

Unique brand of terrorism

Ethnic cleansing

Child armies

Wars by self-appointed militias

Crime and corruption

Internal strife

Boko Haram, Part 1

One of the most militant Salafi groups in the world

Birth of group in 1995 when a number of Nigerian Salafis grew disgruntled

Yusufiya – followers of the Nigerian Mohammed Yusuf violently reject all ideas not contained in a strict, intolerant interpretation of Islam.

Boko Haram, Part 2

From 2012 the terrorists graduated to mass murders; killings became indiscriminant and many Muslims were wounded or murdered.

They expanded to political kidnappings in 2013 and then turned to kidnapping for profit.

They also began to take and hold territory, declaring a caliphate in 2014.

In the same year Boko Haram increased kidnappings of women and girls for slave labor and sex, and the group also began using males for conscripts.

Challenges to Boko Haram

In January 2012 flyers mysteriously appeared in the North announcing the creation of a new group, Ansaru. The flyers stated that Ansaru was a more “humane” form of Boko Haram.

Most Muslims in the North reject their presence, and they have begun to take action.

In 2015 reports that Muslim civilians in the North, fed up with inaction from the Nigerian army, have created several Civilian Joint Task Forces.

al Shabaab, Part 1

Al Shabaab is the product of a failed state.

The United Nations created the Transnational Federal Government (TFG) in 2004, but it failed to unite Somalis.

In 2004 Somali courts banded together to form the Islamic Courts Union (ICU).

The ICU grew, and its militias became stronger, eventually gaining enough power to challenge the warlords.

al Shabaab, Part 2

Christian Ethiopia invaded Somalia in 2006. The ICU fled except al Shabaab.

From 2007 to 2008 it waged a campaign of selective terrorism.

AMISOM was more effective than the Ethiopian army.

One of the main reasons for paying attention to al Shabaab deals with the Somali diaspora in the United States.

Stratfor believes al Shabaab has been severely weakened.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 1

The EOKA followed an urban strategy using a small number of terrorists to bring international support for Cypriot independence.

Unlike the situation in Cyprus, most French people believed northern Algeria to be a part of France, and they saw the separatist movement as an internal rebellion instead of a revolt against a colonial power.

The Mau Mau uprising was a rural resistance movement by a tribe displaced by colonial agricultural policies.

Turkey has experienced several forms of terrorism based on religion, ideology, and an ethnic separatist movement.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 2

Ethnic tensions are prominent in China’s Xinjiang province because the native Uighar population aspires for autonomy. The Uighars are ethnic Turkmen.

China has introduced many ethnic Chinese to the Xinjiang province in an attempt to exert political control. Uighars operating from Central Asia have resisted this policy.

Some Sikhs embraced terrorism after a deadly clash with Indian forces. The most damaging attack was on an Indian airliner. They planned an international terror campaign, but it fizzled by the mid-1990s.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 3

Endemic terrorism results from European imperialism and the creation of artificial national boundaries that link unrelated tribal and ethnic groups.

Nigeria is fractured because it is a conglomerated state created by British imperialists. Oil provides the economic incentive for a diverse population to remain united.

Boko Haram represents a jihadist movement that began in the northern Muslim region. It seeks a united Muslim caliphate.

Al Shabaab is a jihadist group that arose from the Islamic Courts Union. It has global aspirations but can only operate regionally.

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Define nationalistic terrorism. 2.? Define the term endemic terrorism. 3.? Describe political conditions in Nigeria and Somalia. 4.? Explain the emergence of terrorism after the 1

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