FROM THE MOVIE? AMERICAN FACTORY? DISCUSS WHAT YOU NOTICED ABOUT THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE OF THE FUYAO GLASS COMPANY? PLEASE REFER THE THE TEXTBOOK AND LECTU
FROM THE MOVIE
AMERICAN FACTORY
DISCUSS WHAT YOU NOTICED ABOUT THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE OF THE FUYAO GLASS COMPANY
PLEASE REFER THE THE TEXTBOOK AND LECTURES
Culture and Change
Steven H Kim
Culture
“way things are done around here”
“attitudes and behaviors”
NORMS
Culture REINFORCES beliefs (over time)
Underlying CONVICTIONS and VALUES
NOT NECESSARILY the STATED VALUES
CUES or CLIMATE (“how one should behave”)
6 Ways in which Cultures EVOLVE
GENERAL evolution
SPECIFIC evolution
GUIDED evolution
PLANNED or MANAGED culture change
PARTIAL or TOTAL cultural destruction
Why Culture Change
COPE, SURVIVE, ADAPT, FIT
Should not be ‘EVERYTHING IS BAD’ mentality
Build on STRENGTHS
NEED FOR CHANGE HIGHLIGHTED thru…
SENIOR MANAGER
DECREE – “we need culture change”
RECOGNITION
That the existing culture is HINDERING CHANGE
DESIGNED CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Is present culture ALIGNED to change effort
Assessments , Frameworks, Profiles
Thoughts on ASSESSMENT EFFORTS
SCAN THE ENVIRONMENT : S. W. O . T
Deep embedded ATTTITUDES and BEHAVIORS surface when you try to change
Deeper core issues: ORGANIZATIONAL IDENTITY , VALUES, BELIEFS
Reinforced
Rituals
Ceremonies
Symbols
Traditions
SOCIAL COHESION reinforces culture
Heros
Stories
Harrison & Handy
Saw that you can categorize organizations by
CENTRALIZED or DISTRIBUTED control
FORMAL or INFORMAL
4 categories
TASK
ROLE
PERSON
POWER
Power
High Formalization
Low Centralization
POWER IN THE HANDS OF A FEW
QUICK DECISIONS
LOW BUREAUCRACY
CAN BECOME TOXIC
ENTREPRENEURIAL BUSINESS (SMALL)
ROLE
High Formalization
High Centralization
MANY RULES
HIGHLY CONTROLED
EVERYONE KNOWS THEIR “ROLE” OR “PLACE”
LONG CHAIN OF COMMAND
SLOW DECISIONS
RISK ADVERSE
BUREACRATIC
BIG BUSINESS, ORGs, COMPANIES, FOUNDATIONS, HOSPITALS
TASK
Low Formalization
High Centralization
Teams for problem solving , PROJECTS
TASK IS MOST IMPORTANT
Team dependent
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
PERSON
LOW CENTRALIZATION
LOW FORMALIZATION
Individuals
Feel superior, unique
Can be COLLECTION of INDIVIDUALS working for ORG.
