What do you think it would be like to be in therapy with Rollo May? Would you have wanted May to be your therapist? Why or why not?? What would be his focus?JessFeist_GregoryJ.F
What do you think it would be like to be in therapy with Rollo May? Would you have wanted May to be your therapist? Why or why not? What would be his focus?
Theories of PERSONALITY
NINTH EDITION
Jess Feist Gregory J. Feist Tomi-Ann Roberts
Ninth Edition
Theories of Personality
Jess Feist McNeese State University
Gregory J. Feist San Jose State University
Tomi-Ann Roberts Colorado College
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY, NINTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2009, and 2006. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
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Names: Feist, Jess, author. | Feist, Gregory J., author. | Roberts, Tomi-Ann, author. Title: Theories of personality / Jess Feist, McNeese State University, Gregory J. Feist, San Jose State University, Tomi-Ann Roberts, Colorado College. Description: Ninth Edition. | Dubuque : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] | Revised edition of the authors’ Theories of personality, c2013. | Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Identifiers: LCCN 2016050779 | ISBN 9780077861926 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0077861922 (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Personality—Textbooks. Classification: LCC BF698 .F365 2018 | DDC 155.2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016050779
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About the Authors
Jess Feist was Professor of Psychology at McNeese State University in Lake Charles, Louisiana from 1964 until his death in 2015. Besides coauthoring Theories of Personality, he coauthored with Linda Brannon, Health Psychology: An Introduction to Behavior and Health. He earned his under- graduate degree from St. Mary of the Plains and graduate de- grees from Wichita State University and the University of Kan- sas. His research interest was in early childhood recollections.
Gregory J. Feist is a Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychology at San Jose State University. He has also taught at the College of William & Mary and University of California, Davis. He received his PhD in personality psychology in 1991 from the University of California at Berkeley and his under- graduate degree in 1985 from the University of Massachusetts– Amherst. He is widely published in the psychology of creativity, the psychology of science, and the development of scientific tal- ent. His recent book, The Psychology of Science and the Origins of the Scientific Mind, was awarded the William James Book Award from the American Psychological Association (APA). He is founding president of the International Society for the Psy- chology of Science & Technology and founding editor-in-chief of the Journal of Psychology of Science & Technology. His re- search in creativity has been recognized by an Early Career Award from the Division for Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts (Division 10) of APA, and he is former president of Division 10. Finally, he is co-author of Psychology: Perspectives and Connections (McGraw-Hill) with Erika Rosenberg.
iii
About the Authorsiv
Tomi-Ann Roberts is a Professor of Psychology at Colorado College. She received her PhD in social and personality psy- chology in 1990 from Stanford University, and her BA in psychology from Smith College in 1985. Her publications in the areas of gender, personality, and emotion psychology include “Objectification Theory,” an original theory that has generated a great deal of research into the causes and conse- quences of the sexual objectification of girls and women. The first paper she co-authored on this topic is the most cited ar- ticle in the 35-year history of the journal Psychology of Women Quarterly. She served on the American Psychologi- cal Association’s Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, is coauthor of the Sexualization of Girls and Girlhood: Causes, Consequences and Resistance (2012), and continues to work on empirical research, applied consulting work, and media efforts in this area. In addition to her teaching in both psy- chology and gender studies at Colorado College, she cur- rently serves on the executive committee of APA’s Division 35, chairs a Task Force on Educating Through Feminist Re- search, and is a certified Laughter Yoga Leader.
