July 10, 2022

READING ASSIGNMENT #2 (CHAPTER 4: Terrorism and the Media); Chapter 5 Force Multipliers, Gender Roles, and Tactics & Chapter 6 Long-Term Separatist Terrorism Assignmen

READING ASSIGNMENT #2 (CHAPTER 4: Terrorism and the Media); Chapter 5 • Force Multipliers, Gender Roles, and Tactics & Chapter 6 • Long-Term Separatist Terrorism

Assignment Type: Canvas

Due Date: July 10, 2022

Possible Points: 100

Duration: 4-6 Hours

Deliverable Length: 5 pages

TEXTBOOK REFERENCES REQUIRED.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BELOW:

1. Explain how the Internet has impacted terrorism.

2. Define the new media environment and describe the characteristics of the new media.

3. Define force multipliers and list and describe four force multipliers.

4. Define the types of threats posed by technological terrorism.

5. Summarize theories of suicide bombing.

6. Describe the emergence of the modern IRA and terrorism in Northern Ireland.

7. Summarize the birth, evolution, and rise of the ETA, the GAL, and the LTTE.

Assignment #2

Brandi Ingram

Dr. Signh

International Terrorism

Grambling State University

07/04/2022

How The Internet Impacted Terrorism

The internet allows terrorist groups to present messages and images would not appear in mainstream media. The internet is also helpful to terrorist with recruitment and training. It can also be used in target selection and reconnaissance, maps, satellite imagery, and diagrams provide ready-made intelligence sources and steganography, embedding hidden information in a picture, message, or another piece of information), is one of the internet’s greatest vulnerabilities.

Define The New Media & Describe The Characteristics of The New Media

New Media refers to and virtual network where communication takes place. It includes blogs, multiple internet postings, and any social networks; Newspapers, radio, and television could be defined as mass communication; terrorists are quick to understand power of the new media; twitter legitimizes messages because it brings the perception of authenticity, and it is socially accepted.

Define Force Multipliers & List and describe Four Force Multipliers

Force multipliers is a factor or a combination of factors that gives personnel or weapons the ability to accomplish greater feats than without it. Examples are: transitional support- which increases terrorist groups ability to move and hide; Technology- allows a small group to launch a deadly attack; media coverage- makes minor groups appear to be politically important; reigion- transcends normative political and social boundaries.

Define Types of Threats Posed by Technological Terrorism

Summarize Theories of Suicide Bombing

Suicide bombing has become a particularly terrorizing tactic, but there is no single explanation for either understanding or preventing it.

Describe the Emergence of the Modern IRA and Terrorism in Northern Ireland

Summarize the Birth, Evolution, and Rise of the ETA, the GAL, and the LTTE

Terrorism and Homeland Security, 9e

CHAPTER 4 Jonathan R. White

Learning Objectives, Part 1

Define the new media environment.

Describe the characteristics of the new media.

Explain how the Internet has impacted terrorism.

Describe the way narrative can be presented in a hybrid frame.

Summarize research trends with respect to terrorism and the media.

Learning Objectives, Part 2

Discuss the role of the media in constructing social reality.

Explain the tension between security forces and the media.

Describe how the media can be viewed as a weapon.

Explain how news frames are used to present a story.

Describe the special relationship between terrorism and television.

The New Media Environment, Part 1

Defining the New Media

The mass media of newspapers, radio, and television could be defined as mass communication. The new methods of interaction also involve communication, but it allows selective connections among communities.

New media refers to any virtual network where communication takes place. It includes blogs, multiple Internet postings, and any social network.

The New Media Environment, Part 2

Terrorists quick to understand power of the new media

Other factors influenced the growth and impact of the new media:

The price of network devices dropped.

Improved digital technology increased the quality and quantity of communications.

Devices became smaller and more powerful.

Increased bandwidth increased the ability of servers to process traffic.

Communications revolution created a host of virtual communities.

Twitter is particularly powerful. Legitimizes messages because it brings the perception of authenticity, and it is socially accepted.