Academic Professionals, firms with PROFESSIONALS (i.e. accountants, lawyers, REAL ESTATE FIRM)
Cameron & Quinn (2011): “COMPETING VALUES FRAMEWORK”
First DIMENSION
INTERNAL ORIENTATION
EXTERNAL ORIENTATION
Second DIMENSION
STABILITY
FLEXIBILITY
4 CATEGORIES
CLAN
HIERARCHY
ADHOCRACY
MARKET
CLAN
INTERNAL
FLEXIBLE
PIXAR
JAPANESE companies
HIERARCHY
INTERNAL
STABLE
Government
McDonald’s
ADHOCRACY
EXTERNAL
FLEXIBLE
MARKET
EXTERNAL
STABLE
XEROX
Cameron and Quinn
Tensions created by DIMENSIONS
Do we stay
Outward or Inward
Controlling or flexible
MANY ORGANIZATIONS have ELEMENTS of each DIMENSIONS
Frameworks and Profiles
POSITIVE
Make sense of organization
If undergoing assessment, it means they are SERIOUS ABOUT CHANGE
Increase SELF AWARENESS
NEGATIVE
Some believe CULTURE CANNOT BE MEASURED (Schein)
Can be SURFACE LEVEL
Can lead to LABELING
Values
Values : Key to Understanding Culture
Beliefs, values, ideals SHARED BY MEMBERS
Influences BEHAVIOR and ATTITUDES
Its their COMPASS especially during DIFFICULT TIMES
Schein states:
Values ORGINATED W FOUNDER and SENIOR LEADERS
STRUCTURED THE ORGANIZATION
BEHAVIORS FOLLOWED
SUCCESS REINFORCED VALUES
BOURNES & JENKINS (2013) : 4 Value Types
ESPOUSED
What senior leader STATES
ATTRIBUTED
How people DESCRIBE those values
SHARED
Shared values of SMALLER UNITS
ASPIRATIONAL
In an IDEAL WORLD what everyone would embody
Core values are not necessarily Espoused
Do Personal Values have to MATCH Org. Values ?
IF ORG – INDIVIDUAL values FIT
Increase COMMITMENT
JOB SATISFACTION
Look for BEST FIT
MISFIT can cause EMOTIONAL LABOR
LOOKED GOOD ON PAPER (ESPOUSED VALUES)
BUT NOT IN PRACTICE (CORE “REAL” VALUES)
Facilitating Culture Change
McKinsey 7s model
https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/515451119841650208/
McKinsey
DIANOSE
current INTERNAL STATE
ARTICULATE
desired FUTURE STATE
START
process for change
Johnson & Scholes (1999)
Cultural WEB – interconnected elements
Stories
Symbols
Power structures
Organization structure
Control systems
Ritual and routines
CENTER – PARADIGM: underlying ASSUMPTIONS = CULTURE
WHAT THE ORG. IS ALL ABOUT
CORE VALUES
CULTURAL WEB https://www.businessgrowthhub.com/blogs/2017/03/cultural-differences-the-importance-of-cultural-management-to-business-performance
Edgar Schein’s model of Organizational Culture
Role of Leaders
How Leaders can STIMULATE / REINFORCE CULTURE CHANGE
2006
Higgs
60 % of business performance attributed to CULTURE
80 % of CULTURE can be attributed to LEADER (behavior , attitude)
2014
UK poll
Only 1/3 of staff see their “managers” or leaders as ROLE MODELS
Primary
PAY ATTENTION controls, measures
REACTION to crisis
RESOURCE allocation
ROLE – MODELING values
TEACHING, COACHING
RECRUITMENT, PROMOTION, EXCOMMUNICATION
Secondary ( ineffective if no primary )
ORG STRUCTURE
ORG SYSTEMS and PROCEDURES
RITES / RITUALS
DESIGN (space, building)
STORIES
FORMAL STATEMENTS (creeds, charters, policies)
Gladwell (2000) TIPPING POINT 80/20 PRINCIPLE
Connectors
Mavens (info specialists)
Salesperson
HERRERO (2008): VIRAL CHANGE Behavior change leads to culture change
Uncover and articulate
SMALL SET OF NON NEGOTIABLE BEHAVIORS
IDENTIFY and REACH OUT
Well connected, influential employees
ON GOING
coaching and support to key employees
TRACK CHANGE
Tell “success” stories
Keys
STORYTELLING
Purposeful, organic
NUDGE
Subtle changes
Architecture
Meeting room
COMMUNICATION
People learn best from each other
Social media
Know the difference AUTHORITY vs INFLUENCE
,
Praise for the previous editions of Making Sense of Change Management
‘I commend it highly. It has a good coverage of relevant theoretical work while at the same time giving plenty of practical examples. It is written in an accessible style that engages the reader and it is full of useful ideas without being overly prescriptive or formulaic.’ Philip Sadler, author of a number of acclaimed business titles and former chief executive of Ashridge Business School
