Access and then read the article, Teaching Grammar and Editing in Public Administration: Lessons Learned from Early Offerings of

This discussion topic is designed to help you become familiar with how to annotate articles. In an annotation you will summarize the material in an article using your own words. In this discussion, you'll read an academic article on teaching grammar and then write an annotation of that article.

Here's how to get started:

Step 1: Watch the video, "How to Write an Annotated Bibliography-7th edition." (It's in this week's Content.)

Step 2: Access and then read the article, “Teaching Grammar and Editing in Public Administration: Lessons Learned from Early Offerings of an Undergraduate Administrative Writing Course," by Claire Connolly Knox.

This article is in the e-reserves section of your class. You can access the article by taking the following steps:

click Content select Class Resources select eReserves select the icon for eReserves in the middle of your page. in the list of items that appears, locate the article and download it Step 3: Create an annotation of this article as if you were considering it for a source in a paper. Here's how:

List the article in APA format, as the video describes. (Note: the publication date for this article is not listed. A quick Google Search of the article title will show you that the year of publication is 2013. Include this in your citation.) Write a 150-200 word summary/critique of the article in which you not only summarize the article but also note any strengths or weaknesses you find in it. In addition, imagine a scholar who is writing about teaching grammar in writing courses–or that you are a scholar studying this topic. Would this be a possible article to consider for research on this topic? (Note: you won't be writing about this topic for your own writing assignments.) Your annotation thus should include the following:

Focus of the study (~ 1-2 sentences Conclusion(s) of the study (~ 1-2 sentences) Analysis of the study (e.g., any strengths or weaknesses? Any thing that was particularly remarkable/helpful?) (~ 1-2 sentences) Its relevance to research on teaching grammar in writing courses (~ 1-2 sentences) Please refer to the "Sample Annotated Bibliography-7th edition" in this week's Content for an example.

Step 4: Post your response.

Step 5: Comment on at least one of your classmates' posts.

Please note: You're not writing about teaching grammar for your own writing assignments. However, this exercise is designed to help you become familiar with listing a source in APA format and with writing a critical annotation for it.

Journal of Public Affairs Education 515

Teaching Grammar and Editing in Public Administration: Lessons Learned from

Early Offerings of an Undergraduate Administrative Writing Course

Claire Connolly Knox University of Central Florida School of Public Administration

ABSTRACT College graduates need to possess strong writing skills before entering the work- force. Although many public administration undergraduate programs primarily focus on policy, finance, and management, we fall short of a larger goal if students cannot communicate results to a variety of audiences. This article discusses the results of a national survey, which concludes that few undergraduate public affairs programs require an administrative/technical writing course. Based on pedagogical theories, this article describes the design of a newly implemented, undergraduate, administrative writing course. The article concludes with lessons learned, provides recommendations for programs considering requiring an administrative writing course, and discusses future research.

Keywords: administrative writing, Plain Language Movement, discourse community, undergraduate course design

“Administrators not only need to know about communications, they need to be able to communicate” (Denhardt, 2001, p. 529). Public administration under- graduate students learn the importance of communication within organizations in leadership, human resources, or organizational management courses; however, practical instruction in communication skills, such as effective, audience-centered writing, are lacking. Scholars (e.g., Cleary, 1990, 1997; Lee, 2000; Raphael & Nesbary, 2005; Waugh & Manns, 1991) have noted this lack of required commun- ication and writing courses in public administration curriculum. The majority of administrative writing literature is from the late 1980s and early 1990s when universities began implementing Writing Across the Curriculum programs (i.e.,

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Londow, 1993; Stanford, 1992). The limited discussions and conclusions coincide with private and public sector trends—newly hired students’ writing skills are lacking (Hines & Basso, 2008; National Commission, 2005).

A survey by the National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges (2005) reported that approximately 80% of public sector human resource directors seriously considered writing skills when hiring professional employees and assumed new employees obtained these skills in college. Increasingly, public managers require employees to attend writing and communication trainings, which cost governments approximately $221 million annually (National Commis- sion, 2005). In fact, the public sector (66%) is more likely to send professional/ salaried employees for writing training than the private sector (40%; National Commission, 2005). Public, private, and nonprofit sector organizations certainly should continue providing education in writing, and scholars (e.g., Coplin, 2003; Hines & Basso, 2008; Quible & Griffin, 2007) agree that newly graduated students should enter the workforce with a solid writing foundation.

