1648948316-SampleResearchReport1.docx

This is a sample provided to students to get a sense of what a good research report can look like. Please do not use any part of it as your own! It is meant as inspiration only. Also please note that it may not have citations formatted in Chicago Manual Style, which is required this semester.

HPS100 Research Report

Time and Place: 1520s in Tenochtitlan, Central Mexico.

Short Description of Proposed Project:

In the early 1520s, the Spanish introduced smallpox into Aztec society. The seriousness of this virus coupled with a lack of immunity, (Aveni, 1991) left the Aztec population decimated by an estimated 15 million casualties (Schneider & McDonald, 2003). The immunity promised by variolation would have been very valuable at this time considering the fact that the Aztecs had no effective defence against smallpox (Bungum, 2003).

Variolation, also known as inoculation, is the deliberate infection of an individual with the variola virus (Cunha, 2003). A survivor of this procedure would not only experience a less severe case of smallpox but would also be rendered permanently immune (Cunha, 2003). Variolation’s 1-2% case fatality rate as opposed to the 25% rate of natural infection (Fenner, 2006), provides a viable path towards immunity (Schneider & McDonald, 2003), and would have been especially beneficial to the Aztecs.

Through a small-scale medical trial funded by a noble (pipiltin), this project will attempt to prove the effectiveness of variolation in increasing survival rates and reducing the effects of smallpox. The results of this trial would then begin the process of the mass implementation of variolation among the general population of Tenochtitlan.

People’s Beliefs About the Subject in that Time and Place:

Variolation, with roots in ancient China, India and Egypt is a relatively ancient procedure (Cunha, 2003). The Chinese, for example, are known to have used variolation for smallpox in the 11th century (Bungum, 2003). This specific procedure would not have been known to the Aztecs.

Although the Aztecs had a well-structured medical and surgical system (Guerra, 1966), they did not have any effective treatments for smallpox (Hopkins, 2002). Smallpox may have been treated by herbs and skin remedies or religious rituals (Guerra, 1966), which would not have been effective due to the disease’s viral nature.

Although they were not familiar with variolation, they would have been familiar with epidemics (Guerra, 1966). This understanding of the devastating power of disease would be immensely beneficial to the justification of my project.

Tools and Materials:

For funding, I would appeal to a member of the noble class (pipiltin). This individual would not only have the means to fund the experiment, but also the ability to present a case for mass inoculation before the emperor who would have the power to implement my plan (Avalos, 1995). In return, the noble and his family would be offered primary access to variolation and extensive medical care after the medical trial.

The nearby cities of Tepeca and Tlaxcala would have experienced a wave of smallpox months before Tenochtitlan (McCaa, 1995) and fifty infected people would be procured from there by the noble. They would be transported to Tenochtitlan in the very early non-contagious stages of their illness (Bungum, 2003) so as not to cause widespread infection. Fifty healthy subjects would also be procured by the benefactor and kept separate from the infected subjects.

I would also enlist the aid of ten Aztec doctors such as the texoxola (general surgeon) and the tezoc (phlebotomist) (Guerra, 1966) who would be very helpful in the care of the inoculated and infected subjects. Their upkeep would be provided by the noble.

Surgical tools such as the Aztec’s lancets (tecouani), flint and obsidian instruments, knives (itzli), and suture materials (tzontli) (Guerra, 1966) would prove beneficial to the overall procedure. The texoxola and tezoc (Guerra, 1966) would also be helpful with guidance on the use of these instruments.

Observations such as the health of each patient, at each stage of their illness, as well as charts, diagrams, and drawings would be painted on amate (bark paper) which would have been used extensively during this time (Binnqüist, Quintanar-Isaías, & Vander Meeren, 2012).

Rough Research Plan:

My specific plan would proceed in three phases. Firstly, the Aztec doctors and I would be variolated to ensure immunity in our work. Recovery would be followed by the inoculation of the fifty healthy subjects. Material from the ripe pustules of the already infected patients, would be threaded into minor incisions on the arms of the healthy subjects (Dimsdale, 1767). The tecouani and the itzli would be used for the incisions and the tzontli would be used for the threading. After inoculation, the variolated subjects as well as the originally infected subjects would be closely observed over a two-four-week period (Dimsdale, 1767). Zero to one deaths will be expected among the fifty who were inoculated, while twelve to thirteen deaths will be expected from the subjects who got the disease naturally (Fenner, 2006). The overwhelming success of this trial would propel it to the next phase.

Secondly, the benefactor would be briefed on the results of the trial. This should lead to the presentation of a case for the inoculation of the general public at the Tlacditlán Courts (appellate courts). The high success rate of the trial will provide sufficient evidence of the effectiveness of variolation. An appeal to the emperor (Avalos, 1995) would follow. Moctezuma II, the emperor at the time, would have the unlimited power (Avalos, 1995), and resources to implement variolation throughout the city.

Following approval, the final phase would be the mass implementation of variolation among the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan. Following Catherine the Great’s example, clinics would be set up (Schneider & McDonald, 2003) in every calpulli where people would be variolated by trained Aztec doctors. The variolation of farmers and the army would be prioritized in order to avoid famine and maintain a strong defense against the Spanish (Hughes, 2000). The remaining population would be variolated in stages in order to avoid mass spread.

Justification of Project to the Community:

As described above, the small-scale trial would show the legitimacy of inoculation. The drastic lowering of the death rate from 25% to 1-2% (Fenner, 2006) should constitute sufficient evidence for the convincing of my benefactor, the courts, and the emperor. The lack of any effective treatments for smallpox (Hopkins, 2002) would also create a strong interest in variolation.

It is believed that Tenochtitlan experienced its wave of smallpox months after other surrounding cities (McCaa, 1995). Evidently, the people of Tenochtitlan would have had some understanding of the severity of smallpox which would make the prospect of immunity very appealing. With the threat of the Spanish on the horizon (Hughes, 2000), the people of Tenochtitlan would be in dire need of a strong and immune army and workforce which would make this project all the more important.

Bibliography Avalos, F. (1995). An Overview of the Legal System of the Aztec Empire. Law Library Journal, 86(2), 259-276. Aveni, A. V. (1991). Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano. "Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition" (Book Review). Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 65(4), 582-583. Binnqüist, C. L., Quintanar-Isaías, A., & Vander Meeren, M. (2012). Mexican Bark Paper: Evidence of History of Tree Species Used and Their Fiber Characteristics. Economic Botany, 66(2), 138-148. Bungum, T. J. (2003). Smallpox: A Review for Health Educators. American Journal of Health Education, 34(5), 278-283. Cunha, B. E. (2003). Preparing for Smallpox: Occupational Health Nursing Update. AAOHN Journal, 51(5), 227-235. Dimsdale, T. (1767). The Present Method of Inoculating for the Small-Pox. London. Fenner, F. (2006). Smallpox and its Eradication, 1969 to 1980. In F. Fenner, Nature, Nurture and Chance: The Lives of Frank and Charles Fenner (pp. 137-158). Canberra: ANU Press. Guerra, F. (1966). Aztec Medicine. Medical History, 10(4), 315-338. Hopkins, D. R. (2002). The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Hughes, J. D. (2000). The European Biotic Invasion of Aztec Mexico. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 11(1), 105-112. McCaa, R. (1995). Spanish and Nahuatl Views on Smallpox and Demographic Catastrophe in Mexico. The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 25(3), 397-431. Schneider, C. P., & McDonald, M. D. (2003). "The King of Terrors" Revisited: The Smallpox Vaccination Campaign and Its Lessons for Future Biopreparedness. The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 31(4), 580-589.