Which philosophical approach(es) discussed in the Ornstein reading best reflect(s) your beliefs about (a) a schools purpose; (b) what subjects are of value; (c) how stud

20 PART ONE Curriculum and Philosophy . . Ed . . (l 980). Educational Seiverlmg, Richard F. ( t') out tile EQA results.

980 October) . Moral edu- quality assessment: Get mg . D rtment of Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1 'Th mas Sobol. Educa- Harrisburg, p A: Pennsylvania epa

cation: A response to o tional Leadership, 38, 19-23. B . in S & Education. b ) The concept

D . d R Bloom en1am ., 97 Spady, Willia~<? · (l :~~;tpoet:~~y-based edu-Krathwohl, av1 .,(1964) Taxo1101J1yof educa-

· Bertram B. · · I and implications o . 36 16-22.Masia, . . . /assi•ication of educat10na . Ed t'onal Leadersl11p, , . tional ob1ect1ves. Tile c . J' • New York, cation . Iurn A J ( 8). 197 case studies

book II· Affiect1vedo11in111 . Easley, J. -, r . . DC·I d Stake, R E &

goaI s, inn · Inc. • ., . ls Washmgton, · 2 NY· David McKay Compa1:y, . / ob·cc- in science educnt1011 . . v_o ·office

. F (1962). Prcpari11gmstruct10na J Government Pnntmg . . U S . . 1981, October). Intelhg~nceMager, R. · . Fearon Publishers . Sternberg, Robert J. ( . skills Ed11cat1011altives. Palo Alto, CA. ) Reconsider-

(1980 January • as thinking and learning . Martin, John Henryf.h" h , hool education . Educa­ 2

. the goals o ig sc Lendersliip,39, l8- 0. . . · /es o• curricu- mg · 278-285. l949) ( Bns1c prmcip 37 1 tional Lenders/up, , . (l972) Mini- Tyler, Ralph~- .. ( ed.). Chicago, IL:

and 1974 B d of Education. · 111111 111stn1ct10n Oregon State oar . t standards for grad- •ty f Chicago Press . mum state reqmremen s 1 OR Univers1 ° b ) The Soviet chal-

. f h. h school. Sa em, · Wirszup, Izaak. (1981, Fe ruar~ . 358-360. uation rom ig ) Are you out on a lenge. Educational Leadersl11p, 38,

Paul, Regina. (1982, January ·. 39 260-264. . b7 Educational Leaders/up, ' . dlim . (1981 April) . The first ec-

Raywid, Mary A~e.h l ~lternatives. Phi Dcltn ade of pubhc sc oo Kappan, 62, 551-554.

mscussION QUESTIONS . be? f t porary education ·

1. What should the gofaldso ~~:n: the same for all students?b_ t· s or by 2 Should the goals o e uca . . ls · by behavioral o 1ec ive

. What is the best method for defining goa . 3• 7 ti. l goals· thecompetencies. . . . f determining educa ona . ·.

h ld assume respons1b1hty or d f local school d1stncts, 4. Who s ou h state board

i of e uca ion,

federal government, t e at each school? Why?1 building principal~, or_ the fac:1 in oals and objectives?

5. What is the best cntenon for JU g g g

What Does It Mean to Say a School Is Doing Well?

ELLIOT w. EISNER

FOCUSING QUESTIONS

1. What kinds of decisions about education should made at the national level? At the state level? At the local level?

2. How much freedom should students have in deciding what they want to learn , when, and how much?

3. Might it be possible for education policy to promote creativity, spontaneity, surprise, and discovery as educational outcomes?

4. Can schools pursue both quality and equality without sacrificing one or the other?

D ri ven by discontent with the performance of our schools, we are, once again, in the midst of education reform, as we were in 1983 with A Nation at Risk, in 1987 with America 2000, and a few years later with Goals 2000. Each of these reform

efforts was intended to rationalize the practice and performance of our schools. Each was designed to work out and install a system of measurable goals and evaluation prac­ tices that would ensure that our nation would be first in science and mathematics by the year 2000, that all our children would come to school ready to learn, and that each school would be drug-free, safe, and nonviolent.

The formulation of standards and the measurement of performance were intended to tidy up a messy system and to make teachers and school administrators truly accountable. The aim was then, and is today, to systematize and standardize so that the public will know which schools are performing well and which are not. There we be then, and there are today, payments and penalties for performance .