For the past 30 years, statistics, policy, finance, and management remained the primary focus in many public administration undergraduate programs (Dougherty, 2011). Yet, we fall short of a larger goal if students cannot communicate program evaluation and policy analysis results to a variety of audiences. Researchers (i.e., Pincus, 1997; Raphael & Nesbary, 2005) have studied the lack of communication courses in Master of Public Administration (MPA) and Master of Business Admini- stration programs, but undergraduate public administration program design and content has received less attention (Dougherty, 2011). This article adds to the liter- ature in two ways: by continuing the limited discussion of writing/communication skill development among public administration students at the undergraduate level and by offering an administrative writing course design that mixes peda- gogical approaches.

Specifically, this article proposes that passage of the Plain Writing Act of 2010 and high costs for writing skills training for new employees support the need for these undergraduate programs to add a technical/administrative writing course in the curricula. The recommendation aligns with the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration’s (NASPAA) core competency accreditation requirement: “Development of communication abilities and skills—written, oral, and electronic” (1997, p. 6). This article briefly reviews the Plain Language Move- ment history and passage of the Plain Writing Act of 2010. The subsequent sections discuss survey results about writing requirements from NASPAA-accredited U.S. undergraduate public affairs programs, and grammar and writing pedagogical theories and best practices that informed and grounded the development of a newly designed administrative writing course. The conclusion provides pedagog- ically based recommendations for future changes to the writing course, and outlines future research.

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BRIEF HISTORY OF PLAIN LANGUAGE MOVEMENT In the early 1950s, the U. S. federal government slowly integrated the Plain

Language Movement with the goal of well-written, concise, and audience-centered documents. Advocates for this new movement became more vocal after World War II and stressed that overly technical writing was an impediment to a citizen’s understanding and participation in government goods and services (Law: Waging, 1978). Yet, it was not until after 1970 that the Plain Language Movement received federal and state government support through executive orders, memorandums, and legislation (Table 1). Two main reasons for this support are (a) the expanding size of the federal government, which consequently increased paperwork, and (b) an increasing national focus on consumer activism (Redish, 1985).

Table 1. Brief History of the Plain Language Movement from Nixon to Obama Administrations

Presidential Administration

Year Action

Nixon 1972 Formal request to use layperson’s language in the Federal Register with sentences written clearly and in the active voice.

Carter 1978 Executive Orders 12044 and 12174 stated government regulations should be written clearly and without jargon.

Reagan 1981 Rescinded the executive orders in Section 10 of Executive Order 12291.

Clinton 1998 Presidential Memorandum for federal government documents to be written in layperson’s terms.

Obama 2010 Plain Writing Act of 2010 created formal legislation requiring federal agencies to use an audience-centered approach and produce reader-friendly documents for the public.

The Plain Writing Act of 2010 transitioned the Plain Language Movement from a voluntary to mandatory action. The act’s purpose is to “improve the effectiveness and accountability of Federal agencies to the public by promoting clear Government communication that the public can understand and use” (Plain Writing Act, 2010, ¶ 4). Section 3.3 of the act defines plain writing as “writing that is clear, concise, well-organized, and follows other best practices appropriate to the subject or field and intended audience” (Plain Writing Act, 2010, ¶ 7). Although this legislation provides no enforcement mechanism, agencies must designate a senior official as the Plain Writing liaison, explain new requirements to staff members and train them to comply with the new regulation, and design agency-specific implementation procedures and a plain language webpage whose web link is available on the homepage (Hasselkus, 2010).

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Overall, passage and implementation of this legislation stresses the increasing need to educate future public administrators to write more concisely while remain- ing focused on the document’s audience(s). The combination of public policy and workforce demands support the recommendation to require administrative or technical writing courses in undergraduate public administration curriculum.

UNIVERSITY APPROACHES The challenge of improving undergraduate student writing skills is not unique

to the public administration discipline; undergraduate programs across the United States struggle to incorporate writing assignments in their courses (Glenn, 2011). Some public administration, public affairs, and public policy programs have institutionalized solutions. The following section discusses results from a survey completed by NASPAA-accredited U.S. undergraduate public affairs program directors and coordinators.

Undergraduate Program Survey A five-question e-mail survey was sent to academic coordinators in 72 under-

graduate programs associated with member schools listed on NASPAA’s website (National Association, n.d.; see Appendix A of this article). The survey asked the undergraduate program coordinators to provide information about any admini- strative or technical writing course offered within or outside their department. Following Dillman’s (2007) approach, non-responsive programs received a reminder e-mail 1 week later and a phone call 3 weeks after the initial e-mail. Of the 72 programs, 53 responded, for a response rate of 74%.

