After reviewing the Chp. 4 power point, des
After reviewing the Chp. 4 power point, describe the stages of sleep and what happens during each stage.
Your discussions must be a minimum of 2 paragraphs. Please use proper grammar and punctuation.
Module 4.1 States of Consciousness
Module 4.2 Sleeping and Dreaming
Module 4.3 Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis
Module 4.4 Altering Consciousness Through Drugs
Consciousness deals with our awareness of ourselves and the world around us.
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Module 4.1
States of Consciousness
William James: Described consciousness as a stream of thoughts
Today’s view: Consciousness is a state of awareness of ourselves and of our world.
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Focused awareness
Drifting consciousness (e.g., daydreaming)
Divided consciousness
Altered states of consciousness
States of unconsciousness during sleep
and dreaming
States or levels of consciousness vary through the course of day from brief states of full absorption, called focused awareness, to states of distracted consciousness, divided consciousness, altered states of consciousness associated with practice of meditation and hypnosis and use of psychoactive drugs, and states of unconsciousness during sleep and dreaming.
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Source: Adapted from 2003 Nerves of Steel survey, commissioned by the Steel Alliance and the Canada Safety Council, retrieved from
www.safety-council.org/info/traffic/distract.html
© mtsyri/Shutterstock.com
© Galina Barskaya/Shutterstock.com
| Behaviors | Yourself (%) | Another Driver (%) |
| Drinking beverages (e.g., coffee, soft drinks) | 65 | 74 |
| Eating | 53 | 66 |
| Using a cell phone | 35 | 79 |
| Arguing with passengers | 27 | 41 |
| Disciplining children | 18 | 33 |
| Reading | 8 | 26 |
| Putting on makeup, shaving, or combing hair | 8 | 43 |
| Using PDAs, laptops, or other high-tech devices | 5 | 21 |
Risks of divided consciousness, especially distracted driving.
Driving while on the phone is about as dangerous as driving with a blood alcohol concentration at the legal limit.
Here we see some of the other foolish things that people do when they are driving, all of which reduce their focus on driving in a safe manner.
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Module 4.2
Sleeping and Dreaming
Why do we sleep?
Several functions of sleep have been proposed:
Protective function
Energy conservation
Restore bodily processes
Consolidate newly learned information into lasting memories
May bolster immune system
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© Cengage Learning
12
3
9
6
Humans and other animals operate on a 24-hour biological cycle, called a circadian rhythm. These daily cycles are particularly important in the regulation of sleep.
Many bodily processes fluctuate in a daily pattern. Sleep-wake cycle is close to 24 hours in length. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus Jet lag is associated with a disruption of the sleep-wake cycle.
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Exposure to light apparently affects the activity of a small structure in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which sends signals to the nearby pineal gland, whose secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in adjusting biological clocks.
This video shows a few possible treatments that can be used for jet lag, with varying efficacy.
How does jet lag affect you?
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Visiting Team
Flies East
Wins 37% of Games
Visiting Team
Flies West
Wins 44% of Games
Getting out of sync with your circadian rhythms causes a reduction in the quality of sleep, as well as jet lag.
The speed of readjustment to the biological block depends on the direction traveled – traveling westward is generally easier than traveling eastward.
Jet lag has a significant enough impact that it affects the performance of sports teams, as you can see here.
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Amplitude
Frequency
Measuring variations of consciousness has historically relied on the electroencephalograph, or EEG.
The EEG records activity in the cortex with a series of brain-wave tracings that vary in amplitude and frequency.
Different EEG patterns are associated with different states of consciousness.
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Stage 1 Sleep
Small, irregular brain waves
Stage 2 Sleep
Sleep Spindles and Mixed EEG Activity
Slow-wave Sleep (Stage 3 and Stage 4 Sleep)
Progressively More Delta Waves (Stage 4 Shown)
Small, irregular brain waves
Sleep Spindle
Stage 1 is a brief stage of light sleep characterized by small, irregular brain waves.
[Click to continue]
During stage 2, brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles, appear against a background of mixed EEG activity.
[Click to continue]
Gradually, your brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in frequency. As you move into stages 3 and 4, which are called slow-wave sleep, delta waves become prominent
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© Cengage Learning
Beta waves are correlated with alertness and problem solving. Alpha waves are associated with resting and relaxation. Delta waves, which are slow rhythmic brain wave patterns, are associated with deep sleep.
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1
2
3
4
1
3
2
4
5
6
7
Waking
REM sleep
Hours of sleep
Sleep stages
After about a half-hour in these deep stages of sleep, the cycle reverses itself, and you gradually move upward through lighter stages of sleep.