‘I really enjoyed this book. I like the straightforward approach, the inclusion of the author’s opinion and the insight provided by the case studies. This book will be very useful for those business managers in my organization who need to prepare themselves for tackling major organizational change.’ Andy Houghton, Managing Director of YSC and former Head of Organization Development, Retail Direct, Royal Bank of Scotland Group
‘There has long been a need for a readable, practical but theoretically under-pinned book on Change which recognized a multiplicity of perspectives. By combining the behavioural, humanistic, organizational and cognitive perspectives and by helping the reader make sense of what each perspective brings to understanding Change, this book should help students and practitioners. By linking in work on personality tests such as MBTI™ the book breaks new ground from a practitioner point of view not least because these tests are widely used in practice. I thoroughly recommend it.’ Professor Colin Carnall, Chief Executive, Executive Education, Cass Business School
‘If you’re interested in successfully managing and leading change, then read this book! It not only covers change from both the individual and organizational perspective, but also increases the number of options available to you.’ Judi Billing, former Director of IDeA Leadership Academy, Improvement and Development Agency
‘Change is a huge thing wherever you work. The key is to make change happen, and make it happen well – with everyone on side, and everyone happy. This book
i
provides an extremely stimulating and accessible guide to doing just that. There are a few people at the Beeb who could do with this. I’ll definitely be placing copies on a couple of desks at White City.’ Nicky Campbell, Presenter Radio Five Live and BBC1’s The Big Questions
‘This book is a great resource for managers thrown into the midst of change, who need to gain understanding of what happens when you try to make significant changes in a business, and how best to manage people through it. The authors have tackled a complex topic in a lively and engaging way, leading readers through the maze of theory available and offering just the right amount of practical advice.’ Andy Newall, Group HR Director United Biscuits and former Organizational Effectiveness Director, Allied Domecq plc
‘This impressive book on change is an essential read for any professional manager who is serious about getting to grips with the important issues of making change happen.’ Dr Jeff Watkins, former MSc Course Director, Management Research Centre, University of Bristol
‘This practical handbook, combining contemporary management theory with very practical suggestions, is an indispensable tool for any manager involved in change processes. And aren’t we all …’ Adriaan Vollebergh, Director, Tata Steel Europe
‘This is a book which lives up to its title. By combining a guide to the ideas of key thinkers on change and useful tips for making change happen, it really does provide a toolkit to help us to make sense of change. It is useful to see a focus on the individual, team and organizational levels, and in particular, on the role of the leader in the change process. It is written in a way that makes the book interesting to read both at length as well as to dip into.’ Dr Richard McBain, Head of Postgraduate Post Experience Programmes, Henley Business School
ii
MAKING SENSE OF CHANGE
MANAGEMENT
iii
iv
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
MAKING SENSE OF CHANGE
MANAGEMENT A complete guide to the models, tools
and techniques of organizational change
3rd edition
Esther Cameron and Mike Green
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
v
Publisher ’s note Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book is accurate at the time of going to press, and the publishers and authors cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining from action, as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or either of the authors.