America is one of the few nations in which responsibility for schools is not, the aegis of a national ministry of education. Although we have a federal agenr U.S. Department of Education, the Tenth Amendment to the U.S . Constitution in, that those responsibilities that the Constitution does not assign explicitly to the.~ government belong to the states (or to the people). And because the Constitution makes no mention of education, it is a responsibility of the states.

23

PART ON E Curriculum and Philosophy 22 . to describe the world.

7:r course, is one way d with determining

have 50 departments of ment has to o .Measure . d d ·t deals with mat­As _a res~~~ each state, ov er se:i _ng f magmtu e, an l . f matters o . u h the specification oeducation, l d. tricts that serve 52 rmllion

some 16,000 schoo ils 100 000 schools . In ter~ of mar~l~~~1~~at~s, the unit for wei_gl:t t . n more t 1an , f um ts . Int e d the Netherlands, it is stu d en s l h l district has latitude or

addition, each s~ 00 . Given the com- is pounds. In ~we _en ;:ters in Europe; it's . ducat10n po 1icy . d. kilogr~ms. I~s -~1t States . It really doesn'tshaping e d ication is organize m

miles m the m e l as every­plexity of the way ~ ~ derstandable that matter what unit you t~s~, as ong ' the United States, _it is hun . looks pretty pective t e view l at the umt 1s. one agrees _~ 1 . . believed to be a wa y tofrom one pers lto ether rational. Further- Quantification is . and

messy and not a f g believe that we have a . · · t secure ngor, increase ob1ectiv1 y,_ assessment. Formore , more than a_ e:merican education and cision in

national_ problemblrems require national solu­ adva1:c~ pre features of the "".orl_d, descnbmg some t· l world it is md1s-that national prof l . hl rationalized proce­ . l d. the educa iona , .

tions . The . use o _11g iools is a part of the me u mg . . not ood for ever y thing, dures for improving sc pensable . ~u~ it ~s ns a¥ quantification are

and the 1tm1tat10 . d For example,solution. t of rationalization . l b . ng recognize . I mention the _concepd ·be the ethos increasm~ Y.. ei d . ions about standards

t y1ng to escnI althougl: m1t1al isc~~~r them to be measur­because am r h ls I am trying to . ted in our sc oo . emphas1zed the nee ave become increasinglybeing crea ld view that shapes our concep-

able, as stand~rdslh . l measurability hasreveal a war . d the direction we take general and id~o og1ca , tion of education an for making our sc~ools bette~oncept has a become less sahent. . . f ractice is

Th . d the rationalization o p d Rationalization ;: : it depends on a ir ' b T t to control an pre-

predicated on the a 11 y know the spe-number of_ f_eat':1r~s.ofi~:t~nded outcomes . dict. We assume that we_ can f ns . an

clear specihcatlo d d and rubrics are sup­ cific effects of our _mtebrlven to , That is what

We/:~i~Itr::al stan ar s ed to know what . th tis questiona e.

assumption ~ . t·on downplays inter-posed to do. practice are to th ra t1ona 1 O iza i tFthe outcomes Hy those out­ our , . take into account no

actions. Interacti_o~s e to be intro-be, and rubrics dare to e;t:r gl eneral state – Standar s are 0 simply the cond1t1ons th~::ls but also the comes . laim our values . ne

duced in classroom s o_r _s ectations, ori-ments intended to proc f standards and . ds of personal quahties, exp tl t

argument for the us~e~essary if we are to km . and temperaments 1a srubrics is that th ey are · goes if entations , idea , d .f s Philosophical . lly As the saymg ' interact with those con ~ i~nd ·out that whatfunction rationa . ' headed you

't k ow where you re , constructivists have pon~e th from the fea­ you d on n ou have arrived . In

something means comes oto be addres sed will not know wherke y ·ng where you' re th phenomenon·t's more than now1 . d t · f fac t ' l k . g the precise es i- tures o e those features are inter- d d· it's also nowm d d i and from the w_ay d by individuals . Such1ea e , . f tion of in ten e

nation . Thus the speci ica of the primary preted or expene1:ce . s alwa s compli­ outcomes has become oneof rationalizing idiosyncratic con~fera~i:1plicatf efforts to

. •n the process 11 1 cate assessment. _ ey e1l Prediction ispractices ff t Holding peop e h l reform e or s. rationalize hee~u:i~~~~:es o:tco .me is going tosc oo l results

accountable for t_1e r is another.

tion typically uses not easy w . t only of what is intro­ Second , rationa iza h l ·ch the be is a function no f h t a stu­11means throug w duced in the situation but als~ o ~ a d

measurement as a d t performance is dent makes of what has been mtro uce .·t f a pro uc or f qua ll y o t d Measurement, o assessed and represen e .