When you reach what should be stage 1 once again, you usually go into the fifth stage of sleep, which is called REM sleep.
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Awake
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves
REM Sleep
Low Amplitude, High Frequency Beta Waves
1 Second
50 µv
EEG activity during REM sleep is dominated by high-frequency beta waves that resemble those observed when people are awake and alert.
REM sleep is the stage of sleep during which most dreaming occurs.
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Wakefulness
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
REM
REM
During the course of a night, people usually repeat the sleep cycle about four times.
As the night wears on, the cycle gradually changes. The first REM period is relatively short. Subsequent REM periods are longer, peaking at around 40 to 60 minutes. Additionally, non-REM intervals tend to get shorter, and descents into non-REM stages usually become shallower.
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Time
Wakefulness
Stage1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
REM
Dreams
Dreams typically occur during REM sleep and often have vivid imagery, a story-like quality, and are sometimes bizarre, but seem real to the dreamer.
People may also dream in non-REM sleep, although the dreams tend to be briefer, less frequent, less story-like and lacking in vivid imagery.
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© Cengage Learning
According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, the cerebral cortex tries to make sense of random electrical discharges from the brainstem during sleep, piecing together story-like dreams based on memories and emotional associations.
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© Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, SuperStock 2008 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAC, Paris
The question of what dreams mean continues to be debated. Research shows that the content of dreams is usually familiar. Common themes in dreams include things like falling, being pursued, trying repeatedly to do something, school, sex, being late, eating, being frightened, etc.
Freud believed that dreams represent the deepest wishes, urges, and desires of our unconscious. He believed that wish fulfillment was the major impetus behind the dreams that we have.
Manifest content – The events that actually occur in your dream.
Latent content – The true, underlying meaning of a dream, disguised by symbols.
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Have you ever been aware that you were dreaming?
Do you ever have the ability to control the content and direction of your dreams?
Lucid dreams involve being aware that one is in a dream state and, less frequently, being able to control the dream that is occurring.
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How Long We Sleep
When Americans
Go to Bed
Source: CDC, National Health Interview Survey, 2008
Source: Adapted from “Sleepless in America,” a survey conducted by the ACNielsen Company, April 2005
Research suggests that the effects of sleep deprivation are impaired attention, reaction time, cognitive speed and accuracy, motor coordination, and decision making.
Drowsiness factors into about 20% of all traffic incidents, as well as contributing to accidents in the workplace.
Sleep deprivation is also linked to health problems, including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and coronary disease.
Both total amount and type of sleep affects functioning
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This news clip shows examines research linking lack of sleep and childhood obesity.
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Sleep disorders are quite varied. The most common, however, is insomnia.
Insomnia occurs in 3 different patterns…trouble falling asleep, trouble remaining asleep, and persistent early morning awakening.
Other sleep disorders include narcolepsy, a disorder involving the sudden and irresistible onset of sleep, and sleep apnea, a frequent, reflexive gasping for air that disrupts sleep.
Nightmare disorder involves frequent, disturbing nightmares that interfere markedly with normal sleep, and sleep-terror disorder involves panic-laden “night terrors” that seem to be unrelated to dream content.
Sleepwalking, when persistent and chronic, may be more than a passing phase and may indicate a sleep-wake disorder.
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Module 4.3
Altering Consciousness Through Meditation and Hypnosis
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Transcendental Meditation
Mindfulness Meditation
Kim Eriksen/Flirt/Corbis
Meditation is an ancient discipline which has recently become an area of growing interest.
Involves the focusing on attention and inducing a relaxed, contemplative state.
Transcendental meditation – focusing attention by the repetition of a mantra
Mindfulness meditation – focus on unfolding experiences on a moment-to-moment basis without judgment (e.g, "Am I doing this right?") bearing on their experiences
Health benefits of meditation include: combating the effects of stress, lowering blood pressure, and relieving chronic pain, insomnia, anxiety, and depression.
Cognitive benefits include improved memory and emotional processing.
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B. BOISSONNET/BSIP/Alamy
Hypnosis involves a systematic procedure involving a narrowing or focusing of attention that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility and states of deep relaxation.
There are varied techniques for inducing hypnosis.
Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair)
Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)
Hypnotic phenomena include:
Hypnotic age regression
Hypnotic analgesia (anesthesia, as used during dental or medical procedures)
Distortions of reality (auditory or visual hallucinations, or negative hallucinations—not perceiving an object that is there, like a chair) Posthypnotic amnesia (“You will remember nothing that occurred during your hypnotized state”)
Posthypnotic suggestion (“After you awake, you will feel itchy all over when you hear the word watermelon.”).