v
PART I Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Personality Theory 2
What Is Personality? 3
What Is a Theory? 5 Theory Defined 5
Theory and Its Relatives 5 Philosophy 5 Speculation 6 Hypothesis 6 Taxonomy 7
Why Different Theories? 7
Perspectives in Theories of Personality 7 Psychodynamic Theories 8 Humanistic-Existential Theories 8 Dispositional Theories 8 Biological-Evolutionary Theories 8 Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories 8
Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality 10
What Makes a Theory Useful? 11 Generates Research 12 Is Falsifiable 12 Organizes Data 13 Guides Action 13 Is Internally Consistent 14 Is Parsimonious 14
Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity 14
Research in Personality Theory 16
Contents
PART II Psychodynamic Theories 19
CHAPTER 2 Freud: Psychoanalysis 20
Overview of Psychoanalytic Theory 21
Biography of Sigmund Freud 22
Levels of Mental Life 28 Unconscious 28
Preconscious 29
Conscious 30
Provinces of the Mind 31 The Id 32
The Ego 33
The Superego 34
Dynamics of Personality 36 Drives 36
Sex 36 Aggression 37
Anxiety 38
Defense Mechanisms 39 Repression 39
Reaction Formation 40
Displacement 40
Fixation 41
Regression 41
Projection 41
Introjection 42
Sublimation 42
Stages of Development 43 Infantile Period 43
Oral Phase 43
vi Contents
Anal Phase 44 Phallic Phase 45 Male Oedipus Complex 45 Female Oedipus Complex 47
Latency Period 50
Genital Period 50
Maturity 51
Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory 52 Freud’s Early Therapeutic Technique 52
Freud’s Later Therapeutic Technique 53
Dream Analysis 54
Freudian Slips 56
Related Research 57 Unconscious Mental Processing 58
Pleasure and the Id, Inhibition and the Ego 59
Repression, Inhibition, and Defense Mechanisms 60
Research on Dreams 61
Critique of Freud 63 Did Freud Understand Women, Gender,
and Sexuality? 63
Was Freud a Scientist? 65
Concept of Humanity 67
CHAPTER 3 Adler: Individual Psychology 70
Overview of Individual Psychology 71
Biography of Alfred Adler 72
Introduction to Adlerian Theory 75
Striving for Success or Superiority 76 The Final Goal 76
The Striving Force as Compensation 77
Striving for Personal Superiority 78
Striving for Success 78
Subjective Perceptions 79 Fictionalism 79
Physical Inferiorities 79
Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality 80 Organ Dialect 80
Conscious and Unconscious 81
Social Interest 81 Origins of Social Interest 82
Importance of Social Interest 83
Style of Life 84
Creative Power 85
Abnormal Development 85 General Description 86
External Factors in Maladjustment 86 Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies 86 Pampered Style of Life 87 Neglected Style of Life 87
Safeguarding Tendencies 87 Excuses 88 Aggression 88 Withdrawal 89
Masculine Protest 90 Origins of the Masculine Protest 90 Adler, Freud, and the Masculine Protest 90
Applications of Individual Psychology 91 Family Constellation 91
Early Recollections 92
Dreams 94
Psychotherapy 95
Related Research 96 Birth Order Effects 96
Early Recollections and Career Choice 98
Distinguishing Narcissism as Striving for Superiority, versus Self-Esteem as Striving for Success 100
Critique of Adler 101
Concept of Humanity 102
CHAPTER 4 Jung: Analytical Psychology 104
Overview of Analytical Psychology 105
Biography of Carl Jung 106
Levels of the Psyche 110 Conscious 110
Personal Unconscious 111
Collective Unconscious 111
Archetypes 112
viiContents
Persona 113 Shadow 114 Anima 115 Animus 116 Great Mother 116 Wise Old Man 117 Hero 117 Self 118
Dynamics of Personality 121 Causality and Teleology 121
Progression and Regression 121
Psychological Types 122 Attitudes 122
Introversion 122 Extraversion 123
Functions 124 Thinking 124 Feeling 124 Sensing 125 Intuiting 125
Development of Personality 127 Stages of Development 127
Childhood 127 Youth 128 Middle Life 128 Old Age 129
Self-Realization 129
Jung’s Methods of Investigation 130
Word Association Test 130
Dream Analysis 131
Active Imagination 133
Psychotherapy 134
Related Research 135 Personality Type and
Leadership 135
Personality Type Among Clergy and Churchgoers 136
A Critical Look at the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 138
Critique of Jung 138
Concept of Humanity 140
CHAPTER 5 Klein: Object Relations Theory 142
Overview of Object Relations Theory 143
Biography of Melanie Klein 144
Introduction to Object Relations Theory 146
Psychic Life of the Infant 147 Phantasies 147
Objects 148
Positions 148 Paranoid-Schizoid Position 148
Depressive Position 150