Twelve undergraduate programs are no longer active, are suspended, or are listed incorrectly on the NASPAA website. Of the remaining 41 programs, 32% (13 out of 41) required an administrative and/or technical writing course in the program; two programs have a designated writing course in the department, while 11 programs recommend technical writing courses in the English, Communications, or Business departments (Table 2). Ten programs (24%) have modified existing core courses as writing-intensive courses (Table 3). Eighteen programs (44%) did not require an administrative and/or technical writing course. These results alignwith Raphael and Nesbary’s (2005) study of communication courses in MPA programs. Should a public administration program offer an administrative writing course, or should the program refer students to technical writing courses in a Business, English, or Communications department? Concerns include evaluating the level of technical writing skills of public administration faculty and their ability to teach a writing course, as well as adopting a newly required writing course in an estab- lished program curriculum. Although 85% of responding programs require technical writing courses outside the program (primarily in the English department), there are benefits to creating a discipline-specific administrative writing course and potentially hiring an adjunct instructor with a technical writing background. Grammar is constructed; it depends on the discourse community that you belong

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to and what the community considers acceptable usage (Northedge, 2003). Each discipline and field has its own discourse community (i.e., engineering, law, journalism, medicine, government, etc.).

Although this type of course reviews different genres of professional writing (e.g., memos, reports, executive summaries, website evaluation), it also focuses on genres (e.g., grant proposals, press releases, federal rule evaluation) and characteristics unique to the public and nonprofit sector discourse community.

Table 2. Required Writing Courses in Undergraduate Public Administration, Public Affairs, or Public Policy Programs

University Writing Course in Public Administration Department

Writing Course in Other Department

Arizona State University ENG 216: Persuasive Writing on Public Issues

Auburn University at Montgomery

ENG 3050: Advanced Exposi- tory Writing

California State University, Bakersfield

COMM 304: Technical and Report Writing

California State University, San Bernardino

MGMT 306: Expository Writing

Indiana University, Bloomington

ENG-W 231: Professional Writ- ing Skills; BUS-X 204: Business Communications

Indiana University–Purdue University, Ft. Wayne

ENG W232: Introduction to Business Writing; ENG W233: Intermediate Expository Writing

Indiana University–Purdue University, Indianapolis

ENG-W 231: Professional Writing Skills; BUS-X 204: Business Communications

University of Central Florida

PAD 3733: Administrative Writing in the Public Sector

University of Maine PAA 390: Technical Writing and Communication for Public Service

University of Maine at Augusta

ENG 317w: Advanced Technical Communication

University of North Dakota ENG 125: Technical and Business Writing

University of North Texas TECM 2700: Technical Writing

University of San Francisco INTD 307: Experience and Critical Writing; INTD 308: Advanced Expository Writing

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Table 3. Writing Intensive Courses in Undergraduate Public Administration, Public Affairs, or Public Policy Programs

University Writing Intensive Course in Public Administration

Department

Writing Intensive Course in Other Department

College of William and Mary Major Writing Requirement in an Economics course

Duke University PUBPOL 114: Political Analysis for Public Policy Making

Florida Atlantic University PAD 4935: Senior Seminar (writing intensive); PAD 4933: Capstone Seminar in Public Management

Georgia State University PMAP 3311: Critical Policy Issues; PMAP 4051: Evaluating Public Policy

James Madison University PPA 420: Public Management

Michigan State University Tier II Writing Course

Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg

PUBPL 304W: Public Policy Analysis

Rutgers University–Newark PAD 302: Global Urban Experi- ence

Stephen F. Austin State University

PBA 305: American Public Policy; PBA 405: Policy Analysis

University of Albany, SUNY RPUB 499: Senior Seminar

Additionally, the course reinforces grammar, editing, and APA style rules and techniques, all of which aligns with best practices from the communications liter- ature (e.g., Hines & Basso, 2008). The next section provides an overview of pedagogical theories that informed and grounded the development of the admin- istrative writing course.

DESIGNING THE ADMINISTRATIVE WRITING COURSE The School of Public Administration at a large university located in a south-

eastern, metropolitan city created a mandatory, undergraduate administrative writing course within the program curriculum. Faculty members, advisory board members, and local public sector leaders and employers identified writing deficiencies among current and former students: grammar (specifically incomplete sentences, run-on sentences, incorrect use of punctuation), wordiness, formatting and structure, plagiarism and improper use of APA style, and passive voice. To address many of

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these writing deficiencies, the course design used a blended pedagogy with multiple grading mechanisms (i.e., exams, online modules, peer editing, group work, and individual writing assignments). The course also incorporated professional technical writers as guest speakers (e.g., the county’s communication director, the city’s public information officer, a local government website designer, and a federal grant writer/ reviewer) who provided students with writing examples from their organizations.