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Role-playing model
Trance state
Hilgard’s neodissociation theory
Dissociated consciousness
The Hidden Observer
There is no consensual agreement about what hypnosis “is” or even how to define it. The most prominent theories of hypnosis include the belief that it involves a trance-like state of consciousness, role-playing theory which focuses on the social interaction between the hypnotist and the subject, and Hilgard’s neodissociation theory or splitting of consciousness.
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Well-developed fantasy life
Vivid sense of imagination
Tendency to be forgetful
Positive attitude toward hypnosis
People vary in their hypnotizablity.
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Module 4.4
Altering Consciousness Through Drugs
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Chemical substances that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states
Used for a variety of reasons:
Change level of alertness
Alter one’s mental state
Blunt awareness of the stresses
and strains of daily life
Seek inner truths
Psychoactive drugs modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. They are divided into three general classes: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.
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When does drug use cross the line to drug abuse?
What is drug dependence?
What is psychological dependence?
Drug Abuse and Dependence
Substance abuse involves maladaptive use of a drug associated with harmful consequences
Drug dependence involves impaired control over the use of the drug, typically associated with physiological or chemical dependences, as marked by a withdrawal syndrome and/or tolerance.
Psychological dependence is characterized by compulsive use of a substance to meet a psychological need (cope with stress, treat anxiety or depression).
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Depressants – drugs that reduce central nervous system activity. Include alcohol, barbiturates and tranquilizers, and opioids.
Alcohol is the most widely used psychoactive drug.
Alcohol is classified as a depressant drug, although may incorrectly believe it to be a stimulant. When people drink heavily, the effect is a relaxed euphoria that temporarily boosts self-esteem and decreases inhibitions.
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Progressive Effects of Blood Alcohol Levels
Source: Adapted from Teacher’s Guide: Information about Alcohol, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism, 2003. Retrieved from http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih3/alcohol/guide/info-alcohol.htm
Physical and Psychological Effects of Alcohol
| Blood Alcohol Concentration (%) | Effects/Risks |
| 0.01–0.05 | Relaxation, sense of well-being, loss of inhibition, impaired alertness and judgment |
| 0.06–0.10 | Pleasure, numbness of feelings, nausea, sleepiness, emotional arousal, and impaired coordination (especially for fine motor skills) |
| 0.11–0.20 | Mood swings, anger, sadness, mania, impaired reasoning and depth perception, and inappropriate social behavior (obnoxiousness) |
| 0.21–0.30 | Aggression, reduced sensations, depression, stupor, slurred speech, lack of balance, and loss of temperature regulation |
| 0.031–0.40 | Unconsciousness, coma, possible death, loss of bladder control, and difficulty breathing |
| 0.41 and greater | Slowed heart rate, death |
Alcohol overdose can have fatal consequences. Here we see the general effects of different concentrations of alcohol in the blood.
Dependence on alcohol, both physically and psychologically, affects millions of Americans. Alcohol dependence is commonly called alcoholism.
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Brain Wernicke’s syndrome,
an acute condition characterized
by mental confusion and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration
of the white brain matter
Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia,
a reversible paralysis of the muscles of the eye
Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx
Esophagus Esophageal varices,
an irreversible condition in which
the person can die by drowning in his own blood when the varices open
Lungs Lowered resistance
thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia,
and emphysema
Spleen Hypersplenism
Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy,
a heart condition
Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)
Stomach Gastritis and ulcers
Pancreas Acute and
chronic pancreatitis
Rectum Hemorrhoids
Testes Atrophy of the testes
Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation
Muscles Alcoholic myopathy,
a condition resulting in painful
muscle contractions
Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia
Brain Wernicke’s syndrome, an acute condition characterized by mental confusion
and ocular abnormalities; Korsakoff’s syndrome, a psychotic condition characterized by impairment of memory and learning, apathy, and degeneration of the white brain matter
Eyes Tobacco-alcohol blindness; Wernicke’s ophthalmoplegia, a reversible paralysis
of the muscles of the eye
Pharynx Cancer of the pharynx
Esophagus Esophageal varices, an irreversible condition in which the person can die
by drowning in his own blood when the varices open
Lungs Lowered resistance thought to lead to greater incidence of tuberculosis, pneumonia, and emphysema
Spleen Hypersplenism
Heart Alcoholic cardiomyopathy, a heart condition
Liver Acute enlargement of liver, which is reversible, as well as irreversible alcoholic’s liver (cirrhosis)
Stomach Gastritis and ulcers
Pancreas Acute and chronic pancreatitis
Rectum Hemorrhoids
Testes Atrophy of the testes
Nerves Polyneuritis, a condition characterized by loss of sensation
Muscles Alcoholic myopathy, a condition resulting in painful muscle contractions
Blood and Bone Marrow Coagulation defects and anemia
© Cengage Learning
Alcoholism is associated with a diverse array of physiological maladies, such as liver disease, malnutrition, brain damage, neurological disorders, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, ulcers, cancer, and birth defects.