CHAPTER THREE

Fifth, rationalization promotes compari­ son, and comparison requires what is called "commensurability." Commensurability is possible only if you know what the programs were in which the youngsters participated in the schools being compared . If youngsters are in schools that have different curricula or that allocate differing amounts of time to different areas of the curriculum, comparing the out­ comes of those schools without taking into account their differences is extremely ques­ tionable. Making comparisons between the math performance of youngsters in Japan and those in the United States without taking into account cultural differences, different alloca­ tions of time for instruction, or different approaches to teaching makes it impossible to account for differences in student perform­ ance or to consider the side-effects or opportu­ nity costs associated with different programs in different cultures . The same principle holds in comparing student performance across school districts in the United States .

Sixth, rationalization relies upon extrin­ sic incentives to motivate action; that's what vouchers are intended to do. Schools are lik­ ened to businesses, and the survival of the fittest is the principle that determines which ones survive . If schools don't produce effec­ tive results on tests, they go out of business .

In California and in some other parts of the country, principals and superintendents are often paid a bonus if their students per­ form well on standardized tests: payment by results . And, of course, such a reward system has consequences for a school's priorities. Are test scores the criteria that we want to use to reward professional performance?

The features that I have just described are a legacy of the Enlightenment. We believe that our rational abilities can be used to dis­ cover the regularities of the universe and, once we've found them, to implement, as my colleague David Tyack titled his book, "the one best system." We have a faith in our abil­ ity to discover what the U.S. Department of Education once described as "what works."

What Does It Mean to Say a School ls Doing Well?

The result is an approach to reform that leaves little room for surprise, for imagina­ tion, for improvisation , or for the cultivation of productive idiosyncrasy. Our reform efforts are closer in spirit to the ideas of Rene Descartes and Auguste Comte than to those of William Blake. They are efforts that use league tables to compare schools and that regard test scores as valid proxies for the quality of education our children receive. And they constitute an approach to reform that has given us three major educationally feckless reform efforts in the past 20 years. Are we going to have another?

What are the consequences of the approach to reform that we have taken and that should we pay attention to in order to tell when a school is doing well? First, one of the consequences of our approach to reform is that the curriculum gets narrowed as school district policies make it clear that what is to be tested is what is to be taught. Tests come to define our priorities, and now we have legitimated those priorities by talk­ ing about "core subjects ." The introduction of the concept of core subjects explicitly mar­ ginalizes subjects that are not part of the core. One of the areas that we marginalize is the arts, an area that when well taught offers substantial benefits to students. Our idea of core subjects is related to our assessment practices and the tests we use to determine whether or not schools are doing well.

Because we who are in education take test scores seriously , the public is reinforced in its view that test scores are good proxies for the quality of education a school pro­ vides. Yet what test scores predict best are other test scores. If we are going to use prox­ ies that have predictive validity, we need proxies that predict performances that mat­ ter outside the context of school. The func­ tion of schooling is not to enable students to do better in school. The function of schooling is to enable students to do better in life . What students learn in school ought to exceed in relevance the limits of the school's program.

24 PART ONE Curriculum and Philosophy want to know just what it is they need to do

As we focus on standards, rubrics, and to earn a particular grade. Even at Stanford, I measurement, the deeper problems of sometimes get requests from graduate stu­ schooling go unattended. What are some of dents who want to know precisely, or as pre­ the deeper problems of schooling? One has cisely as I can put it, what they need to do in to do with the quality of conversation in order to get an A in the class. classrooms. We need to provide opportuni­ Now from one angle such a request ties for youngsters and adolescents to engage sounds reasonable. After all, it is a means/ in challenging kinds of conversation, and we ends approach to educational planning. Stu­ need to help them learn how to do so. Such dents are, it can be said, rationally planning conversation is all too rare in schools. I use their education. But such planning has very the term "conversation" seriously, for chal­ little to do with intellectual life, where risk­ lenging conversation is an intellectual affair. taking, exploration, uncertainty, and specu­ It has to do with thinking about what people lation are what it's about. And if you create a have said and responding reflectively, ana­ culture of schooling in which a narrow lytically, and imaginatively to that process. means/ ends orientation is promoted, that The practice of conversation is almost a lost culture can undermine the development of art. We turn to talk shows to experience what intellectual dispositions. By intellectual dis­ we cannot do very well or very often. positions I mean a curiosity and interest in

The deeper problems of schooling have engaging and challenging ideas. to do with teacher isolation and the fact that What the field has not provided is an teachers don't often have access to other peo­ efficient alternative to the testing procedures ple who know what they're doing when they we now use. And for good reason. The good teach and who can help them do it better. reason is that there are no efficient alterna­ Although there are many issues that need tives. Educationally useful evaluation takes attention in schooling, we search for the sil­ time, it's labor intensive and complex, and ver bullet and believe that, if we get our it's subtle, particularly if evaluation is used standards straight and our rubrics right and not simply to score children or adults but to make our tests tough enough, we will have provide information to improve the process an improved school system. I am not so sure. of teaching and learning.

