An extended and contemporary discussion of physical appearance and attractiveness in Chapter 2 provides a broad understanding of what constitute

1. An extended and contemporary discussion of physical appearance and attractiveness in Chapter 2 provides a broad understanding of what constitutes attractive- ness and tells how to better evaluate and make judgments of others in daily life.

2. Chapter 13 focuses on the unique relationship between teacher and student including a comprehensive section on nonverbal immediacy.

3. Extensive new content has been added, including over 100 new references and new information on the biological

aspects of nonverbal behavior, to provide a deeper understanding of how to effectively communicate.

4. A closer focus on nonver- bal communication through a global lens offers a more inclusive look at cultures around the world to help you become an educated participant in the greater global community.

5. New tables and chapter summaries provide content in small, easy-to-remember sections for better retention and understanding throughout the semester.

If you’re wondering why you should buy this new edition of Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations, here are 5 good reasons!

Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations

Seventh Edition

VIRGINIA PECK Richmond University of Alabama at Birmingham

JAMES C. McCroskey M & R Training and Consulting

Birmingham, AL

MARK L. Hickson III University of Alabama at Birmingham

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Richmond, Virginia P. Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relations / Virginia Peck Richmond,

James C. McCroskey, and Mark L. Hickson III. — 7th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-205-04230-2

1. Body language. 2. Interpersonal relations. I. McCroskey, James C. II. Hickson, Mark. III. Title. BF637.N66R53 2011 153.6�9—dc22 2010047142

Copyright © 2012, 2008, 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States. To obtain permission to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116; fax: 617-671-2290. For information regarding permissions, telephone 617-671-2295 or e-mail [email protected]

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ISBN-13: 978-0-205-04230-2

ISBN-10: 0-205-04230-9

C O N T E N T S

III

Preface xi

CHAPTER 1 Communication and Nonverbal Behavior 1

Myths About Nonverbal Communication 2

Nonverbal Versus Verbal Messages 4 The Linguistic Distinction 4

The Continuity Distinction 5

The Processing Distinction 5

The Outcome Distinction 6

The Absolute Distinction 6

Intentionality and Nonverbal Communication 6

Culture and Nonverbal Communication 8

Functions of Nonverbal Messages 9 Complementing 9

Contradicting 9

Accenting 10

Repeating 11

Regulating 11

Substituting 11

Categories of Nonverbal Messages 12 Physical Appearance 12

Gesture and Movement 12

Face and Eye Behavior 13

Vocal Behavior 13

Space 13

Touch 13

Environment 13

Time 14

Glossary of Terminology 14

CHAPTER 2 Physical Appearance 15

Attractiveness 16 Types of Attractiveness 16

What Is Attractive Today May Be Out Tomorrow 18

Image Fixation 21

Judgments Generated 23

IV Contents

Attractiveness: A Double-Edged Sword? 23

Effects of Attractiveness 24

Personal Body Concept 27

Nonverbal Messages of Body Shape and Size 29 Nonverbal Messages of Height, Weight, and Skin Color 33

Nonverbal Messages of Hair 35

Appearance and Dress 37 Why Do People Dress the Way They Do? 38

Generalizations About Dress 44

Artifacts and Accessories 46

Glossary of Terminology 47

CHAPTER 3 Gesture and Movement 49

A Theoretical Look at Gesture and Movement 52 Structural Approach to Kinesics 52

External Variable Approach to Kinesics 54

Types of Gesture and Movement 55 Emblems 55

Illustrators 56

Regulators 58

Affect Displays 60

Adaptors 60

Deception Cues 62

Posture 63 How Does Posture Communicate? 64

Communicative Potential of Posture 65

Movement and Communicator Style 66 The Dramatic Style 66

The Dominant Style 67

The Animated Style 67

The Relaxed Style 67

The Attentive Style 67

The Open Style 68

The Friendly Style 68

The Contentious Style 68

The Impression-Leaving Style 68

General Communicator Styles 69

Effects of Body Movements and Gestures 69 Communicator Style 70

Simplifying Encoding and Decoding 70

Contents V

Role of Illustrators in Decoding 70

Positive and Negative Perceptions 71

Research on Immediacy 71

Glossary of Terminology 71

CHAPTER 4 Facial Behavior 73

Importance of Facial Expressions 74

Perspectives on Acquisition and Development 74 Perspective 1: Evolution and Natural Selection 74