Stanford (1992) provides some best writing practices for MPA programs: incorporating many short writing assignments instead of one lengthy research paper; writing for multiple audiences; setting clear writing goals and competencies for students in the course; evaluating students’ writing and providing feedback; and handling students’ writing workload, which can overwhelm writing instructors. The next sections discuss these best practices, as well as some pedagogical theories for grammar and writing, in more detail as they relate to the undergraduate admin- istrative writing course design.

Grammar Review Although not discussed by Stanford (1992), the course began with a brief

grammar review. Hines and Basso’s case study stresses the need for grammar review in communication/writing courses: “At the heart of all written communication remains the proper use of the rules of English Grammar. … Incoherent sentences and ambiguous thoughts doom writing to fail at its most fundamental and im- portant level, communicating ideas” (2008, pp. 294, 297). The grammar review incorporated a mix of the rules-based and content-based approaches. The rules- based approach to teaching grammar (also known as deductive approach and traditional school grammar approach) is a teacher-centered approach focusing on grammar definitions and rules, and then requiring students to apply those rules to specific isolated exercises (Weaver, 1996). Examples of this approach include diagramming sentences and memorizing definitions (e.g., predicates, fragments, subordinate clauses).

The content-based, or inductive, approach gained popularity in the 1960s and applies grammar definitions and rules to students’ writing (Quible & Griffin, 2007). Through this student-centered approach, students discover grammar rules, concepts, and exceptions while writing or editing their assignments. Weaver (1996) advocated for the content-based approach for teaching grammar and citied many studies (i.e., Calkins, 1980; DiStefano & Killion, 1984; Harris & Rowan, 1989; Noguchi, 1991) conducted on elementary through college-aged students. Specifically applicable to the design of the administrative writing course is Harris and Rowan’s (1989) study of undergraduate students’ understanding of grammar concepts. The authors concluded that students needed the application of grammar concepts in their writing, in addition to knowing grammar rules and definitions. Specifically, students in the study could define a sentence, but failed to differentiate between a fragment or run-on sentence and a grammatically correct sentence (Weaver, 1996).

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Scholars (i.e., Hartwell, 1985; Kolln & Gray, 2009) note that teaching grammar out of context largely has no impact on improving students’ writing.

Although the debate between rules-based and content-based approaches to teaching grammar continues (Quible & Griffin, 2007), this article recommends a combination of the two approaches, especially when there is a mix of students from different generations and with varied learning styles. The course design in- cluded the combined approaches because feedback on student deficiencies from faculty indicated the need for a grammar rules review before applying the rules to writing. For the first 2 weeks of the course, I created grammar and editing assignments based on the rules-based approach (e.g., separate grammar exercise worksheets on specific rules), which provided the needed foundation for future writing assignments. Students requesting additional instruction in grammar rules received sources for self-study.1

After the grammar review, the class reviews the American Psychological Association’s (APA) writing and formatting style. This style is required in every public administration core course in our school, yet few students had received formal training. The students were mostly familiar with the Modern Language Association writing style, which the Liberal Arts commonly use in English courses. I reviewed common differences between the two styles and taught APA style in more detail, and then required students to complete an interactive APA online module offered through the university’s library Obojobo system.2 The module is easily incorporated into any course with the website link provided in the syllabus, and the system grades the concluding quiz. As discussed later in this article, including a university’s library or writing center online grammar, writing, or editing module helps overcome the large amount of time required to evaluate students’ writing and use of grammar. Then the course focus shifted for the remainder of the semester to a content-based approach where students apply grammar rules and concepts in their writing assignments.

Multiple Short Writing Assignments In most public administration courses, writing assignments consist of long

research papers. Although this skill is useful to develop if a student is interested in attending graduate school, it is not as useful in the practitioner world (Stanford, 1992). Professional writing consists of brief writing, such as memos, letters, reports, executive summaries, and press releases. When students are being introduced to a new discourse community, Northedge (2003) recommends small, frequent writing assignments that allow students to “position themselves within the discourse” (p. 178). Zeiser (1999) recommends modifying current course writing assignments from research papers to shorter writing assignments, thus allowing students to receive more feedback from the instructor on their writing and formatting.3 Another option is to add small writing elements to a research paper, such as an executive summary, press/news release, twitter feeds, or business letter. These

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smaller assignments can be completed before writing the research paper and provide students additional opportunities for grammar, formatting, editing, and content feedback.

