June 14, 2022

After reviewing all of the motivational theories of this chapter, select the one you believe to be the most accurate in describing human behavior. Justify your sele

1. After reviewing all of the motivational theories of this chapter, select the one you believe to be the most accurate in describing human behavior. Justify your selection and describe how the motivational theory would explain the actions you have taken in your own life.

This is to be in narrative form. Bullet points should not to be used. The paper should be at least 2 pages in length, Times New Roman 12-pt font, double-spaced, 1 inch margins and utilizing at least one outside scholarly or professional source related to organizational behavior. This does not mean blogs or websites. This source should be a published article in a scholarly journal. This source should provide substance and not just be mentioned briefly to fulfill this criteria. The textbook should also be utilized. Do not use quotes. Do not insert excess line spacing. APA formatting and citation should be used.

Chapter7.MotivationConcepts.pptx

Essentials of Organizational Behavior

Fifteenth Edition

Chapter 7

Motivation Concepts

Learning Objectives

7.1 Describe the three key elements of motivation.

7.2 Compare the early theories of motivation.

7.3 Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and goal-setting theory.

7.4 Demonstrate the differences among self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory, and expectancy theory.

7.5 Describe the forms of organizational justice, including distributive justice, procedural justice, informational justice, and interactional justice.

7.6 Identify the implications of employee job engagement for managers.

7.7 Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation complement one another.

Motivation Learning Objective 7.1

Motivation: the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal

Intensity: the amount of effort put forth to meet the goal

Direction: efforts are channeled toward organizational goals

Persistence: how long the effort is maintained

It is easy to see that some individuals are more motivated than others. However, the reasons for that motivation are more difficult to determine. When defining motivation, it is important to look at the interaction between the individual and the situation. There are three key elements that help us define motivation. The first is intensity, or how hard the person tries to accomplish the task. The second is direction, or the effort that is channeled toward organizational goals. The final element is persistence, or how long a person can maintain the effort.

Early Theories of Motivation Learning Objective 7.2

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

McClelland’s Theory of Needs (Three Needs Theory)

Three theories of employee motivation formulated during the 1950s are probably the best known theories of motivation that provide a better understanding of the concept. While not entirely valid anymore, they are still used by many managers and provide a foundation for understanding motivation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Exhibit 7-1)

The Hierarchy of Needs Theory was developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. His theory states that with every individual there is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is met or satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. His theory posits that individuals are stuck in their existing need level until it is satisfied, and then they can move on to the next level. For example, until their safety needs are met they will not be able to move on to the social level. The organization of these need levels may vary across cultures.

Long Description:

The hierarchy from bottom-up is as follows:

Physiological

Safety and security

Social-belongingness

Esteem

Self-actualization.

Contrasting Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction (Exhibit 7-2)

Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is another one of the earlier developed theories. This theory sets forth that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites, but two separate ideas. The opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no satisfaction.”

There is a set of factors that when present will help to avoid dissatisfaction in workers. The elements of this group are called hygiene factors and include such things as salary, working conditions, and company policies. There is another set of factors that will help to cause satisfaction in workers. The elements of this group are called motivators and include things such as growth, responsibility, and achievement. These sets are distinct, and the presence of hygiene factors does not cause satisfaction; it just helps avoid dissatisfaction.

Long Description:

The details are as below:

In traditional view, the scale has two levels: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The end with satisfaction is shaded lightly and the scale grows darker as it reaches dissatisfaction.

In Herzberg’s view there are two scales each for motivators and hygiene factors.

For motivators, the scale has two levels: Satisfaction and no satisfaction. The end with satisfaction is shaded darker and the scale grows lighter as it reaches no satisfaction.

For hygiene factors, the scale has two levels: No dissatisfaction and dissatisfaction. The end with no dissatisfaction is shaded lightly and the scale grows darker as it reaches dissatisfaction.

McClelland's Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement (nAch)

The drive to excel

Need for Power (nPow)

The need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

The final earlier theory of needs we will look at is McClelland’s need theory. He bases his theory on the idea that people are motivated in the workplace by three main needs. The first need is the need for achievement or the drive to excel in relation to a set of defined standards. The second is the need for power, to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The final need addressed in this theory is the need for affiliation. Affiliation looks at the relationship aspect and the desire for close relationships. People will have varying levels of these needs, which makes this theory difficult to measure.