Perspective 2: External Factors 75

Perspective 3: Innate and Learned 76

Facial Management and Expression of Emotion 79 Styles of Facial Expressions 82

Primary Affect Displays and Communication 83

Variations of Facial Expressions 87

Glossary of Terminology 90

CHAPTER 5 Eye Behavior 91

Properties and Functions of Eye Behavior 92

Types of Eye Behaviors 94

CLEMs 96

Eye Behavior and Individual Differences 99 Nature of Relationships 100

Cultural Differences 100

Contextual Differences 101

Personality Differences 101

Gender Differences 101

Glossary of Terminology 103

CHAPTER 6 Vocal Behavior 104

Categories of Vocal Behavior 105 Voice Set 106

Voice Qualities and Vocalizations 106

Voice Printing 108

Silence and Pauses 108

Uses of Silence in Communication 110

VI Contents

Vocal Behavior and Turn-Interaction Management 110 Turn-Maintaining 110

Turn-Yielding 111

Turn-Requesting 111

Turn-Denying 112

Interruptions 112

Accent and Dialect 113

Effects of Vocal Behavior 115 Vocal Behavior and Feelings 115

Vocal Behavior and Personality 117

Vocal Behavior and Learning 119

Vocal Behavior and Persuasion 120

Vocal Behavior and Attractiveness 121

Vocal Behavior and Confidence 121

Vocal Characteristics of Good Delivery 122

Glossary of Terminology 124

CHAPTER 7 Space and Territoriality 126

Phenomenon of Territoriality 127 Categories of Territory 129

Territorial Defense and Encroachment 131

Types of Negative Encroachment 133

Encroachment Reactions 134

Factors Influencing Territorial Defense 137

Personal Space 138 Interpersonal Distance 138

Gender Differences 139

Cultural Differences 140

Age Differences 141

Personality Differences 141

Stigmas 142

Psychiatric and Deviant Groups 142

Crowding and Density 142 The Impact of High Density 144

Glossary of Terminology 145

CHAPTER 8 Environment and Physical Surroundings 147

Perceptual Characteristics of Environment 148 Perception of Formality 148

Perception of Warmth 150

Contents VII

Perception of Privacy 150

Perception of Familiarity 151

Perception of Constraint 151

Perception of Distance 152

Architecture and Environment 152

Spatial Arrangement 156 The Shapes of Tables 156

Seating Arrangement 157

Arrangement of Office Space 161

Other Environmental Factors 162 Environmental Attractiveness 162

Color in the Environment 163

Lighting in the Environment 165

Temperature and the Environment 166

Scent and Smell 167

Importance of Scents 167

Glossary of Terminology 173

CHAPTER 9 Touch and Communication 174

Life-Span Development and Touch 176 Touch in Animals 176

Human Development 177

Categories of Touch 180 Professional-Functional Touch 180

Social-Polite Touch 182

Friendship-Warmth Touch 183

Love-Intimacy Touch 183

Sexual-Arousal Touch 184

Touch Norms and Communication 184 Cultural Differences 186

Gender Differences 187

Touch Apprehension 188

What Does Touch Communicate? 190 Touch and Emotion 190

Touch and Status 190

Touch and Self-Intimacy 191

Effects of Touch Deprivation 191

Glossary of Terminology 192

VIII Contents

CHAPTER 10 Time 193

Time Orientations 194 Psychological Time Orientation 194

Biological Time Orientation 196

Cultural Time Orientation 200

Punctuality 202

Monochronic and Polychronic Time 203

Effects of the Use of Time 204

Glossary of Terminology 206

CHAPTER 11 Female-Male Nonverbal Communication 208

Definition Issues: Sex and Gender 209

Development of Nonverbal Behavior in Females and Males 209

Distinctive and Similar Characteristics: The Dilemma 211 Appearance and Attractiveness 213