All assignments in the administrative writing course are examples of writing genres realistic to the public and nonprofit sector. I designed individual and group assignments to mimic the work environment I experienced as a technical writer for 11 years in the federal and local government and the private and nonprofit sectors. Students were encouraged to use a variety of media to complete and submit their assignments, including hard copy and electronic collaborative learning tools (i.e., Google Docs, discussion threads). The eight genres of government and nonprofit writing covered include Rules, Regulations, and Administrative Procedures; Executive Summaries and Abstracts; Policy Handbooks and Guides; Memorandums; Press Releases; Professional Report Writing; Grant Proposal Writing; and Government/ Nonprofit Websites.

Most of the assignments were modified from the course textbook, Writing for the Government (Allison & Williams, 2008), and students could customize the topic of the assignment (e.g., the final assignment could evaluate a nonprofit organization website). (See Appendix B). As discussed further in the conclusion, future modifications to assignments should include more peer editing and require students to provide recommendations when reviewing government documents and websites.

Writing for Multiple Audiences Audience-centered writing is a common pedagogy in technical writing courses

and an important one to incorporate in an administrative writing course. Public administrators frequently write for multiple audiences, including internal (i.e., employees, volunteers, supervisor/managers, board members) and external stakeholders (i.e., public, interest groups, community partners, elected officials) in various programs (Lee, 2000; Raphael & Nesbary, 2005). These audiences have different needs and levels of understanding. For the writing assignments, I require students to consider and include the intended audience at the top of the document. For about half of the assignments, I give the document back to the student without reviewing it and ask them to rewrite the document for a different audience. Then students submit both documents—same topic but different audiences—for grading. For example, a memo about a potential public health threat for children will contain varying levels of detailed information when written for parents versus principals of local schools.

Writing Goals and Competencies As with any course, clear learning objectives should be included in the syllabus

and reviewed with students at the beginning of the semester. Some learning goals for the administrative writing course have been discussed (i.e., analyze writing samples for grammar and formatting using editing notations; apply the principles

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of understanding an audience and modify the document to better fit the in- tended audience).

As potential managers, students need to learn editing techniques in addition to having a good grammar foundation. Therefore, training students to become better editors is a goal of this course and ties into the recognized deficiencies. Students spend time learning to reduce redundancy, wordiness, and use of clichés and slang. Nearly every writing assignment incorporates editing techniques requiring the student to submit more than one copy of the assignment. I created an APA style editing checklist for the course, which is posted on the school’s website for all public administration students to access (see Appendix C). Instructors could require students to use this checklist, or something similar, when completing writing assignments to encourage incorporating the editing and polishing stage of the writing process.

Evaluating Student Writing A common complaint about incorporating additional writing assignments

is the amount of time it takes for instructors to provide individual feedback. Although a writing course requires more time commitment for the instructor, the literature recommends a number of options to decrease the time commitment (e.g., peer editing, freewriting, online modules, short assignments, group work; Stanford, 1992). As discussed previously in this article, the administrative writing course incorporated some of these options throughout the semester.

Studies of student peer-editing and peer-reviewing exercises have concluded with increased results in student writing and editing skills (Cho & Cho, 2011; Diab, 2010). I incorporated peer editing not only to reinforce editing, grammar, and APA formatting skills but also to reduce the amount of my editing time. Students distributed copies of their writing assignment to two classmates and used the APA-specific editing checklist I created as a guide in the peer-editing process. I recommend students peer edit at least two other papers and include the edited drafts with the final paper. Additionally, students worked in groups on some assignments (i.e., basic grammar, memo, and report assignments); this activity not only lightened my grading load but also mimicked a real-world task.

Pre- and Post-Test Results Results from pre- and post-tests over the first four semesters of the course show

an increase of between 14 and 22.6 percentage points in students’ application of grammatical and formatting rules (Table 1). The pre- and post-tests measured students’ learning with the rules-based approach and included nine grammar questions and 11 APA formatting questions. Grammar questions focused on fragments, comma splices, fused sentences, subject-verb agreement, and pronoun agreement. The APA style and formatting included test questions on quotations and quotation marks, in-text citations, capitalization, and punctuation.

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100.0%

80.0%

60.0%

40.0%

20.0%

0.0% Spring 2011 Summer 2011 Fall 2011 Spring 2012

17.5% 14.7% 22.6%

14.0%

Figure 1. Pre- and Post-Test Percentage Increase Results

Although the students’ post-test scores show a measurable increase, there is room for improvement (Figure 1). One way to increase students’ grammar and formatting knowledge is modifying the course design. I taught the rules-based grammar approach during the first 2 weeks of the course; the remaining weeks implemented the content-based approach. Students complete the post-test during the final exam review in the second-to-last week of the semester. A lesson learned is not separating the two approaches, but integrating them throughout the entire semester. A potential solution

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