Characteristics of the New Media

The old media is controlled by small groups of elite stakeholders who distribute selective information to targeted audiences. It transmits one version of a story to many people, and while elites may interact with the sources of a narrative, the audience can only consume the information.

Consumers cannot collaborate or participate in developing a story.

None of the characteristics of the new media apply to the old.

Other Aspects of the Internet

Steganography (embedding hidden information in a picture, message, or another piece of information) is one of the Internet’s greatest vulnerabilities.

Internet allows terrorist groups to present messages and images would not appear in mainstream media.

The Internet can also be used for recruitment and training.

The Internet is also used in target selection and reconnaissance.

Maps, satellite imagery, and diagrams provide ready-made intelligence sources.

Trends in Research

Meanings are socially created, and Ross demonstrates that reporting is part of the social construction of terrorism.

Terrorists are aware of the power of the media and seek to manipulate their message through it.

While the media enhances the power of terrorism, it does not cause it.

Terrorists will increasingly use the Internet to communicate as the relationship between the media and terrorism grows stronger in the future.

Empirical Findings on Twitter

The main purpose of terror media is to generate propaganda.

Frequency distributions of types of tweets revealed common categories from Syrian jihadists.

Klausen found that tweets centered around religious indoctrination, battle reports, interpersonal communication, everyday life, and delivering threats to the West.

Religion dominated written communication with four out of five tweets focusing on religious dogma.

Gender Stereotypes

Television tends to portray women as minor figures in the male-dominated occupation.

Nacos presents several images created by television news frames:

Physical appearance frame

Family connection frame

Terrorist for the sake of love

Women's lib frame

Women as bored, frustrated housewives

News Frames, Part 1

Reporting patterns are packaged in segments called news frames.

Purpose is to assemble words and pictures to create a pattern surrounding an event.

Creates a narrative for a deadly drama

Characters are introduced, heroes and villains are defined, and victims become the suffering innocents.

News Frames, Part 2

News frames help “mediatize” the presentation of terrorism.

Media shapes the way an event is communicated.

News frames are one of the least understood aspects of broadcast journalism because their complexity goes unnoticed.

Types of Frames

Reporting frame

Dominant frame

Conflict frame

Contention frame

Investigative frame

Mythic frame

Campaigning frame

Reportage frame

Community service frame

Collective interest frame

Cultural recognition frames

Mythic tales frames

Ambiguous Stories and News Frames

News frames give the story a structured meaning, but sometimes a story defies structure.

The news frame works when a report is based on sources with definitive explanations of an event.

Ambiguity destroys the ability to create a sustainable news frame.

Terrorism is reported in well-defined news frames, the media and consumer assumes a political beginning, a violent process, and a logical end.

If there is ambiguity, there is no logical conclusion.

Beating the Wrong Drum

Focus is improperly centered on military and law enforcement action overseas.

Media has virtually ignored domestic security issues.

Nacos’s study

American news media did not believe there was a need to focus on domestic security.

Televisions’ preference for sensational events

Infotainment Telesector

Barber calls the twenty-four-hour news networks the infotainment telesector.

Media flourishes on one overriding factor: entertainment.

The infotainment telesector is not geared for depth; it is designed to create revenue.

Negative effect on homeland security

Television Drama

Control of the drama pattern was held in a Western monopoly until recently.

Al Manar television presented a sympathetic view of the al Asqa uprising.

Television makes the viewing audience participants in a terrorist attack.

Television seeks drama, and terrorism provides an unfolding dramatic event.

As Sahaab versus al Hurra

Al Qaeda’s underground video network, known as As Sahaab, wages an effective propaganda campaign using the Internet.

In response, the U.S. launched al Hurra, an Arabic-language 24 hour satellite station.

Results have been disappointing.

United States has yet to capitalize on the Internet for spreading propaganda.

Media Bias?

Most mainstream media claim objectivity when presenting information about terrorism.

All news comes with a slant, and reporters are expected to create news frames reflecting their outlet’s orientation.

