Explain the role of performance goals and end goals to support the change process. Evaluate how a coach or a mentor can use assessm
Post a cohesive response based on your analysis of the Learning Resources and your professional experience. Be sure to discuss the following:
- Explain the role of performance goals and end goals to support the change process.
- Evaluate how a coach or a mentor can use assessment models to facilitate the change process.
- 3-4 paragraphs
- APA citing
- No plagiarism
- 24 hours
Week 5: The Role of Goal Setting
For coaching or mentoring to be effective, those involved must have an ultimate goal toward which they are working. Without such goals, it is difficult to measure progress. Perhaps the goal is to improve a personal skill or move upwards in an organization. This goal setting provides the focus around which coaching and mentoring can occur.
Pursuing goals often requires change, which can be challenging for many. For this reason, it is important to involve a coachee in the goal-setting process. It is also important that the goal is specific and measurable so the coachee has a focus. Progress toward goals should be reviewed and evaluated on a regular basis, and changes should made if and when necessary.
When developing goals, it is important to think about short-term and long-term growth. Goals should be challenging but not unattainable. Assessment models are designed to support the change process and can help in the development of goals. Consider how these assessment models could be used to develop goals that will facilitate the change process.
To prepare for this Discussion, review this week’s Learning Resource.
· Review this week’s Learning Resources, especially:
· Performance Goals for Employees: 8 SMART Examples – Officevibe
· 44 Examples of Performance Goals – Simplicable
· The GROW Model of Coaching and Mentoring – Skills From MindTools.com
Post a cohesive response based on your analysis of the Learning Resources and your professional experience. Be sure to discuss the following:
· Explain the role of performance goals and end goals to support the change process.
· Evaluate how a coach or a mentor can use assessment models to facilitate the change process.
· 3-4 paragraphs
· APA citing
· No plagiarism
,
FACILITATING SUCCESSFUL BEHAVIOR CHANGE: BEYOND GOAL SETTING TO
GOAL FLOURISHING
Kenneth Nowack Envisia Learning, Inc., Santa Monica, California
Most successful coaching engagements encourage clients to start, increase, decrease, modify, or stop behaviors that contribute to their effectiveness and performance on the job (Fogg, n.d.). Successfully sustaining new or altered behaviors over time until they become a habit is even more difficult (Nowack, 2009). Goal intentions (e.g., “I want to be a more participative and involvement-oriented leader”) have been found in a recent meta-analysis to be a weak predictor of acquiring new habits and account for approxi- mately 28% of the variance in successful behavior-change efforts (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). Translating insight in coaching engagements to deliberate, varied, and ongoing practice has been shown to be associated with long-term successful behavior change (Nowack & Mashihi, 2012). This paper reviews current issues and best practices in goal intentions, goal striving, and goal flourishing to maximize coaching success with clients.
Keywords: goal striving, goal setting, implementation intentions, behavior change, habits
Goal setting and the initiation of new behaviors and sustaining them over time is particularly challenging for most individuals. However, we are all creatures of habit. In fact, on the basis of experience-sampling diary studies using student and community samples, approximately 45% of everyday behaviors tend to be repeated in the same location almost every day (Neal, Wood, & Quinn, 2006; Wood & Rünger, 2016). It is surprising to note that people report a heterogeneous set of actions that vary in habit strength each day, including diverse and established behaviors such as exercise, eating, and daily activities (Wood, Quinn, & Kashy, 2002; Wood, Tam, & Guerrero, 2005). This paper will attempt to summarize current evidence and practice behind goal intentions, goal setting/planning processes, and goal striving resulting in successful creation of new habits (goal flourishing) by addressing six important questions (see Figure 1). Initially, it will be useful to define specific characteristics of coaching goals and then present important factors associated with goal flourishing, including some common myths about goal striving and giving up/quitting goals.