Gesture and Movement 214

Face and Eye Behavior 215

Vocal Behavior 219

Space 221

Touch 223

Liking and Courtship of the American Female and Male 225 Avoiding Problems 227

Nonverbal Sensitivity 227

Advantages of Immediacy 228

Disadvantages of Immediacy 229

The Androgynous Person 229

Glossary of Terminology 231

CHAPTER 12 Supervisor and Employee Relationships 232

Distinctive Characteristics 233

Role of Nonverbal Messages 235 Physical Appearance 236

Gesture and Movement 240

Contents IX

Face and Eye Behavior 241

Vocal Behavior 242

Space 243

Touch 243

Environment 244

Time 246

Conclusions About Supervisor-Employee Relationships 247

Immediacy in the Workplace 249 Advantages of Immediacy 249

Disadvantages of Immediacy 250

Glossary of Terminology 251

CHAPTER 13 Teacher-Student Nonverbal Relationships 252

Teacher Roles 253 The Teacher as Speaker 253

The Teacher as Moderator 255

The Teacher as Trainer 257

The Teacher as Manager 258

The Teacher as a Coordinator 259

The Teacher as Controller, Supervisor, and Helper 260

Role of Nonverbal Communication 261

Immediacy 263 Verbal Immediacy 264

Nonverbal Immediacy 264

Physical Appearance 264

Instructor Appearance 265

Student Appearance 265

Gesture and Movement 268

Facial Behavior 269

Eye Behavior 270

Vocal Behavior 271

Space 271

Touch 272

Environment 274

Time 279

Outcomes of Teacher Immediacy 280 Potential Drawbacks of Teacher Immediacy 283

Glossary of Terminology 283

X Contents

CHAPTER 14 Intercultural Relationships 284

Defining Intercultural Communication 286 Characteristics of Culture 288

Foundations of Culture 289

Nonverbal Behavior 292 Appearance and Attractiveness 292

Gesture and Movement 294

Face and Eye Behavior 300

Vocal Behavior 302

Space 303

Touch 304

Environment 306

Scent 306

Time 307

Goals to Seek 308

Glossary of Terminology 311

References and Selected Readings 312 Photo Credits 345 Index 346

XI

P R E FA C E

N onverbal communication generates scholarly investigations in a wide variety of academic disciplines and involves many scholarly models. This book is a unique blend of social scientific and humanistic study

and represents what we believe constitutes the area of nonverbal communica- tion today. We have attempted to integrate the knowledge drawn from these diverse disciplines and orientations, while avoiding devotion to a specific scholarly approach.

Popular writers in the field often overgeneralize research findings, and such generalizations too often find their way into nonverbal communication classes. In addition, many nonverbal communication classes were developed as virtually content-free experiential courses. Such misrepresentations have not been conducive to generating respect for this area of study. Despite that, the study of nonverbal communication is having a significant impact on other dis- ciplines such as psychology, sociology, social work, family relations, law, law enforcement, political science, and education. And we are just getting started!

The teaching of nonverbal communication is plagued by a dilemma. On one hand, we know that all of the categories of nonverbal behavior interact to create communicative impact. On the other hand, to understand all of these behaviors, it seems necessary to look at the individual categories of behavior one by one. Thus, most textbooks and course instructors choose between some type of variables approach and a functional approach. The former leads to an excellent understanding of the individual behaviors that make up nonverbal communication but to little understanding of how they interact. The latter leads to an excellent understanding of the complexity of nonverbal communication but to little understanding of the components of this complex communication system.