The message that we send to students is The price one pays for providing many that what really matters in their education ways for students to demonstrate what has are their test scores. As a result, students in been learned is a reduction of commensura­ high-stakes testing programs find ways to bility. Commensurability decreases when cut corners-and so do some teachers. We attention to individuality increases. John read increasingly often not only about stu­ Dewey commented about comparisons in dents who are cheating but also about teach­ a book that he wrote in 1934 when he was ers who are unfairly helping students get 76 years old. The book is Art ns Experience. higher scores on the tests. It's a pressure that He observed that nothing is more odious undermines the kind of experience that stu- than comparisons in the arts. What he was dents ought to have in schools. getting at was that attention to or apprecia­

Perhaps the major consequence of the tion of an art form requires attention to and approach we have taken to rationalize our appreciation of its distinctive features. It schools is that it ineluctably colors the school was individuality that Dewey was empha­ climate. It promotes an orientation to practice sizing, and it is the description of individu­ that emphasizes extrinsically defined attain­ ality we would do well to think about in our ment targets that have a specified quantita­ assessment practices. We should be trying to tive value. This, in turn, leads students to

CHAPTER THREE What Does It Mean to Say a School ls D omg . Well? 25

discover where a yo ungster is h . study? What would that . strengths are where add"t· , w ere his' ' 1 10nal k · youngster~ about inquiry? practice teach ranted. Commensurabilit . w~r is war- What is the intellect 1 . . .everybody is on th y is possible when the ideas that yo ua s1gmf1cance of e same track h are common assessme t . , w en there a maxim that I ung;ter_s encounter? (I have there is a comm n ~ractices, and when 1thteaching, it's no;: ; : on curnculu B If ft's not worth students work on differ ~- ut when the ideas they en/r /ea~hmg well.) Are lems, and when th . ent kmds of prob- they ideas that haveol~n ~r important? Are development of an i~rJi l~dcon,cern with the place? gs. Do they go some- so to speak, commen v1 u~~ s t~umbprint, propriate aim. surab1hty is an inap- Are students introduced . spectives? Are they k d to multiple per-. as e top ·d .

What have been th ple perspectives on . rov1 e multi- rationalized appr em~:~ he consequences of the The implications ofan ishsue or a set of ideas? ~~ . sue an ex t •that we have educati~n reform curriculum devel pee ation for desire to improve o ce 1· Only this: In our

ur sc 1ools ed · To develop such a~~i;;i~~t ared extr~ordinary. ecome a casualt Th . . , ucation has we would d . y an habit of mind b nee to mvent f . . , rationalization eyd. a~ is, in the process of

, ucation – alw d . encourage students to _ac 1v1hes that cate, complex and st b ays a eh­ develop certain m d prfactice, refine, and do with both ~ultura/ tle pr~ce_ss having to . 0 es o thought T k"

mu 1tiple perspectives i . . a mgactualization-h b transm1ss10n and self- In 1950 the A . s JUSt one such mode. . as ecome a . Educahon has evolved f f commodity. Guilford developr:~nca; psychologist J. p_ development . rom a orm of human

servmg p 1 structure of intellect,,~ a~_he called "the needs into a product ou ers?na and civic kinds of co nitiv , m w ich 130 different compete in a glob 1 r nation produces to What if we ~sed t~r:~~e~se; were identified. become places t a economy. Schools have

o mass produce th. d mote various forms of~h~_structure to pro­ Let us assume that . is pro uct. that the activities in h" h mg? My point is

rium on standard" d we impose a morato- ticipate in classe w ic youngsters par-. ize testi f · penod. What mi ht ng or a five-year . s are the mwhich their think" . eans through schools in order tg we pay attention to in youngsters have no1~e~s: ~ro~oted. When well? If it is not hi~~ay tat a school is doing the processes that enabl ~ho raise questions, l~oking for, what ise~t?e~ scores that we are to discover intellectual e to learn how kind of data we mi ht se et me s~?gest the veloped. pro