Recent neuroscience research provides both a framework for understanding the resistance to initiating new habits and the challenges around goal flourishing. For example, there appears to be broad and meaningful individual differences in our motivation to try new behaviors, a willingness to take risks, and a tendency to seek novel and intense experiences (Holmes, Hollinshead, Roffman,
This article was published Online First April 17, 2017. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kenneth Nowack, Envisia Learning, Inc.,
2208 6th Street, Santa Monica, CA 90405. E-mail: [email protected]
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Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research © 2017 American Psychological Association 2017, Vol. 69, No. 3, 153–171 1065-9293/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000088
153
Smoller, & Buckner 2016). Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Holmes et al. (2016) measured the size of particular regions of the brain for each participant and measured self-reported traits associated with sensation-seeking and impulsivity as well as alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine usage. The strongest links occurred in brain areas related to the ability to regulate emotions and behavior most strongly associated with the anterior cingulate and middle frontal gyrus. Changes in those brain structures also significantly correlated with participants’ self-reported tendency to act on impulse and with heightened use of alcohol, tobacco, or caffeine.
Current research suggests that availability and type of social support (Chiaburu, Van Dam, & Hutchins, 2010; Martin, 2010; Orehek & Forest, 2016) as well as regulation of emotions are equal to, or even more important than, cognitions in predicting both intention and initiation of new habits (Lawton, Conner, & McEachan, 2009). These findings imply an important role for coaches in considering the social-support climate of clients, helping them to manage their emotional reactions and consequences for engaging in behavioral-change efforts as well as assessing “readiness to change” stages that are associated with successful behavior change.
For example, one of the purposes of using 360-degree feedback in coaching interventions is to provide information to coaches to illuminate strengths as well as potential areas for development (Bracken, Rose, & Church, 2016; Nowack & Mashihi, 2012). Some negative reactions to such feedback might actually be motivating for successful behavior change (Atwater & Brett, 2005), but neuroscience research provides answers about why “underestimators” (whose self-ratings are more critical than the ratings of their observers) or those who interpret the feedback as judgmental or hurtful are disengaged and lack motivation to change behavior (Woo, Sims, Rupp, & Gibbons, 2008). In addition, interpersonal judgment and social evaluation tend to elicit strong stress reactions, with cortisol levels in one’s system being elevated 50% longer when the stressor is interpersonal versus impersonal (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004). As a result, individuals who negatively interpret feedback and experience emotional hurt, rejection, and pain tend to have both blunted motivation to initiate behavior change and diminished readiness for creating implementation intentions that are crucial for successful behavior change. Fortunately for practitioners, there are some individual- change models that help optimize understanding, acceptance, and action that are based on feedback to ensure successful behavior change.
Six Important Ques�ons about Goal Se�ng, Goal Striving, and Goal Flourishing
1. What are the key characteris�cs of goals?
2. If goal inten�ons aren’t generally effec�ve to facilitate behavior change what works be�er?
3. Goal striving: When are clients most mo�vated?
4. How long does it take for new habits to form?
5. When should clients “hold” and when should they “fold” in goal striving?
6. Does prac�ce make perfect?
Figure 1. Six questions about goal setting.
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154 NOWACK
Building on the process models of feedback and change by Gregory, Levy, and Jeffers (2008), Koroleva (2016), and London and Smither (2002), I have proposed a more specific individual behavioral-change model that draws heavily on evidence-based research in the health-psychology and behavioral-medicine literature (see Figure 2). The 3-E model of individual behavior change (Enlighten, Encourage, and Enable; Nowack, 2009) represents a merging of recognized individual behavioral-change theories and models, including the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), self-efficacy and social– cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977), the health-belief model (Becker, 1974), the transtheoretical model of change (TTM; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997), and extension of the elements of goal-setting theory and performance posited by Locke and Latham (2002). Each of these theories and models should be useful to all coaches who are attempting to influence both insight/ awareness and successful behavior change with their clients.
Successful coaching engagements foster both self-efficacy and self-management of clients (Joo, 2005; Grover & Furnham, 2016). Self-management theorists agree upon two important components that involve cognitive, emotional, and behavioral challenges in goal flourishing (i.e., the successful adoption and targeted results of goal pursuits): goal setting and goal striving (Mann, De Ridder, & Fujita, 2013). Goal setting (Fogg Behavior Grid; Fogg, 2012) typically involves two concepts—the valence of behaviors (start, increase, decrease, stop, do differently) and frequency (one time, sometime, and all of the time). Goal striving typically involves the implementation of actions and behaviors related to goals that have been set, redefining goals during the pursuit, managing lapses from distractions, and dealing with loss of energy or resources that interferes with successful accomplishment. Although often temporal, there are situations in which reappraisal of goals often follows perceived or real obstacles and challenges (e.g., if the goal is unrealistic or resources needed to accomplish the goal change, such as for financial reasons).