Psychic Defense Mechanisms 150 Introjection 150
Projection 151
Splitting 151
Projective Identification 152
Internalizations 152 Ego 152
Superego 153
Oedipus Complex 154 Female Oedipal Development 154 Male Oedipal Development 155
Later Views on Object Relations 155 Margaret Mahler’s View 156
Heinz Kohut’s View 158
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory 159
Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation 160
Psychotherapy 162
Related Research 162 Childhood Trauma and Adult Object
Relations 162
Attachment Theory and Adult Relationships 163
Critique of Object Relations Theory 166
Concept of Humanity 167
CHAPTER 6 Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory 170
Overview of Psychoanalytic Social Theory 171
viii
Biography of Karen Horney 172
Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory 174
Horney and Freud Compared 174
The Impact of Culture 174
The Importance of Childhood Experiences 175
Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety 175
Compulsive Drives 177 Neurotic Needs 177
Neurotic Trends 178 Moving Toward People 180 Moving Against People 180 Moving Away From People 181
Intrapsychic Conflicts 182 The Idealized Self-Image 183
The Neurotic Search for Glory 183 Neurotic Claims 184 Neurotic Pride 185
Self-Hatred 185
Feminine Psychology 186
Psychotherapy 189
Related Research 190 Developing and Validating a New Measure
of Horney’s Neurotic Trends 190
Can Neuroticism Ever Be a Good Thing? 191
Critique of Horney 193
Concept of Humanity 194
CHAPTER 7 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory 196
Overview of Post-Freudian Theory 197
Biography of Erik Erikson 198
The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory 200 Society’s Influence 201
Epigenetic Principle 201
Stages of Psychosocial Development 203 Infancy 205
Oral-Sensory Mode 205 Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust 205 Hope: The Basic Strength of Infancy 206
Early Childhood 206 Anal-Urethral-Muscular Mode 206 Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt 207 Will: The Basic Strength of Early Childhood 207
Play Age 208 Genital-Locomotor Mode 208 Initiative Versus Guilt 208 Purpose: The Basic Strength
of the Play Age 209
School Age 209 Latency 209 Industry Versus Inferiority 209 Competence: The Basic Strength of
the School Age 210
Adolescence 210 Puberty 210 Identity Versus Identity Confusion 210 Fidelity: The Basic Strength
of Adolescence 212
Young Adulthood 212 Genitality 213 Intimacy Versus Isolation 213 Love: The Basic Strength
of Young Adulthood 213
Adulthood 214 Procreativity 214 Generativity Versus Stagnation 214 Care: The Basic Strength of Adulthood 215
Old Age 215 Generalized Sensuality 216 Integrity Versus Despair 216 Wisdom: The Basic Strength
of Old Age 216
Summary of the Life Cycle 217
Erikson’s Methods of Investigation 218 Anthropological Studies 218
Psychohistory 218
Related Research 221 Ego Identity Status in Adolescents
Across Cultures 221
Does Identity Precede Intimacy? 222
Critique of Erikson 223
Concept of Humanity 224
Contents
ix
CHAPTER 8 Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis 227
Overview of Humanistic Psychoanalysis 228
Biography of Erich Fromm 229
Fromm’s Basic Assumptions 231
Human Needs 232 Relatedness 232
Transcendence 233
Rootedness 234
Sense of Identity 235
Frame of Orientation 235
Summary of Human Needs 236
The Burden of Freedom 236 Mechanisms of Escape 237
Authoritarianism 237 Destructiveness 237 Conformity 238
Positive Freedom 238
Character Orientations 238 Nonproductive Orientations 239
Receptive 239 Exploitative 239 Hoarding 239 Marketing 240
The Productive Orientation 241
Personality Disorders 241 Necrophilia 242
Malignant Narcissism 242
Incestuous Symbiosis 242
Psychotherapy 244
Fromm’s Methods of Investigation 244 Social Character in a Mexican Village 244
A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler 246
Related Research 247 Testing the Assumptions of Fromm’s
Marketing Character 247
Estrangement From Culture and Well-Being 248
Authoritarianism and Fear 249
Critique of Fromm 251
Concept of Humanity 252
PART III Humanistic/Existential Theories 255
CHAPTER 9 Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory 256
Overview of Holistic-Dynamic Theory 257
Biography of Abraham H. Maslow 258
Maslow’s View of Motivation 261 Hierarchy of Needs 262
Physiological Needs 263 Safety Needs 263 Love and Belongingness Needs 264 Esteem Needs 265 Self-Actualization Needs 265
Aesthetic Needs 266
Cognitive Needs 266
Neurotic Needs 267