First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2004 by Kogan Page Limited Second edition 2009 Third edition 2012
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be repro- duced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licences issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned addresses:
120 Pentonville Road London N1 9JN United Kingdom www.koganpage.com
1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100 Philadelphia PA 19102 USA
4737/23 Ansari Road Daryaganj New Delhi 110002 India
© Esther Cameron and Mike Green, 2004, 2009, 2012
The right of Esther Cameron and Mike Green to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
ISBN 978 0 7494 6435 6 E-ISBN 978 0 7494 6436 3
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cameron, Esther. Making sense of change management : a complete guide to the models, tools, and techniques of organizational change / Esther Cameron, Mike Green. – 3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7494-6435-6 – ISBN 978-0-7494-6436-3 1. Organizational change–Management. 2. Teams in the workplace–Management. 3. Reengineering (Management) 4. Information technology–Management. I. Green, Mike, 1959- II. Title. HD58.8.C317 2012 658.4’06–dc23 2011048827
Typeset by Graphicraft Ltd, Hong Kong Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd
vi
Contents
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1 Who this book is aimed at 2; The basic content of the book 3; Why explore different approaches to change? 4; Overview of structure 6; Message to readers 9
PART ONE: THE UNDERPINNING THEORY 11
1 Individual change 14 Introduction 14; Learning and the process of change 16; The behavioural approach to change 22; The cognitive approach to change 28; The psychodynamic approach to change 36; The humanistic psychology approach to change 45; Personality and change 56; Managing change in self and others 58; Summary and conclusions 66
Contents Contents vii Acknowledgements xi WHO THIS BOOK IS AIMED AT 2 THE BASIC CONTENT OF THE BOOK 3 WHY EXPLORE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CHANGE? 4 OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE 6 MESSAGE TO READERS 9 The underpinning theory 11 INTRODUCTION 14 LEARNING AND THE PROCESS OF CHANGE 16 THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH TO CHANGE 22 THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CHANGE 28 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO CHANGE 36 T H E H U M A N I S T I C P S Y C H O L O G Y A P P R O A C H TO CHANGE 45 PERSONALITY AND CHANGE 56 MANAGING CHANGE IN SELF AND OTHERS 58 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 66 Team change 69 INTRODUCTION 69 WHAT IS A GROUP AND WHEN IS IT A TEAM? 70 WHY WE NEED TEAMS 72 THE TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL TEAMS 73 HOW TO IMPROVE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS 82 WHAT TEAM CHANGE LOOKS LIKE 85 THE LEADERSHIP ISSUES IN TEAM CHANGE 91 HOW INDIVIDUALS AFFECT TEAM DYNAMICS 95 HOW WELL TEAMS INITIATE AND ADAPT TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 101 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 105 Organizational change 107 HOW ORGANIZATIONS REALLY WORK 108 M O D E L S O F A N D A P P R O A C H E S T O ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 119 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 147 Leading change 151 INTRODUCTION 151 VISIONARY LEADERSHIP 156 ROLES THAT LEADERS PLAY 166 LEADERSHIP STYLES, QUALITIES AND SKILLS 174 D I F F E R E N T L E A D E R S H I P F O R D I F F E R E N T PHASES OF CHANGE 184 T H E I M P O R T A N C E O F S E L F – K N O W L E D G E A N D INNER RESOURCES 192 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 197 The change agent 201 INTRODUCTION 201 MODELS OF CHANGE AGENCY 202 THE CONSULTING PROCESS 205 CHANGE AGENT TOOLS AND FRAMEWORKS 215 COMPETENCIES OF THE CHANGE AGENT 226 DEEPER ASPECTS OF BEING A CHANGE AGENT 233 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 252 The applications 255 STRATEGIC CHANGE PROCESS 256 OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE 258 Restructuring 261 REASONS FOR RESTRUCTURING 263 THE RESTRUCTURING PROCESS 264 R E S T R U C T U R I N G F R O M A N I N D I V I D U A L C H A N G E P E R S P E C T I V E : THE SPECIAL CASE OF REDUNDANCY 285 E N A B L I N G T E A M S T O A D D R E S S ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 290 CONCLUSION 296 Mergers and acquisitions 297 T H E P U R P O S E O F M E R G E R AND ACQUISITION ACTIVITY 298 LESSONS FROM RESEARCH INTO SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS 304 A P P L Y I N G T H E C H A N G E T H E O R Y : GUIDELINES FOR LEADERS 319 SUMMARY 332 G U I D E L I N E S F O R A C H I E V I N G S U C C E S S F U L CULTURAL CHANGE 338 CASE STUDY ONE: ALIGNING THE ORGANIZATION 341 CASE STUDY TWO: REBRANDING THE ORGANIZATION 348 CASE STUDY THREE: CREATING AN EMPLOYER BRAND 356 STRATEGY AND IT 365 THE ROLE OF IT MANAGEMENT 369 THE NEED FOR IT CHANGE MANAGERS 373 ACHIEVING PROCESS CHANGE 378 CHANGING THE INFORMATION CULTURE 385 NEW RULES FOR A NEW AGE 388 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 389 Emerging inquiries 391 Complex change 393 INTRODUCTION 393 WHEN IS CHANGE COMPLEX? 