Clients tend to initially identify goals (Koestner, Lekes, Powers, & Chicoine, 2002) in which they have an intrinsic stake (“What is in it for me?”) and when they perceive what others expect or desire of them (e.g., 360-degree-feedback results by one’s boss or direct reports to change specific leadership practices). Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), readiness to change (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997), the 3-E model of individual change (Nowack, 2009), and other related models all suggest that a client’s level of motivation and self-efficacy is a critical predictor of successful goal adoption, maintenance, and adherence over time.
Hierarchy of goals also shape what clients will focus on. For example, if a specific goal (e.g., deploying a stress-management technique such as mindfulness meditation) competes with another goal (e.g., spending more time with one’s children after work) based on finances, time, or energy, then clients are unlikely to maintain it over time (Riediger & Freund, 2004). Therefore, helping clients to explore both inhibitors and promoters of goals would appear to be a useful exercise by coaches to facilitate goal completion and success. In addition, research by Kruglanski and colleagues (2002) suggests that when client goals have more than one payoff, clients are more likely to pursue
• Accurate Insight
• Identifying Signature Strengths
• Ideal Self vs. Real Self
Enlighten
• Motivation • Self-Efficacy • Skill Building • Goal
Implementation
Encourage • Practice Plans • "Nudge"
Reminders • Social Support • Relapse
Prevention • Evaluation
Enable
Figure 2. Enlighten, Encourage, and Enable individual change model.
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155BEYOND GOAL SETTING TO GOAL FLOURISHING
all of them because doing so maximizes the outcome with the same effort (e.g., soliciting and accepting feedback from direct reports might simultaneously increase engagement of employees while enhancing perceived agreeableness as a personality trait of the leader).
What Are the Key Characteristics of Goals?
There are several important characteristics that directly influence the goal pursuit that individuals engage in (Koo & Fishbach, 2010). Some of the most important characteristics include difficulty (e.g., easy vs. challenging), proximity of the end state (e.g., short term vs. long term), number of goals to tackle at one time (e.g., single vs. multiple), type of goal (e.g., learning vs. performance), and motivational mindset (e.g., avoidance vs. approach). Each of these five characteristics of goals will be briefly described here.
Easy Goals Versus Challenging/Stretch Goals
Previous studies have traditionally emphasized that goals should not be overly ambitious as exemplified by the SMART goal acronym, which suggests that goals should be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely (Latham, 2003). However, current research suggests that challenging goals lead to greater effort, focus, and persistence than moderately difficult or easy goals and that SMART goals might not be very effective in fully operationalizing the complexity needed for deliberate practice (Nowack, 2015). Such “big, hairy, audacious goals,” or BHAGs, help provide a clear vision of what is to be measured and evaluated at the end of a large-scale behavior-change effort (Collins, 1999).
It has also been suggested that people who perceived their goal as difficult to attain reported higher positive emotion, an increase in job satisfaction, and perceptions of occupational success (Latham & Locke, 2006). In fact, there is some evidence that difficult and unrealistic goals might actually inspire, rather than interfere with, goal pursuit (Latham & Locke, 2013; Linde, Jeffrey, Finch, Ng, & Rothman, 2004). Other research suggests that difficulty of a coaching goal does not appear to impact how successful the coaching engagement actually is in terms of overall goal attainment (Sonesh et al., 2015).
Consider the following implications for coaching: Some researchers argue that lowering the difficulty of goals, rather than enhancing motivation, is the desired strategy for successful behavior change (Fogg, 2012). In summary, encouraging clients to set challenging goals is more likely to stimulate initial readiness to change. However, when faced with obstacles or challenges, reducing barriers to achieving goal success by modifying their difficulty might be a good strategy to follow for clients in coaching engagements (Fogg, 2012).
Short-Term Focus Versus Long-Term Focus
Goals are often distinguished by how far forward they project into the future. Schunk (2001) suggests that short-term goals are achieved more quickly and result in higher motivation and better self-regulation than more distant or long-term goals. Furthermore, research suggests that if long- term goals must be established, subdividing or “chunking” them into more manageable tiny actions or steps can produce greater benefits (i.e., goal attainment).