At one end of the spectrum critics claim the media have a liberal bias.

Others claim that the media have been taken over by conservatives.

Media as a Business

A news organization, a profit-making entity, has the incentive to attract the largest possible audience.

Journalism is a profession.

As news organizations expand, there will be pressures for bias to develop special audiences among liberals and conservatives.

News organizations are increasingly led by boards and groups of owners driven by the desire to make money.

Censorship

Paul Wilkinson (1997) believes that governments face three choices when it comes to maintaining freedom of the press and combating terrorism:

Laissez-faire attitude

Censorship

Media self-regulation

Censorship Debate

Democracy is threatened when the government openly censors information.

Censorship could do more to damage freedom than the terrorist attacks themselves.

Others believe that in times of emergency, information must be controlled to ensure the survival of the state.

America was fighting a new type of war and some form of censorship was required.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 1

The new media environment refers to instantaneous communication through a variety of platforms. It includes social networks, web pages, e-zines, chat rooms, blogs, and similar forms of communication.

The new media allow for vicarious participation in an event, opportunities for reframing narratives, and the ability for mass communication.

An exponential expansion of the Internet has been the basis of the new media environment. Its power is multiplied because devices are available, powerful, and costs have been reduced.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 2

This means that there is extensive competition for presenting a point of view and a news frame, and it leads to charges of biases from all sides.

This is especially true in television because terrorism is a made-for-television drama.

Some scholars have called for limited censorship because the media is so powerful.

Terrorism and Homeland Security, 9e

CHAPTER 5 Jonathan R. White

Learning Objectives, Part 1

Summarize the tactics of modern terrorism.

Define force multipliers.

List and describe four force multipliers.

Outline the tactical importance of female terrorists.

Explain the reasons researcher and the public have ignored women in terrorism.

Define the types of threats posed by technological terrorism.

Explain the effects of biological, chemical, and radiological weapons.

Learning Objectives, Part 2

Characterize the possibility and possible outcomes of nuclear terrorism.

Summarize transnational economic targeting in the tourist, energy, and transportation industries.

Summarize theories of suicide bombing.

Describe the roles women play in nationalistic, ideological, and religious groups.

Terrorism Tactics

Bombing

Hijacking

Arson

Assault

Kidnapping

Hostage taking

Weapons of mass destruction

Force Multipliers

Transnational support

Increases terrorist groups ability to move and hide

Technology

Allows a small group to launch a deadly attack

Media coverage

Makes minor group appear to be politically important

Religion

Transcends normative political and social boundaries

The Bomb

Philosophy of the bomb

The only way to communicate with the social order was to destroy it.

Terrorists tend to increase their effectiveness in bombing by applying improved explosive technology to their weapons.

Thermobaric bomb

Spreads fuel in the air and then ignites it

Cyberterrorism

The use of computers to attack technological targets or physical attacks on computer networks

An attractive low-risk strategy

Computers allow terrorist groups to remain connected, providing a means for covert discussions and anonymity.

Greatest fear of cyberterrorism concerns catastrophic or multiple system failures

WMD: Biological Agents

Modern arsenals contain bacterial weapons and viral weapons, with microbes cultured and refined, or weaponized, to increase their ability to kill.

The Center for Disease Control classifies the most threatening from the groups as smallpox, anthrax, plague, botulism, tularemia, and hemorrhagic fever.

U.S. Biological Attacks after 1980

Bacteria

Religious group in Oregon spread bacteria in area salad bars to sicken potential voters.

Hundreds of people suffered food poisoning.

Anthrax

Cases were reported in Florida, Washington, DC, New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.

Public health response was disorganized.

The case is still under investigation.

WMD: Chemical & Radiological

There are four types of chemical agents: nerve agents, blood agents, choking agents, and blistering agents.

Radiological weapons are more heat resistant and last longer than chemicals.

Exposure to radiation can produce short-term burns and long-term heath problems.

Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU)

HEU is plentiful and easy to obtain.

HEU is so potent that it could be used in a dirty bomb or a nuclear device.