In this introductory textbook, we have attempted to resolve that dilem- ma by including chapters devoted to the individual categories of nonverbal behavior as well as chapters that examine all of those variables in specific con- texts. Through this combined functions–variables–contexts approach, we hope you will develop a full and well-rounded perspective of the role of non- verbal behavior in human communicative relationships.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

In this current edition, we have fourteen chapters. Each chapter has been re- viewed and updated by the authors to streamline information for students, and each has familiar as well as new content including over 100 new references in addition to new biological information. An extensive new photo program has

XII Preface

also been designed that includes more vibrant and modern photographs to depict the concepts discussed throughout the textbook. We worked hard to incorporate, throughout each chapter, a closer focus on the world around us— not just the North American culture, but other cultures as well. With our in- creasingly global communities in both the classroom and in the real world, this shift in cultural focus to a broader view allows us to meet the needs of all stu- dents. With greater diversity in our classrooms, comes the extreme need for us to focus on the entirety of “the world around us.”

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank our editors and others who have been generous with their expertise. We thank Allyn & Bacon for its continued support and encouragement.

We appreciate the ideas of many teachers and students who have used and commented upon the first six editions of this book. Specifically, we would like to thank the following instructors who reviewed the previous edition and offered feedback for this one: Rachel L. DiCioccio, University of Rhode Island; Susan K. Minton, Lindsey Wilson College; Melissa Newman, Dallas Baptist University; Caroline S. Parsons, Clemson University; Candy Pettus, Dallas Baptist University; Marshall Prisbell, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Monica C. Rothschild-Boros, Orange Coast College; and Avinash Thombre, University of Arkansas, Little Rock. Many of their suggestions are reflected in modifications in this edition. We have included more citation references (both classic and contemporary) in this edition. We also have included extensive ci- tations of references for each chapter at the end of the book for those who want to pursue a given topic more fully. We have cited the works of several of our colleagues who have written books appropriate for advanced study in this field. We hope that when you read this introductory book, you will be moti- vated to move on to their excellent works.

Virginia Peck Richmond

James C. McCroskey

Mark L. Hickson III

I nterpersonal relationships are a central fact of our existence as human beings in modern society. Although there may

have been a time when one person could be fully self-sufficient, that time has now passed. Our existence is dependent on oth- ers. We must relate to others to survive. Throughout the relationships we encounter during our life spans, the role of communi- cation is the process that makes us human.

Human communication is the process of one person stimulating meaning in the mind of another person (or persons) by means of verbal and/or nonverbal mes- sages. Because we have devoted several other books to explaining the nature of this process in considerable detail, we will not attempt to do so in this text. Our focus in this book is on the role of nonverbal behav- iors as messages in human communication.

1CHAPTER Communication and Nonverbal Behavior

1

2 C H A P T E R 1 Communication and Nonverbal Behavior

Our concern, then, is with nonverbal communication—the process of one per- son stimulating meaning in the mind of another person or persons by means of nonverbal messages (McCroskey, 2001; McCroskey & Richmond, 1996; Richmond & McCroskey, 2001).

MYTHS ABOUT NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

For much of the history of the study of human communication, the nonverbal component was ignored (Andersen, 1999; Ruesch & Kees, 1971). As increased attention has been directed toward this aspect of communication, several myths have developed that have led to considerable confusion. Let us examine a few of these myths.

1. Nonverbal communication is nonsense. All communication involves lan- guage. Therefore, all communication is verbal. This is the traditional myth held by many persons who center their attention on language and consider language and communication as virtually interchangeable terms. However, nonverbal behavior with potential for communicative impact is always present in oral interactions. We cannot even talk on the phone without in- troducing nonverbal elements into our message. The sounds of our voices are there, and no two people’s voices are exactly alike. Therefore no two people, even saying the same words, are sending the same message. Their voices cause the messages to differ from each other. In live interaction, of course, many more nonverbal messages are present. Nonverbal communi- cation is not nonsense. Nonverbal behavior affects all oral communication situations. We wave, we wink, we hold hands without saying a word.