The time frame for completion needs to be reasonable for goals to be attained (Latham & Locke, 2006). However, individuals are more likely to maintain goals in the face of obstacles and challenges when more time remained for goal pursuit than when less time remained (Schmidt & Deshon, 2007), suggesting that for shorter-term goals, experiencing setbacks early will not necessarily lead to extinction of the initial goal. In addition, people who wrote out their short-term goals, shared their commitment to complete the goals with others, and communicated progress with others were approximately 33% more successful than those who did not document their goals, share intent, and communicate progress with others (Matthews, 2012). Finally, a single focus on the goal without having a specific backup plan appears to be predictive of goal achievement given a longer time frame to accomplish desired results (Shin & Milkman, 2016).
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156 NOWACK
Consider the following implications for coaching: For most coaching engagements, clients should be encouraged to focus on specific and short-term goals and the underlying steps and behaviors to facilitate progress and success. Building in tracking and monitoring systems (Harkin et al., 2016; Webb, Joseph, Yardley, & Michie, 2010) and encouraging clients to share their intentions with goal mentors might also be useful strategies to optimize successful achievement of both short-term and long-term goals (Cole-Lewis & Kershaw, 2010; De Leon, Fuentes, & Cohen, 2014; Fanning, Mullen, & McAuley, 2012; Mashihi & Nowack, 2013).
Single Goals Versus Multiple Goals
Behavior-change efforts are typically individualistic, based on a myriad of individual and environ- mental factors, and tend to be progressive, regressive, or even static (Nowack, 2009). Mixed evidence supports the argument that multiple simultaneous efforts (e.g., behaviors planned to improve multiple competencies at the same time) tend to be equal or even more effective than focusing on single goals because they reinforce quick benefits (Achtziger, Gollwitzer, & Sheeran, 2008; Hyman, Pavlik, Taylor, Goodrick, & Moye, 2007). On the other hand, several studies suggest that focus on a single implementation intention might be superior to multiple goal intentions (Dalton & Spiller, 2012). Additional research extends these findings by showing that formulating multiple plans in the service of the same goal is also not beneficial (Verhoeven et al., 2013).
Consider the following implications for coaching: Individuals can accomplish more than one goal at a time, assuming that these goals do not conflict with each other in some way (Locke & Latham, 2002). As such, coaches should raise realistic concern about overall success when clients express an interest in working simultaneously on multiple goals in their initial contracting agreement or throughout the coaching engagement. For example, rather than making multiple implementation intentions at once, a phased approach might be more successful. In this way, one new behavioral goal or habit could be targeted with an implementation intention first, and only when the new desired behavior has been reached, according to some metric of agreed-up improvement by the coach and client, might a new goal be addressed.
Learning Goals Versus Performance Goals
An individual’s goal orientation and personality can accurately describe the goals that they choose and the methods used to pursue those goals (DeShon & Gillespie, 2005). A performance versus learning characteristic of goals (Elliott & Dweck, 1988) involves the achievement of a specific standard (e.g., performance goal such as “lose 15 pounds”) as opposed to the development of a specific skill (e.g., learning goal such as “acquiring the skill to practice mindfulness meditation”). Instead of focusing on the end result, a learning goal focuses attention on the discovery of effective strategies, skills, or techniques to attain and sustain desired results (Seijts, Latham, Tasa, & Latham, 2004). Latham and Locke (2013) argued that it is best to set a learning goal when an individual lacks the ability to perform the task and to set a performance (outcome) goal when the person has the ability to attain a desired level of performance.
When trying to accomplish a learning goal, the individual will learn to master all of the necessary skills that are associated with acquiring that goal. In the process, he or she may ask for feedback and reflect on progress to master whatever it takes to learn the new skill. On the other hand, trying to attain a specific performance goal can place additional cognitive demands that could interfere (e.g., choking) with goal accomplishment (e.g., Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starkes, 2002).
Consider the following implications for coaching: Performance goals can be appropriate when the necessary skills to perform a task are already mastered and the primary focus is to exert more effort to reach a higher level of performance. Seijts, Latham, Tasa, and Latham (2004) found that individuals with learning goals demonstrated the following advantages over those with performance goals:
1. They took the time necessary to acquire the knowledge to effectively perform the task and to analyze the task-relevant information that was available to them.