394 U N D E R S T A N D I N G H O W C O M P L E X I T Y S C I E N C E APPLIES TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 395 TOOLS THAT SUPPORT COMPLEX CHANGE 405 THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN COMPLEX CHANGE 411 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 414 INTRODUCTION 416 T H E I M P A C T O F U N C E R T A I N T Y O N OUR WORKING LIVES 418 DECISION MAKING IN AN UNCERTAIN WORLD 430 S K I L L S A N D T O O L S T O S U P P O R T L E A D I N G CHANGE THROUGH UNCERTAINTY 442 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 452 Conclusion 455 H O W T O G E T I N T O U C H W I T H T H E A U T H O R S OF THIS BOOK 456 References 457 Index 471
vii
Contents ___________________________________________________________________
viii
2 Team change 69 Introduction 69; What is a group and when is it a team? 70; Why we need teams 72; The types of organizational teams 73; How to improve team effectiveness 82; What team change looks like 85; The leadership issues in team change 91; How individuals affect team dynamics 95; How well teams initiate and adapt to organizational change 101; Summary and conclusions 105
3 Organizational change 107 How organizations really work 108; Models of and approaches to organizational change 119; Summary and conclusions 147
4 Leading change 151 Introduction 151; Visionary leadership 156; Roles that leaders play 166; Leadership styles, qualities and skills 174; Different leadership for different phases of change 184; The importance of self-knowledge and inner resources 192; Summary and conclusions 197
5 The change agent 201 Introduction 201; Models of change agency 202; The consulting process 205; Change agent tools and frameworks 215; Competencies of the change agent 226; Deeper aspects of being a change agent 233; Summary and conclusions 252
PART TWO: THE APPLICATIONS 255
Strategic change process 256; Overview of structure 258
6 Restructuring 261 Reasons for restructuring 263; The restructuring process 264; Restructuring from an individual change perspective: the special case of redundancy 285; Enabling teams to address organizational change 290; Conclusion 296
___________________________________________________________________ Contents
ix
7 Mergers and acquisitions 297 The purpose of merger and acquisition activity 298; Lessons from research into successful and unsuccessful mergers and acquisitions 304; Applying the change theory: guidelines for leaders 319; Summary 332
8 Cultural change 334 Guidelines for achieving successful cultural change 338; Case study one: aligning the organization 341; Case study two: rebranding the organization 348; Case study three: creating an employer brand 356
9 IT-based process change 362 Strategy and IT 365; The role of IT management 369; The need for IT change managers 373; Achieving process change 378; Changing the information culture 385; New rules for a new age 388; Summary and conclusions 389
PART THREE: EMERGING INQUIRIES 391
10 Complex change 393 Introduction 393; When is change complex? 394; Understanding how complexity science applies to organizational change 395; Tools that support complex change 405; The role of leaders in complex change 411; Summary and conclusions 414
11 Leading change in uncertain times 416 Introduction 416; The impact of uncertainty on our working lives 418; New organizational forms and ways of doing business 424; New careers and the need for ‘managing oneself’ 428; Decision making in an uncertain world 430; Skills and tools to support leading change through uncertainty 442; Summary and conclusions 452
Contents ___________________________________________________________________
x
Conclusion 455 How to get in touch with the authors of this book 456
References 457 Index 471
Acknowledgements
We want to start by acknowledging the many people in organizations with whom we have worked over the years. You are all in here in some shape or form! We have worked with many generous, courageous and inspiring managers of change who we thank for the privilege of working alongside them to make real change happen. Without these experiences the book would be a dry catalogue of theory, devoid of life and character.