~f ems go unde-

questions that migh~ "dek by ra1smg some What k" d gm e our search. The ability to raise tell" .

m s ofprobl d not an automatic c mg questions is students engage . 7 Whems ~n activities do Do you know t:ns;~uence of maturation. m. at kmd f th· k" d o these activ1·t1·es . . o m mg Stanford student he i~gest problem that mv1te7 A t d s ave in the f . encouraged to wonder . _re s u ents octoral work? It . . course o theirdabout what they hav and ~o raise questions . . is not gettm d m courses; they all et g goo grades should be less c e studied? Perhaps we

oncerned w · th h c~urses. Their biggest of st 1o~d- grad~s in can answer our quest" h1 w ether they dissertation problem W ac e ism framing a they can ask th . ions t an with whether . eir own The m t . . about that before stud e can do something intellectual achievem . . os s1gmficant level. In a school that _endts?et to the doctoral problem solvin b e1:t is not so much in . . 1s omg wellmhes for the kind f th" . , opportu-mkmg th t · What if we took ~l1at~ m q~estion posing. 0 1 eluded units of stud ~ good questions would b a y1e ds ea ser~ously and con­ Wh e promoted

at connections · of questions that y Y looking for the sorts make between what t;;e :tuden_ts helped to as a result of b . yo_ungsters are able to raise

the world outside f hy tudy in class and eing immersed in a domain of o sc ool? A major aim of

26 PART ONE Curriculum and Philosophy hat opportunities do students hdave_ to W nd to es1gn

education has to do with wha~ ps~,cho;~g:::~ formulate their own purposes ah l provide refer to as "transfer of learning . de hat ways to achieve them? Can a sc oo they dents apply what they have learn; C or ~hey the conditions for youngster~ -~s to set

h learned how to learn. an mature to have increased oppor ni y r they a~e h k" d of learning they will need their o~n goals and to design ways to rea 1~:ngage m t e m d . ~ deal with problems an issues them? Plato once defined a slave/s so;:~ I m order to l m? If what students are h executes the purposes o ~no . outside t~1e _c assroo . eans to increase w o th t in a free democratic state, at learning is s1mp~ usedtt::tmwe may win the would say t ; the role of education is to help their scores on t ~ nex I~ such a context, least a par ol how to define their own

youngsters earnbattle and l~se t e wa:s a hurdle to jump school learning becom . whether stu- pur1w~:~ opportunities do students haveht~r We need to determine ave . hat they have learned . But

work cooperatively to addre~s[:~1:~::i:ndents can use w hat has been learned

!~:~~~ :m they believe to be important. . ties of t e create communi~;;: ~:i~;a~!~ be use:- Tt;:~i~~ schools so th a w k · th one h know how to wor w1difference between what a stu en learners w o d . n schools and class-

d what a student will do. . another? Can we es1g f with others is an The really important dependei:'t valria- rooms in which coopera mg ?

. t located m c ass- t of what it means to be a student. .bles in education are no . h 1 The s Nor are they located m sc oo s. par Do students have the opportunity t~

room . . rtant de endent variables are serve the community in way~ that ar; no really lmp~ . d sch~ols Our assessment l" ·ted to their own personal interests. er 51locate ou ~ be . unto scratch that n:-1define a part of the school's role as e~ta – practices haven t even gd ·th what they

wl_ hm· g or helping students establish proJhec~ssurface. It's what students o w1 nt to do 1s h" beyond t eir . hi· ch they do somet mg · . learn when they can do what ~~e~:u:ational m w t k ow that m

that is the real measure wn self-interest? We want o 1: . ~rder to know how well a school is ~omg.the achievement. t have

What opportunities do youn_gs ers To what extent are students g1~en h ortunity to work in depth in domains t atto become literate in the use of d1fferte~t~Z1

. f 57 By represen a opp h . titudes? ls personal talent cul­resentationa 1 orm · . b l systems relate tot e1r ap . th time for young­ I ean the various sym o tivated? Can we arrange e . f . terest

~~::~g' h :hich humans shape exfperienc~ sters to work together on the basis o md _ ? . . Different orms o rather than on the basis of ag_e gra m_g.and give it meaning. d . different

sters who are interested m cer~m1cs human meaning ar~ expresse ·n~: of mean­ y ~ung k . depth in ceramics; those mter­ forms of representation. The k1 h k" ds m1ght wor m . k · d th in sci­etry are not t e m ing one secures from po . t· al ested in science might wor m ep . e

from propos1 10n make these possibilities a reality, w_ f meaning one secures d . ence . To dd the pract1- ~i ns The kinds of meanings exp~esse ~n would need of course, to a ress .