General Discussion of Needs 267 Reversed Order of Needs 267 Unmotivated Behavior 268 Expressive and Coping Behavior 268 Deprivation of Needs 268 Instinctoid Nature of Needs 268 Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs 269
Self-Actualization 270 Maslow’s Quest for the Self-Actualizing
Person 270
Criteria for Self-Actualization 271
Values of Self-Actualizers 272
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People 273 More Efficient Perception of Reality 273 Acceptance of Self, Others, and Nature 273 Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness 273 Problem-Centering 274 The Need for Privacy 274 Autonomy 274 Continued Freshness of Appreciation 275 The Peak Experience 275 Gemeinschaftsgefühl 276 Profound Interpersonal Relations 276 The Democratic Character Structure 277 Discrimination Between Means and Ends 277
Contents
x
Process 307 Stages of Therapeutic Change 307 Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic
Change 308
Outcomes 308
The Person of Tomorrow 309
Philosophy of Science 311
The Chicago Studies 312 Hypotheses 312
Method 312
Findings 313
Summary of Results 315
Related Research 315 Self-Discrepancy Theory 315
Motivation and Pursuing One’s Goals 316
Critique of Rogers 319
Concept of Humanity 320
CHAPTER 11 May: Existential Psychology 323
Overview of Existential Psychology 324
Biography of Rollo May 325
Background of Existentialism 328 What Is Existentialism? 328
Basic Concepts 329 Being-in-the-World 329 Nonbeing 330
The Case of Philip 332
Anxiety 332 Normal Anxiety 333
Neurotic Anxiety 333
Guilt 334
Intentionality 335
Care, Love, and Will 336 Union of Love and Will 336
Forms of Love 337 Sex 337 Eros 337 Philia 337 Agape 338
Philosophical Sense of Humor 277 Creativeness 277 Resistance to Enculturation 278
Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization 278
Maslow’s Psychology and Philosophy of Science 279
Measuring Self-Actualization 280
The Jonah Complex 281
Psychotherapy 282
Related Research 283 Mindfulness and Self-Actualization 283
Positive Psychology 284
Critique of Maslow 286
Concept of Humanity 287
CHAPTER 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory 290
Overview of Client-Centered Theory 291
Biography of Carl Rogers 292
Person-Centered Theory 295 Basic Assumptions 295
Formative Tendency 295 Actualizing Tendency 296
The Self and Self-Actualization 297 The Self-Concept 297 The Ideal Self 298
Awareness 298 Levels of Awareness 299 Denial of Positive Experiences 299
Becoming a Person 299
Barriers to Psychological Health 300 Conditions of Worth 300 Incongruence 301 Vulnerability 301 Anxiety and Threat 301 Defensiveness 302 Disorganization 302
Psychotherapy 303 Conditions 303
Counselor Congruence 304 Unconditional Positive Regard 305 Empathic Listening 306
Contents
xi
Freedom and Destiny 338 Freedom Defined 338
Forms of Freedom 339 Existential Freedom 339 Essential Freedom 339
What Is Destiny? 339
Philip’s Destiny 340
The Power of Myth 340
Psychopathology 342
Psychotherapy 342
Related Research 344 Threats in the Umwelt: Mortality Salience and
Denial of Our Animal Nature 345
Finding Meaning in the Mitwelt: Attachment and Close Relationships 346
Growth in the Eigenwelt: There Is an Upside to Mortality Awareness 348
Critique of May 349
Concept of Humanity 350
PART IV Dispositional Theories 353
CHAPTER 12 Allport: Psychology of the Individual 354
Overview of Allport’s Psychology of the Individual 355
Biography of Gordon Allport 356
Allport’s Approach to Personality Theory 358
What Is Personality? 358
What Is the Role of Conscious Motivation? 359
What Are the Characteristics of a Healthy Person? 359
Structure of Personality 361 Personal Dispositions 361
Levels of Personal Dispositions 362 Cardinal Dispositions 362 Central Dispositions 362 Secondary Dispositions 362 Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions 363
Proprium 363
Motivation 364 A Theory of Motivation 364
Functional Autonomy 365 Perseverative Functional Autonomy 366 Propriate Functional Autonomy 367 Criterion for Functional Autonomy 367 Processes That Are Not Functionally
Autonomous 368
The Study of the Individual 368 Morphogenic Science 368
The Diaries of Marion Taylor 369
Letters From Jenny 370
Related Research 372 Understanding and Reducing Prejudice 372
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation 375 Religious Motivation and Mental Health 376 Religious Motivation and Physical Health 377
Critique of Allport 378
Concept of Humanity 379
CHAPTER 13 McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Trait Theory 382
Overview of Trait and Factor Theories 383