Then of course there are our colleagues who challenge and support us every day as we reflect on our work and make decisions about what to do next. Particular thanks go from Mike to Andy Holder, Mhairi Cameron, Philip Darley and Tim Hockridge, who probably do not know how much they are appreciated, and to Mike’s MBA and Executive Education Pro- gramme Members at Henley Business School for a never-ending supply of ideas and challenges. Esther wants to specially acknowledge Nick Mayhew for his encouragement, wisdom and sensitive feedback, particu- larly in relation to Chapter 11, Anne-Marie Saunders and Alex Clark for their humour, friendship and generosity in sharing their expertise; so many of their insights are embedded in this book. Also, thanks go to Esther’s learning set who really boosted the leadership chapter in particular.
xi
xii
Acknowledgements __________________________________________________________
Thanks too to Bill Critchley for his ideas on linking metaphor and change, which form the bedrock of the organizational change chapter.
Really special thanks go to Ailsa Cameron for her wonderful pictures, which soften the pages so beautifully.
We also want to thank from the bottom of our hearts the hard-working reviewers who squeezed the time out of their busy agendas to read draft versions of these chapters. Special thanks go to Louise Overy, Steve Summers, Duncan Cameron, Mervyn Smallwood, Peter Hyson, Richard Lacey and Richard Smith for their timely and thoughtful suggestions throughout the iterative process of writing the book.
Our families have helped too by being very patient and supportive. So love and thanks from Mike to his children Lewin, Oliver and Brigit, who make it all worthwhile. Love and thanks too from Esther to Duncan, Ailsa, Ewan and Katka amongst many others who have walked dogs and cleaned-up when I’ve had my head in my PC.
We also want to thank each other. We have learnt a lot from this rich and sometimes rocky process of writing a book together. We do not always see things the same way, and we do not work from an identical set of assumptions about change, so the book is the culmination of much healthy airing of views. Let’s hope we are still writing, talking and enjoy- ing each other’s company many years from now.
Note: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator™ and MBTI™ are registered trade- marks of Consulting Psychologists Press. Anyone interested in knowing more about Myers-Briggs should contact Consulting Psychologists Press in the United States (800-624-1765) and OPP in the UK (08708 728 727).
Introduction
I balance on a wishing well that all men call the world. We are so small between the stars, so large against the sky, and lost amongst the subway crowd I try and catch your eye.
L Cohen
This book is about making sense of change management. The world we live in continues to change at an intense rate. Not a day goes by, it seems, with- out another important discovery or boundary-pushing invention in the scientific fields. The economics of global- ization seems to dominate much of our political and corporate thinking, while the shadow side of globalization – re- fugees, exploitation, terrorism and the like – develops at an equally alarming pace.
1
Making sense of change management ___________________________________________
2
The rate of change and discovery outpaces our individual ability to keep up with it. The organizations we work in or rely on to meet our needs and wants are also changing dramatically, in terms of their strate- gies, their structures, their systems, their boundaries and of course their expectations of their staff and their managers.
WHO THIS BOOK IS AIMED AT
Making Sense of Change Management is aimed at anyone who wants to begin to understand why change happens, how change happens and what needs to be done to make change a more welcoming concept. In particular we hope that leaders and managers in organizations might appreciate a book that does not give them the one and only panacea, but offers insights into different frameworks and ways of approaching change at an individual, team and organizational level.
We are mindful of the tremendous pressures and priorities of prac- tising managers – in both the private and the public sector – and Making Sense of Change Management is our attempt at making their lives that little bit easier. It is also our attempt at convincing them that addressing the issues that cause change to be so poorly managed in organizations will lead not only to more satisfying experiences for them, but to more fulfill- ing lives for their staff.
Framework: an essential supporting structure; Model: a simplified description of a system; Tool: a thing used in an occupation or pursuit; Technique: a means of achieving one’s purpose.
Concise Oxford Dictionary
Students of learning – be they MBA or MSc programme members, or individuals who just want to do things better – will hopefully find some models, tools and techniques that bridge the gap between the purely academic and the more pragmatic aspects of management theory and
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