2. Nonverbal behavior accounts for most of the communication in human interaction. This myth is an overreaction to the falsity of the first myth. Early research into nonverbal communication, conducted in both labora- tory and field settings, indicated that a large portion of the variability in meaning communicated was a function of nonverbal rather than verbal messages. Although this research conclusively showed the falsity of the traditional myth, it was overinterpreted by many later scholars. Many authors have commonly quoted this early research to conclude that 65 to 93 percent of all meaning communicated is attributable to nonverbal ele- ments (Birdwhistell, 1970; Mehrabian & Ferris, 1967; Mehrabian & Weiner, 1967; Philpot, 1983). Indeed, such results were found to be the case in the studies cited. What is typically ignored, however, is that these early studies were specifically designed to prove the first myth incorrect, and the human interaction studied was not typical of all interaction. Therefore, some subsequent generalizations about the impact of all non- verbal behavior are unjustified. Although nonverbal elements dominate communication in many circumstances, in others nonverbal elements have far fewer significant effects. Therefore, both verbal and nonverbal elements are important in most human interaction, and the meaning

Myths About Nonverbal Communication 3

communicated usually depends on the interaction of the two, not on either element alone.

3. You can read a person like a book. Besides being the title of a popular book, this myth is held by many individuals who have never studied non- verbal communication. Human behavior is not structured like a language. It is highly variable and idiosyncratic for each individual. Although there are identifiable patterns, these are not nearly strong enough to tell us what a given nonverbal behavior means in all situations. Often nonverbal behavior cannot be translated into definitions that apply to verbal behav- ior with any degree of confidence. When a baby smiles, it may be that the baby is happy; it may also be that the baby has gas. When an adult smiles, it may be that the person is pleased; it may also be that the person is con- cealing anger or hatred. Read at your own risk!

4. If a person does not look you in the eye while talking to you, he or she is not telling you the truth. This myth is a variant of the previous myth and represents a whole range of myths about nonverbal behavior that we all learned as children. Many of our nonverbal behaviors are subject to our control. Where we direct our gaze is one of those behaviors. Because we learn that people think we are not telling the truth if we don’t look them in the eye, we learn to look at them whether we are telling the truth or not. Some research shows that liars are more likely to look someone in the eye than to look away. The best con artists will always look you in the eye—while they are getting you to give them your money!

5. Although nonverbal behavior differs from person to person, most non- verbal behaviors are natural to all people. This myth is one that not everyone accepts when it is verbalized but one that almost all of us behave as if we believe. We assume that how we behave nonverbally is normal and that any substantial deviation from that pattern is not nor- mal. This tendency is particularly problematic when we encounter peo- ple from another culture. People from different cultures learn different nonverbal behaviors, and all perceive their own as normal. There are also meaningful differences between males and females, between older people and younger people, and among people from various ethnic groups. “Normal” is dependent on one’s cultural surroundings.

6. Nonverbal behavior stimulates the same meanings in different situations. This myth assumes that nonverbal behaviors are meaningful in them- selves. In other words, a handshake or wrinkling one’s nose means the same thing in different contexts. This is untrue. Meanings are in people’s minds, not nonverbal behaviors. The meaning attributed to nonverbal behavior by others is always influenced by the context in which the be- havior occurs. We should never attempt to draw inferences based solely on nonverbal information without considering the entire verbal and non- verbal context. Context must always be considered when attempting to explain communication based on nonverbal behavior.

4 C H A P T E R 1 Communication and Nonverbal Behavior

NONVERBAL VERSUS VERBAL MESSAGES

Throughout the almost 5,000 years of recorded history relating to the study of human communication, research and teaching about communication has centered on verbal messages. Not until the eighteenth century did communi- cation scholars began to extend serious attention to the role of nonverbal behavior. By the mid-twentieth century, the study of nonverbal behavior and communication became the focus of intense interest in many scholarly disci- plines, from anthropology to communication and from architecture to psy- chology. A difficult issue facing scholars of nonverbal communication has been the drawing of meaningful and clear distinctions between what is verbal and what is nonverbal. Such clear distinctions have been elusive. Although we cannot provide an absolute distinction between verbal and nonverbal mes- sages, we can draw several less-than-perfect distinctions that will help you to see some of their differences.

The Linguistic Distinction

Verbal messages clearly depend on language, but nonverbal messages do not necessarily depend on the presence of any language. This has led some to sug- gest that nonverbal communication is simply “communication without words.” Of course, much (if not most) nonverbal behavior exists in the

Gestures and Sign Language

Kendon, A. (2008). Some reflections on the

relationship between ‘gesture’ and ‘sign.’