The Pioneering Work of Raymond B. Cattell 384
Basics of Factor Analysis 385
The Big Five: Taxonomy or Theory? 387
Biographies of Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr. 387
In Search of the Big Five 389 Five Factors Found 389
Description of the Five Factors 390
Evolution of the Five-Factor Theory 392 Units of the Five-Factor Theory 393
Core Components of Personality 393 Basic Tendencies 393 Characteristic Adaptations 394 Self-Concept 395 Peripheral Components 395 Biological Bases 395 Objective Biography 396 External Influences 396
Contents
xii Contents
Basic Postulates 396 Postulates for Basic Tendencies 396 Postulates for Characteristic Adaptations 398
Related Research 398 Personality and Academic Performance 398
Traits, Internet Use, and Well-Being 400
Traits and Emotions 401
Critique of Trait and Factor Theories 404
Concept of Humanity 405
PART V Biological/Evolutionary Theories 407
CHAPTER 14 Eysenck’s Biologically Based Factor Theory 408
Overview of Biologically Based Trait Theory 409
Biography of Hans J. Eysenck 411
Eysenck’s Factor Theory 413 Criteria for Identifying Factors 414
Hierarchy of Behavior Organization 414
Dimensions of Personality 415 Extraversion 417
Neuroticism 418
Psychoticism 419
Measuring Personality 421
Biological Bases of Personality 421
Personality as a Predictor 422 Personality and Behavior 422
Personality and Disease 423
Related Research 424 The Biological Basis of Extraversion 424
The Biological Basis of Neuroticism 426
Critique of Eysenck’s Biologically Based Theory 428
Concept of Humanity 429
CHAPTER 15 Buss: Evolutionary Theory of Personality 430
Overview of Evolutionary Theory 431
Biography of David Buss 433
Principles of Evolutionary Psychology 435
Evolutionary Theory of Personality 435 The Nature and Nurture of Personality 437
Adaptive Problems and their Solutions (Mechanisms) 437
Evolved Mechanisms 439 Motivation and Emotion as Evolved
Mechanisms 440 Personality Traits as Evolved Mechanisms 440
Origins of Individual Differences 442 Environmental Sources 443 Heritable/Genetic Sources 443 Nonadapative Sources 444 Maladaptive Sources 444
Neo-Bussian Evolutionary Theories of Personality 444
Common Misunderstandings in Evolutionary Theory 446
Evolution Implies Genetic Determinism (Behavior as Set in Stone and Void of Influence From the Environment) 446
Executing Adaptations Requires Conscious Mechanisms 446
Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed 447
Related Research 447 Temperament and the Pre- and Post-Natal
Environment 447
Genetics and Personality 449
Animal Personality 450
Critique of Evolutionary Theory of Personality 453
Concept of Humanity 454
PART VI Learning-Cognitive Theories 457
CHAPTER 16 Skinner: Behavioral Analysis 458
Overview of Behavioral Analysis 459
Biography of B. F. Skinner 460
Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism 463
xiii
Scientific Behaviorism 464 Philosophy of Science 465
Characteristics of Science 465
Conditioning 466 Classical Conditioning 467
Operant Conditioning 468 Shaping 468 Reinforcement 470 Positive Reinforcement 470 Negative Reinforcement 470 Punishment 471 Effects of Punishment 471 Punishment and Reinforcement Compared 472 Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers 472 Schedules of Reinforcement 473 Fixed-Ratio 473 Variable-Ratio 473 Fixed-Interval 474 Variable-Interval 474 Extinction 475
The Human Organism 475 Natural Selection 476
Cultural Evolution 476
Inner States 477 Self-Awareness 477 Drives 478 Emotions 478 Purpose and Intention 478
Complex Behavior 479 Higher Mental Processes 479 Creativity 479 Unconscious Behavior 480 Dreams 480 Social Behavior 481
Control of Human Behavior 481 Social Control 481 Self-Control 482
The Unhealthy Personality 483 Counteracting Strategies 483
Inappropriate Behaviors 484
Psychotherapy 484
Related Research 485
How Conditioning Affects Personality 485
How Personality Affects Conditioning 486
Mutual Influence Between Personality and Conditioning 487
Critique of Skinner 489
Concept of Humanity 490
CHAPTER 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 494
Overview of Social Cognitive Theory 495
Biography of Albert Bandura 496
Learning 497 Observational Learning 498
Modeling 498 Processes Governing Observational
Learning 499 Attention 499 Representation 499 Behavioral Production 499 Motivation 500
Enactive Learning 500
Triadic Reciprocal Causation 501 An Example of Triadic Reciprocal
Causation 502
Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events 503
Human Agency 504 Core Features of Human Agency 504