g . . e not the meanings experienced m cal roblem~ of allocating tim~ and respons~;

mhus1~ aral arts To be able to secure any of biliiy But without a conception of wh~t 1 t e v1su · h t know how to

? . impo~tant, we will never e~en ask qu~sti~n~ those meanings, you ave is a "read" them. Seeing is a reading. H~armg about allocating time . A vision of ~hat is e u

. They are the processes of mterpret- cationally important must com~ first. – rea dmg . – f om the mate- in and construing meaning r . ;~~~:St;

Do students participate m the a~slets~ 151 . k? If so how.

f th eir own wor • ,ri;l encountered; _read_in~ ~~~ : men t ° d t d what rocess of decoding, it is d important for teachers to un ers an

P . We make sense of what we rea . enco dmg.

I

CHAPTER THREE What Does It Mean to Say a School ls Doing Well? 27

students themselves think of their own work. not just during the year and a half that he or Can we design assessment practices in which she spends in a teacher education program. students can help us? Can we create schools that take the profes­

To what degree are students genuinely sional development of teachers seriously? engaged in what they do in school? Do they And what would they look like? Schools will find satisfaction in the intellectual journey? not be better for students than they are for How many students come to school early the professionals who work in them. and how many would like to stay late? The All of us who teach develop repertoires . motives for such choices have to do with the We all have routines. We all get by. We get "locus of satisfactions ." Satisfactions gener­ by without serious problems, but getting by ate reasons for doing something . Basically, is not good enough. We need to get better. there are three reasons for doing anything . And to get better, we have to think about One reason for doing something is that you school in ways that address teachers' real like what it feels like and you like who you needs. And when I say, "address teachers' are when you do it. Sex, play, and art fall into real needs," I don't mean sending them out this category . They are intrinsically satisfy­ every 6,000 miles to get "inserviced" by a ing activities . stranger .

A second reason for doing something is Are parents helped to understand what not because you like doing it, but because their child has accomplished in class? Do you like the results of having done it. You they come to understand the educational might like a clean kitchen, but you might not import of what is going on? Very often chil­ enjoy cleaning your kitchen. The process is dren's artwork is displayed in the school, not a source of enjoyment, but the outcome is. with the only information provided being

A third reason for doing something is the student's name, the grade, and the teach­ not because you like the process or even the er's name, all in the lower right-hand corner. outcome, but because you like the rewards. Then the best student work is posted more You like the grades you earn. You like the formally . What we do, in effect, is use a gal­ paycheck you receive. That's what Hannah lery model of exhibition . We take the best Arendt described as labor . There is too much work, and we display it. What we need to labor in our schools- and not enough work. create is an educationally interpretive exhibi­ Work is effort from which you derive satis­ tion that explains to viewers what problems faction. We ought to be paying attention to the youngsters were addressing and how the joy of the journey. This is easy to say but they resolved them. This can be done by difficult and challenging to do . Nevertheless, looking at prior work and comparing it with we ought to keep our minds focused on it as present work-that is, by looking at what a goal. students have accomplished over time . I am

Are teachers given the time to observe talking about interpretation. I am talking and work with one another? To what degree about getting people to focus not so much on is professional discourse an important aspect what the grade is, but on what process led to of what being a teacher means in the school? the outcome. Is the school a resource, a center for the What is my point? All my arguments teacher's own development? Is the school a have had to do with creating an education­ center for teacher education? The center for ally informed community. We need to ask teacher education is not the university; it is better questions . the school in which the teacher works. Pro­ Can we widen what parents and others fessional growth should be promoted during believe to be important in judging the quality the 25 years that a teacher works in a school- of our schools? Can we widen and diversify

28 PART ONE Curriculum and Philosophy

what they think matters? Can those of us who teach think about public education not only as the education of the public in the schools (i.e., our students), but also as the education of the public outside our schools (i.e., parents and commw1ity members)? Can a more substantial and complex understand­ ing of what constitutes good schooling con­ tribute to better, more enlightened support for our schools?

Can a more informed conception of what constitutes quality in education lead to greater equity for students and ultimately for the culture? Educational equity is much more than just allowing students to cross the threshold of the school. It has to do with what students find after they do so. We ought to be providing environments that enable each youngster in our schools to find a place in the educati

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