Terrorists could build a device with HEU without the assistance of a nuclear state.

Nuclear Terrorism

The most fearful scenario with WMDs involves a nuclear explosion.

Tel Aviv University Scholars suggest that the probability of nuclear terrorism is low.

The nuclear threat is based on the crime causation model: victim, opportunity to commit a crime, and the criminals’ desire.

Nuclear Terrorism Misconceptions

Security is never 100% effective.

The nuclear black market does not exist.

Building a nuclear bomb is a complex process.

Nuclear defense should be based on realistic, comprehensive scenarios.

We should create total intelligence pictures of terrorist groups beyond nuclear terrorism.

Total protection is not possible, but we can tip the scales in our favor.

Tourism

Terrorism does not seem to have an impact on domestic travel.

Terrorism most frequently affects international travelers.

Terrorism against tourists has a negative economic impact.

Energy

Fossil fuels present tempting targets:

They represent the power and strength of the industrialized world.

Strikes against oil refineries have an economic impact on the West.

Energy Attacks

Saudi Arabia

Al Qaeda sought to destroy production facilities; destroy transfer systems; and target individual oil workers, especially foreigners.

Pakistan and Balochista

The Bugtis resent and resist Pashtun incursion into their native land, which has led to sharp fighting and a guerrilla war.

Transportation

After the September 11 attacks, the federal government immediately budgeted $4.8 billion to protect the aviation industry.

Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore have joined to protest insurance premiums on ships traveling through the Strait of Malacca.

Critics of homeland-security policies argue that ports remain unsecured because of the costs associated with increased protection.

Theory of Suicide Terrorism

Pape (2005) believes three factors must be in place before a suicide terror campaign occurs:

Nationalistic or ethnic group must be resisting the occupation of a foreign power.

Foreign power must have democratic government whose voters will not routinely allow the slaughter and repression of the people in the occupied area.

There must be a difference in the religions of the occupying power and the people living under occupation.

Models of Suicide Attacks, Part 1

Gunaratna sees three things that all attacks have in common: secrecy, reconnaissance, and rehearsal.

The Hamas model involves a professional group that plans and executes the attack, and a support group to prepare the attacker.

For many years, researchers believed that this was the only model for suicide bombing.

Models of Suicide Attacks, Part 2

Cronin finds that different models emerged over time:

The LTTE trained suicide bombers

The PKK leadership coerced victims

The bombings in Chechnya represent a different combination of social and psychological factors.

Women and Terrorism, Part 1

Female terrorists are not new to the history of terrorism:

18th century France

19th century Russia

20th century U.S.

Rebels in Ireland

Western revolutionary groups

Women are actively recruited by religious terrorists today.

Women and Terrorism, Part 2

The role of women in terrorist groups is more closely determined by the political orientation of an organization than its tactics.

Women are more attracted to domestic terrorist organizations than international groups.

Women also have opportunities for leadership in revolutionary (domestics) groups.

International terrorists try to defend a traditional culture that limits the role of women.

Women and Terrorism, Part 3

Revolutionary groups

Ulricke Meinhof and Leila Khalid served as combatants, leaders, and served as inspiration for supporters.

Secular and religious terrorist groups

Women increasingly receive combat assignments because they are so numerous.

Overlooking Female Terrorists

Researchers do not tend to think of women as terrorists or criminals.

When they do look at females, researchers usually view women as victims.

Law enforcement officers do not tend to arrest females.

It is generally assumed that terrorism is a violent male occupation.

http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/lhb-ofp-jacques.pdf

Myths and Realities of Female Perpetrated Terrorism

Discussion Question: Prior to reading this article, what were your beliefs on women as terrorists? How did the article change your beliefs concerning women involved in terrorism?

Impact of Terrorism on Women

Women have a greater sense of vulnerability to crime, and these feelings seem to transfer to terrorism.

Israeli study:

Women seemed to be more afraid of terrorism than men, because women experienced terrorism more vicariously.