Self-Efficacy 505 What Is Self-Efficacy? 505 What Contributes to Self-Efficacy? 507 Mastery Experiences 507 Social Modeling 507 Social Persuasion 508 Physical and Emotional States 508
Proxy Agency 509
Collective Efficacy 509
Self-Regulation 510 External Factors in Self-Regulation 511
Internal Factors in Self-Regulation 511 Self-Observation 511 Judgmental Process 512 Self-Reaction 513
Contents
xiv
Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency 513 Redefine the Behavior 514 Disregard or Distort the Consequences
of Behavior 515 Dehumanize or Blame the Victims 515 Displace or Diffuse Responsibility 516
Dysfunctional Behavior 516 Depression 516
Phobias 516
Aggression 517
Therapy 519
Related Research 520 Self-Efficacy and Diabetes 520
Moral Disengagement and Bullying 521
Social Cognitive Theory “Goes Global” 523
Critique of Bandura 523
Concept of Humanity 524
CHAPTER 18 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory 528
Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Theory 529
Biography of Julian Rotter 530
Introduction to Rotter’s Social Learning Theory 531
Predicting Specific Behaviors 532 Behavior Potential 532
Expectancy 533
Reinforcement Value 533
Psychological Situation 534
Basic Prediction Formula 535
Predicting General Behaviors 536 Generalized Expectancies 536
Needs 536 Categories of Needs 537 Recognition-Status 537 Dominance 537 Independence 537 Protection-Dependency 538 Love and Affection 538 Physical Comfort 538
Need Components 538 Need Potential 538 Freedom of Movement 539 Need Value 539
General Prediction Formula 539
Internal and External Control of Reinforcement 541
Interpersonal Trust Scale 543
Maladaptive Behavior 544
Psychotherapy 545 Changing Goals 545
Eliminating Low Expectancies 546
Introduction to Mischel’s Personality Theory 548
Biography of Walter Mischel 548
Background of the Cognitive-Affective Personality System 550
Consistency Paradox 550
Person-Situation Interaction 551
Cognitive-Affective Personality System 552 Behavior Prediction 553
Situation Variables 553
Cognitive-Affective Units 555 Encoding Strategies 555 Competencies and Self-Regulatory
Strategies 555 Expectancies and Beliefs 556 Goals and Values 557 Affective Responses 558
Related Research 559 Locus of Control and Holocaust Heroes 559
Person-Situation Interaction 560
Marshmallows and Self-Regulation Across the Lifespan 561
Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory 563
Concept of Humanity 564
CHAPTER 19 Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs 567
Overview of Personal Construct Theory 568
Contents
xv
Biography of George Kelly 569
Kelly’s Philosophical Position 570 Person as Scientist 571
Scientist as Person 571
Constructive Alternativism 571
Personal Constructs 572 Basic Postulate 573
Supporting Corollaries 574 Similarities Among Events 574 Differences Among People 575 Relationships Among Constructs 575 Dichotomy of Constructs 576 Choice Between Dichotomies 577 Range of Convenience 577 Experience and Learning 578 Adaptation to Experience 578 Incompatible Constructs 579 Similarities Among People 579 Social Processes 580
Applications of Personal Construct Theory 581
Abnormal Development 581 Threat 582 Fear 582
Anxiety 582 Guilt 583
Psychotherapy 583
The Rep Test 584
Related Research 586 Gender as a Personal Construct 586
Applying Personal Construct Theory to Intra-Personal Questions of Identity 587 Understanding Internalized Prejudice
Through Personal Construct Theory 588 Reducing the Threat to Feminist
Identification 589
Personal Constructs and the Big Five 590
Critique of Kelly 591
Concept of Humanity 592
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index N-1
Subject Index S-1
Contents
xvi
What makes people behave as they do? Are people ordinarily aware of what they are doing, or are their behaviors the result of hidden, unconscious motives? Are some people naturally good and others basically evil? Or do all people have potential to be either good or evil? Is human conduct largely a product of nature, or is it shaped mostly by environmental influences? Can people freely choose to mold their per- sonality, or are their lives determined by forces beyond their control? Are people best described by their similarities, or is uniqueness the dominant characteristic of humans? What causes some people to develop disordered personalities whereas others seem to grow toward psychological health?
These questions have been asked and debated by philosophers, scholars, and religious thinkers for se
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