Gesture, 8, 348–366.

Students often ask the question whether the signing used by deaf speakers is included in the study of nonverbal communication. In this article, Adam Kendon provides an his- torical account of the concept of signing versus gesturing. The issue has circulated around those who teach linguistics for some time now. Vico used what he called “mute signs” as the basis for why he thought lan- guage itself began with gestures. In the United States, Thomas Gallaudet started the first school for the deaf in Connecticut in 1817. Throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, such schools teaching from a French as well as an English model were established. In 1872, a book by Charles Darwin, Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, drew some attention. Critics of Gallaudet’s “manualist” approach referred to it as primitivism. Much of the

concern involved where language came from as opposed to how we use language. Ferdinand de Saussure suggested that the two should be separated. Others have indicated that sign language should be con- sidered different from nonverbal communi- cation (gestures) because sign language was first based on a written form of language. Kendon expresses the view of what he calls “alternate sign languages.” Systems used in monasteries, baseball games, and noisy factories are examples. Our concern is with nonverbal communication, including ges- tures, and we would note that signers often gesture with their faces and other parts of their bodies aside from their hands.

Nonverbal Versus Verbal Messages 5

presence of spoken words, so this distinction oversimplifies the matter. Nevertheless, the distinction is relevant. Verbal messages depend on language, and language is an arbitrary system of coding meaning so that it may be under- stood by people who share a common language. Most nonverbal behavior is not part of an arbitrary coding system. Emblems (a type of gesture we consider in Chapter 3) are an exception to this general rule. Similarly, some languages depend solely on nonverbal behavior, and these languages are also arbitrary systems of coding meaning. Some examples are American Sign Language (the gestural language of the hearing-impaired), drum languages in parts of Africa, smoke languages of American Indian tribes, the whistling language of the Canary Islands, semaphore (flag language), and the Morse code for telegraphic communication. Currently, there are many books for various cultures (e.g., Greek, Italian, U.S., and Japanese) that code and classify certain nonverbal behaviors with definite meanings. These books are useful when traveling to different cultures because they tell us what a behavior means to people in another culture. Although there are many exceptions, it is still useful to realize that most verbal messages rely on a language, whereas many nonverbal mes- sages do not.

The Continuity Distinction

Verbal messages are discontinuous—that is, we say some words, then we stop saying words, then we say some more, then we stop, and so on. Nonverbal messages are continuous. Nonverbal behavior never stops. Even when we are asleep, our bodies continue to send nonverbal messages. The absence of behav- ior sends a message just as much as the presence, if not more so. (Have you ever received the silent treatment?) This fact has led us to this grammatically imperfect but thought-provoking comment: When you are in the presence of another human being, you cannot not communicate.

Although the continuity distinction has fewer exceptions than the linguis- tic distinction, it is also less than perfect. Nonverbal messages may be considered continuous only if we take them as a whole. Individual nonverbal messages indeed do stop. Gestures begin and end. Eye contact begins and ends. Vocal tones begin and end. Touch begins and ends. Smiles begin and end. However, it is best to think of nonverbal behavior as a package of simultaneous messages rather than as the discrete messages of gesture, voice, touch, and so on. In this sense, the continuity distinction is an important one.

The Processing Distinction

In recent years, much has been made of how the human brain processes incoming information. Early research in the United States provided strong evi- dence that most people process verbal stimuli on the left side of the brain while processing nonverbal stimuli on the right side of the brain. This suggests that verbal and nonverbal communication are really two separate and distinct com- munication systems. Subsequent research, however, has cast considerable doubt on this distinction. Humans are not all alike. Left-handed people do not

6 C H A P T E R 1 Communication and Nonverbal Behavior

consistently follow the pattern of right-handed people. Thus the processing distinction has not led to the insights researchers had hoped for. It is quite pos- sible that as neurophysiological research advances, we will find important dis- tinctions in the area of processing, but those findings have not yet appeared.

In conclusion, we find ourselves unable to

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