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157BEYOND GOAL SETTING TO GOAL FLOURISHING
2. They showed an increase in self-efficacy as a result of the discovery of appropriate strategies for task mastery. Other research supports the notion that learning goals are especially effective in enhancing self-efficacy and self-regulation (Schunk, 2001).
3. They had a significantly higher commitment to their goals than did those with a perfor- mance goal.
It is a good idea to set up goals that will allow your clients to focus on mastering the skills necessary to perform a new behavior as well as goals that target specific outcomes. For instance, a client may have a performance goal of creating a more productive team or losing a specific amount of weight. However, by establishing a learning goal, the client would focus on acquiring the skills to build a high-performance team or to maintain a healthy weight in order to ensure that the targets or outcomes are successfully accomplished.
Avoidance Goals Versus Approach Goals
Goals that clients have can either be focused on securing desired outcomes (approach goals) or they can target avoiding unwanted outcomes (avoidance goals). Avoidance goals, aiming to eliminate an undesired end state (e.g., “avoid being overly controlling in my staff meetings”), tend to have more ambiguous strategies associated with them and should not typically be used (Carver & Scheier, 1982).
Because approach goals tend to be more effective than most avoidance goals, one strategy for behavior-change interventions is to encourage clients to redefine any avoidance goals into approach goals (e.g., “be more participative and listen more to my staff during our meetings before I suggest my own ideas”). In addition, people are more likely to engage in an approach goal when they have set a low-high range goal (e.g., lose 2 to 4 pounds this week) versus when they have set a single-number goal (Scott & Nowlis, 2013). Coaches should consider encouraging their clients to utilize more low-high range goals when appropriate for specific desired behaviors.
Consider the following implications for coaching: With some goals, clients may be able to use a “substitution goal” (e.g., “in meetings, soliciting suggestions and input from others instead of expressing my own ideas and opinions”) or a different goal for which the avoidance goal is instrumental (e.g., “seeking input and then summarizing the ideas of others” is instrumental for “not being seen as being an overly directive or authoritative leader”). The Fogg Behavior Grid (Fogg, 2012) offers a comprehensive typology of strategies and drivers for coaches to use with their clients, focusing on either approach goals (start doing, doing more, or doing differently) or avoidance goals (stop doing or doing less), and it provides examples for when the end result is one time (e.g., run a marathon), sometimes (i.e., situational or periodic), or all of the time (i.e., become an ongoing behavioral ritual).
If Goal Intentions Are Not Generally Effective to Facilitate Behavior Change, What Works Better?
Research suggests that attempts to change people’s intentions alone may not always result in successful maintenance of behavior over time (Lawton et al., 2009). Many people express a strong desire and intent to become more effective and to try new behaviors, but often they never really initiate or sustain a new change for very long (e.g., relapse). Some research suggests that the perceived importance of the goal (i.e., concern for the desired end point of the behavioral change) might be the best predictor of those who will initiate new behaviors (whether they keep it up or not). On the other hand, the individual factors of self-efficacy, perceived control, and being clear about the disadvantages (i.e., the cons of behavioral change) are stronger predictors of clients who successfully maintain new behaviors over time (Rhodes, Plotnikoff, & Courneya, 2008).
In general, clients are most strongly committed to goals that are desirable (attractive) and attainable (Oettingen et al., 2009). However, neither of these factors guarantees that these judgments translate into actual practice (Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2007). Several studies provide evidence that cognitively contrasting a desired future state with impeding reality (mental contrasting) effectively
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158 NOWACK
increases motivation and commitment to implement a goal (Gallo, Cohen, Gollwitzer, & Oettingen, 2013; Oettingen, Marquardt, & Gollwitzer, 2012; Oettingen et al., 2009).
These studies suggest that a structured approach to comparing and contrasting future success versus realistic barriers determines the energy that will be used to commit and pursue personal/ professional goals. Simply, coaches could help clients directly reflect and compare their vision of a desired future (e.g., enhanced professional performance or adopting new behaviors) with the current situation that may hinder goal pursuit and success (e.g., barriers, temptations, and obstacles). This technique appears to be consistent with “self-talk” motivational-interviewing strategies used to enhance readiness to change (e.g., Passmore, 2007) and comparing the “real” versus “ideal” self in the intentional-change model posited by Boyatzis and Akrivou (2006).
In summary, intentions to change behavior are weak predictors of actual behavior change (Nowack, 2015). However, the u
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