McClelland's High Achievers

High achievers prefer jobs with:

Personal responsibility

Feedback

Intermediate degree of risk (50/50)

The need that has received the most attention by researchers is the need for achievement. Achievers will carefully measure the odds and try to take on activities that are challenging, but not too high risk. They tend to be motivated in jobs that are more individualistic in nature and provide regular and effective feedback.

The degree to which we have each of these needs is difficult to measure and the theory is difficult to put into practice.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Learning Objective 7.3

Self-Determination Theory

Goal-Setting Theory

There are a number of contemporary theories of motivation that have a reasonable degree of evidence supporting them. They represent the latest thinking in explaining employee motivation.

Self-determination theory and goal setting theory are two.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory: a meta-theory concerned with autonomy, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and the satisfaction of psychological work needs

Cognitive evaluation theory (CET)

Self-concordance

Basic psychological needs

The self-determination theory is a meta-theory concerned with autonomy, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and the satisfaction of psychological work needs. People prefer to have control over their actions. So, anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will diminish their motivation.

Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) sets forth that in the workplace intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent of one another. In fact, the presence of extrinsic rewards may decrease the intrinsic rewards. The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work (pay) that was previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall.

Self-concordance considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. Across cultures, if individuals pursue goals because of intrinsic interest, they are more likely to attain goals, are happier when they do, and are happy even when they do not.

Self-determination theory also suggests that there are several basic psychological needs that affect work motivation. When they are satisfied, we tend to be more motivated; when they are frustrated, we tend to be less motivated. The need for autonomy and need for competence are two newer needs.

Goal-Setting Theory

Goals increase performance when goals are:

Specific

Difficult, but accepted by employees

Accompanied by feedback

Contingencies in goal-setting theory

Goal commitment: public goals better

Task characteristics: simple and familiar is better

National culture: more research is needed

The idea behind goal setting theory is that goals that are specific and effectively difficult can lead to higher performance if they include feedback. A difficult goal will help the individual to focus and direct attention as well as energize them to work harder. The difficulty of the goal will increase persistence and force people to be more effective and efficient.

The relationship between goals and performance depends on how committed the individual is to the goal as well as how specific the tasks are. Most of the research has been done in the United States so the applicability of this theory to other cultures is suspect.

Goal-setting theory assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined not to abandon it. Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex, and when the tasks are independent rather than interdependent. In collectivistic and high power-distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be more motivating than difficult ones. Assigned goals appear to generate greater goal commitment in high than in low power distance cultures. More research is needed across cultures.

Individual and Promotion Foci

Two categories:

Promotion focus: striving for goals through advancement

Prevention focus: striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations and avoiding conditions that pull them away from goals

People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and behaviors during goal pursuit. Those with a promotion focus strive for goals through advancement and approach situations that move them closer to their goals. Those with a prevention focus avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.

Management by Objectives

Management by objectives (MBO): converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for work units and individuals

Common ingredients:

Goal specificity

Explicit time period

Performance feedback

Participation in decision making

An implementation of the goal-setting theory is Management by Objectives, better known as MBO. MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting theory in which goals are set jointly by managers and employees. The goals must be tangible, verifiable, and measurable in order to be effective. The manager helps to break down the organizational goals into smaller, more specific goals for the employee. In order for MBO to be effective, the goals must be specific, the employees must participate in the goal setting, there must be a defined time period, and feedback must be incorporated into the process.

Cascading of Objectives (Exhibit 7-3)

This exhibit shows the organization’s overall objectives translated into specific objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, individual).

Long Description:

The levels are explained as below:

Overall organizational objectives for the whole company.

Divisional objectives for separate consumer products and industrial products divisions.

Departmental objectives for the consumer products division’s production, sales, and consumer service departments, and the industrial products division’s marketing, research, and development departments.

Individual objectives for employees in each department.

Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation Learning Objective 7.4

Self-Efficacy Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Expectancy Theory

Additional contemporary theories of motivation that reveal different aspects of our motivational tendencies include self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory, and expectancy theory.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Self-efficacy theory: an individual’s belief of being capable of performing a task

Self-efficacy is increased by:

Enactive mastery: gain experience

Vicarious modeling: see someone else do the task

Verbal persuasion: someone convinces you that you have the skills

Arousal: get energized

Self-efficacy theory is based on an individual’s belief of being capable of performing a task. There are four ways to increase self-efficacy. Managers can give employees relevant experiences (enactive mastery). They may let them observe others performing the task (vicarious modeling). Mangers can reassure employees that they can do it (verbal persuasion). The Pygmalion effect can be used there. And managers can get employees energized (arousal). This theory is a complement to the goal-setting theory. Higher efficacy is related to greater confidence, greater persistence in the face of difficulties, and responding to negative feedback by working harder, not shutting down.

Joint Effects of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance (Exhibit 7-4)

Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory don’t compete; they complement each other. As this exhibit shows, employees whose managers set difficult goals for them will have a higher level of self-efficacy and set higher goals for their own performance. Why? Setting difficult goals for people communicates your confidence in them.

Long Description:

The sequence is as below:

Manager sets difficult, specific goal for job or task.

Individual has confidence that given level of performance will be attained (self-efficacy), or individual sets higher personal (self-set) goal for his or her performance.

Individual has higher level of job or task performance.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of consequences

Operant conditioning/Behaviorism

Social-learning theory

In contrast to goal setting, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a function of consequences. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the chances it will be repeated. The most relevant component of reinforcement theory is operant conditioning theory, which argues that people learn to behave a certain way to either get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. This is part of Skinner’s concept of behaviorism.

The view that we can learn by observing and direct experience is called social-learning theory.

Expectancy Theory

Three key relationships:

Effort-performance: perceived probability that exerting effort leads to successful performance

Performance-reward: the belief that successful performance leads to a desired outcome

Rewards-personal goals: the attractiveness of organizational outcome (reward) to the individual

One of the most commonly used and widely accepted theories of motivation is Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory. This theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way is dependent on the strength of the expectation that they will receive a given outcome and that the outcome is desired.

The theory focuses on three relationships. Expectancy is the effort-performance reflecting the perceived probability that exerting effort leads to successful performance. Instrumentality is the performance-reward reflecting the belief that successful performance leads to a desired outcome. And valence is the rewards-personal goals reflecting the attractiveness of organizational outcome (reward) to the individual.

Employees are willing to work harder if they believe that their actions will get them an outcome they desire. For example, employees are willing to work long and hard hours if they know that they will be rewarded through promotion, recognition, or pay in response to their hard work.

Expectancy Theory (Exhibit 7-5)

Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t motivated on their jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by.

Questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized:

If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?

If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?

If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?

Long Description:

The sequence is as follows: Individual effort, individual performance, organizational rewards, and personal goals.

The following relationships are listed along with the diagram:

Effort and performance relationship

Performance and reward relationship

Rewards and personal goals relationship.

Equity Theory (Exhibit 7-6) Learning Objective 7.5

According to Adam’s equity theory employees compare their ratios of outcomes to inputs to those of others they see as relevant. When they see the ratios as equal, there is a perceived state of equity and no tension arises. However, when they perceive the ratios to be unequal, they may experience anger or guilt depending on the result of the equity analysis, and then tension can arise. This tension can motivate people to act in a way that brings the situation into a more equitable state.

Long Description:

The details are below:

If the ratio of outcomes to inputs of employee is less than the ratio of outcomes to inputs of relevant others, the perception is inequity due to being underrewarded.

If the ratio of outcomes to inputs of employee is equal to the ratio of outcomes to inputs of relevant others, the perception is equity.

If the ratio of outcomes to inputs of employee is greater than the ratio of outcomes to inputs of relevant others, the perception is inequity due to being overrewarded.

Equity Theory

Employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices:

Change inputs

Change outcomes

Distort perceptions of self

Distort perceptions of others

Choose a different referent

Leave the field

According to equity theory, employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices:

Change inputs

Change outcomes

Distort perceptions of self

Distort perceptions of others

Choose a different referent

Leave the field

Some of these propositions have been supported, but others haven’t. First, inequities created by overpayment do not seem to significantly affect behavior in most work situations. Second, not everyone is equity-sensitive.