Women were more likely to suffer from posttraumatic stress and seek assistance following terrorist attacks.

Women approached the fear of terrorism with problem-solving strategies.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 1

The tactics of terrorism are straightforward and simple, but they are employed in innovative ways.

The study of terrorism is complex as a result of tactical innovation.

Force multipliers—technology, transnational support, religion, and the media—enhance the power of terrorist groups.

Chapter Take Aways, Part 2

It is important to understand the tactical impact of gender on terrorism, but research on the roles of women has been neglected.

Technological attacks can be made more effective by using WMD, cyber-attacks, or economic targeting.

Suicide bombing has become a particularly terrorizing tactic, but there is no single explanation for either understanding or preventing it.

Terrorism and Homeland Security, 9e

CHAPTER 6 Jonathan R. White

Learning Objectives, Part 1

Explain the nature and characteristics of nationalistic and ethnic separatist terrorism.

Describe the emergence of the modern IRA and terrorism in Northern Ireland.

Outline the basis for negotiating peace in Northern Ireland.

Learning Objectives, Part 2

Summarize the nature of Basque culture and its separateness from Spain.

Explain the impact of the Spanish Civil War on the Basque region.

Summarize the birth and evolution of the ETA.

Explain the rise of the GAL.

Learning Objectives, Part 3

Outline the Spanish government’s approach to Basque separatism.

Describe the rise of the LTTE and the role of the Tamil Diaspora.

Summarize the unique aspect of LTTE suicide bombings.

Describe the end of the LTTE and the danger of possible reconstitution.

Ethnic and Nationalist Terrorism

Ethnic terrorists are usually more nationalistic than religious terrorists.

Ethnic terrorists try to forge national identity; they appeal to the nationalistic background of a particular ethnic group.

Peaceful negotiated settlements have proved to be the most effective method for ending ethnic and nationalistic terrorism.

Ethnic and Nationalist Separatism

Ireland

Incorporated terrorist techniques into their revolt against British rule

Basque region of Spain

The Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) is Europe’s longest surviving ethnic conflict

Island of Sri Lanka

Tensions between the Sinhalese and Tamils

IRA and the Modern “Troubles”

The movement was aimed at achieving adequate housing and education among Ulster’s Catholic population in an attempt to improve economic growth.

The IRA had not been dormant throughout the civil rights movement, but it had failed to play a major role.

Turmoil in Belfast and Londonderry was halted by the British army acting as peacekeepers.

The Army and Overreaction

Early policies of the British army played an important role in the rebirth of the IRA.

The British army had little or no appreciation of the historical circumstances behind the conflict.

The British army mistakenly allied itself with one of the extremist positions.

The policies of the British army had done much to set hostile forces in motion.

Unionist Terrorism

Unionist organizations have a long history of terrorism; they represent the Unionist and Loyalist side of terrorism.

Historically, it has appeared in three forms:

Repression

Vengeance

Revolutionary violence for political change

Negotiating with Terrorists

Belfast Agreement

Independent human rights investigations, compensation for the victims of violence, and decommissioning of paramilitary groups

Independent Monitoring Commission

Police Service of Northern Ireland

Rational Political Goals and Negotiated Settlements

Terrorism in Northern Ireland no longer grabs attention as it did in the past.

The major campaigns are over and the groups have disbanded.

The situation remains volatile.

Unionist and Republican activists carried out 124 attacks against each other in 2009.

Two British soldiers were killed.

Articles:

Seven people face terrorism charges

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/may/19/colin -duffy-relative-court-terrorism

Loyalist leader jailed

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/may/18/northern-ireland -republican-terror-charges

The curse of the conflict junkies

http://www.economist.com/node/17631051

Discussion Questions:

Do you think the IRA would cease to exist if its goal was achieved? Or has it become so much of a “natio

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READING ASSIGNMENT #2 (CHAPTER 4: Terrorism and the Media); Chapter 5 Force Multipliers, Gender Roles, and Tactics & Chapter 6 Long-Term Separatist Terrorism Assignmen

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