Equity theory has, however, served as a precursor to the study of fairness in the workplace (known as organizational justice).

Model of Organizational Justice (Exhibit 7-7)

Increasingly, we think of equity as organizational justice, a larger perception of what is fair in the workplace. Employees perceive their organizations as just when they see that what they receive matches what they have put in.

One key element of organizational justice is distributive justice. Employees tend to perceive their outcomes are fairest when they are distributed equitably. Procedural justice examines the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

Beyond outcomes and procedures, research shows that employees care about two other forms of fairness that have to do with the way they are treated during interactions with others.

The first type is informational justice, which reflects whether managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important organizational matters.

The second type is interpersonal justice, which reflects whether employees are treated with dignity and respect.

These three components make up an individual’s view of justice within the organization.

Long Description:

The details are as below:

Organizational Justice: Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.

Example: I think this is a fair place to work.

Distributive Justice: Perceived fairness of outcome.

Example: I got the pay raise I deserved.

Procedural Justice: Perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome.

Example: I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did.

Interactional Justice: Sensitivity to the quality of interpersonal treatment.

Example: When telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary.

Interactional Justice

Informational justice: the degree to which employees are provided with truthful explanations for decisions

Interpersonal justice: the degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect

Justice outcomes

Higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors

Employees care about two other types of fairness related to their interactions with others: informational justice and interpersonal justice. Informational justice is the degree to which employees are provided with truthful explanations for decisions.

Interpersonal justice is the degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect.

All the types of justice have been linked to higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors.

Research is also beginning to suggest that third-party, or observer, reactions to injustice can have a substantial effect.

Across nations, the same basic principles of procedural justice are respected. However, inputs and outcomes are valued differently in various cultures.

Job Engagement Learning Objective 7.6

Job Engagement: the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance

Organizations where employees are highly engaged have higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors.

Research shows that highly successful organizations tend to have more engaged employees than average organizations. Highly engaged employees believe it is meaningful to work, are inspired by their leaders, and have similar values to those of the organization.

Organizations where employees are highly engaged have higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors.

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation (Exhibit 7-8) Learning Objective 7.7

This exhibit integrates much of what we know about motivation.

Long Description:

In the diagram, a sequential flow is displayed as follows: Individual effort, individual performance, organizational rewards, and personal goals.

The various forces acting upon the sequential flow are detailed below:

Opportunity acts on individual effort.

Ability along with objective performance evaluation system act upon the link that connects individual effort and performance.

Reinforcement acts on both individual performance and organizational rewards.

Performance evaluation criteria acts upon the link that connects individual performance and organizational rewards.

The organizational rewards also act upon reinforcement. Another interconnection between organizational rewards and Equity comparison or organizational justice is also visible. A ratio where the outcomes to inputs of employee is equal to the ratio of outcomes to inputs of relevant others is also given.

Dominant needs act upon organizational rewards and personal goals.

The personal goals are also interconnected to goals direct behavior which is in turn connected to individual effort at the beginning of the sequence.

Connections between individual effort and personal goals are also shown via the forces of job design and high need for achievement.

Implications for Managers (1 of 2)

Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as coercive but instead provide information about competence and relatedness.

Either set or inspire your employees to set specific, difficult goals and provide quality, developmental feedback on their progress toward those goals.

Try to align or tie employee goals to the goals of your organization.

Model the types of behaviors you would like to see performed by your employees.

Implications for Managers (2 of 2)

Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.

When making decisions regarding resources in your organization, make sure to consider how the resources are being distributed (and who is affected), the fairness of the decision, and whether your actions demonstrate that you respect those involved.

Try to foster conditions that help improve job engagement and harness your employees’ traits to facilitate job engagement.

Discussion Questions

Using goal-setting theory, discuss the problem with a manager telling an employee to “do your best.” What is a more effective approach?

How can expectancy theory be applied to students in the classroom?

Discuss the implications of culture on justice.

Discuss the implication of racial inequality in organizations as it applies to research that is beginning to suggest that third-party, or observer, reactions to injustice can have a substantial effect.

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After reviewing all of the motivational theories of this chapter, select the one you believe to be the most accurate in describing human behavior. Justify your sele

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