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This clip involves a person discussing his experience of suffering from alcoholism.
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Alcohol Use Among
College Students
Alcohol on Campus:
The Annual Toll
Source: Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001
Source: Hingson et al., 2002; Sink, 2004; Yaccino, 2012. Note: These figures represent the estimated annual numbers of alcohol-related physical assaults, injuries, sexual assaults, and deaths among U.S. college students ages 18 to 24
| 86.6 | Percentage who have used alcohol in their lifetime |
| 83.2 | Percentage who have used alcohol within the past year |
| 67.4 | Percentage who have used alcohol within the past 30 days |
| 3.6 | Percentage who have used alcohol daily within the past 30 days |
| 39.3 | Percentage who have had five or more drinks in a row during the last 2 weeks |
| 600,000 physical assaults |
| 500,000 injuries |
| 70,000 sexual assaults |
| 1,800 deaths due to overdose and accidents |
College campuses are often described as “alcohol-soaked,” and while that may be a slight overstatement the fact remains that drinking is a major problem at colleges.
Binge drinking and drinking games pose significant health risks, particularly to those who are not accustomed to such alcohol consumption.
It is important not only to monitor your own behaviors and protect yourself, but to also know the signs of dangerous alcohol overdoes and how to respond appropriately if someone has drunk excessively.
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Barbiturates are calming or sedating drugs that have legitimate medicinal use, but can be abused ot lead to dependence. Some examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, and secobarbital.
Tranquilizers are most commonly prescribed to treat anxiety and insomnia. They can be very dangerous in high doses, and should never be combined with alcohol. One category of tranquilizers, benzodiazepines, includes Valium, Xanax, and Halcion.
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Barbiturates and
Tranquilizers
Yes
Risk of physiological
Dependence
Yes
Risk of Psychological
Dependence
High
Fatal Overdose
Potential
Drugs
Sedatives also have high rates of dependence and fatal overdose potential. They also increase the risk of accidental injuries because they severely impair motor coordination and are especially dangerous when mixed with other drugs, such as alcohol.
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Opioids
Opioids are narcotics, including heroin, morphine, codeine, and Demerol, are addictive drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties. They also produce an overwhelming sense of euphoria – a “who cares” quality. Heroin, morphine, opium, and codeine are derived from the poppy plants. Synthetic opiates, such as OxyContin and Vicodin, are synthesized in the laboratory to have opiate-like effects.
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Opioids
(Narcotics)
Yes
Risk of Physiological
Dependence
Yes
Risk of Psychological
Dependence
Yes
Fatal Overdose
Potential
Drugs
Narcotics have high rates of physical and psychological dependence, as well as a high risk for fatal overdose.
Other risks include infectious diseases (through sharing of needles), accidents, and immune suppression.
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Caffeine
Nicotine
Amphetamines
Cocaine
MDMA (“Ecstasy”)
Examples of Stimulants
Stimulants include mild drugs such as caffeine and nicotine, as well as much stronger drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines. Cocaine and amphetamines have similar effects, except the effects of amphetamines last longer. The euphoria created by these drugs is very different from the “who cares,” very relaxed state of narcotics. It is more like an “I can conquer the world,” or very alert state of being.
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Amphetamines are synthetic stimulants that are synthesized in a laboratory.
They boost neurotransmitters in the brain, especially dopamine, to achieve their effects.
Health risks of the abuse of amphetamines include restlessness, loss of appetite, tremors, and heart irregularities that can lead to a coma or death.
Amphetamine psychosis is marked by delusions and hallucinations and can resemble an episode of schizophrenia.
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1. Neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are stored
in synaptic vesicles in the sending neuron and released into the synaptic gap. Normally, excess molecules of neurotransmitters not taken up by receptor sites are absorbed by the sending neuron in a recycling process called reuptake.
2. Cocaine (orange circles in diagram) blocks the reuptake of dopamine by the sending neuron.
3. The accumulation of dopamine in the synapse overstimulates neurons in key reward pathways
in the brain, producing a pleasurable “high.”
Over time, the brain becomes less capable of producing feelings of pleasure on its own, leading users to “crash” if they stop using the drug.
Sending neuron
Synaptic vesicle
Neurotransmitters
Synaptic gap
Receptor site
Receiving neuron
Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institutes of Health, 2004
Cocaine interferes with the reuptake of dopamine by the transmitting neuron. As a result, more dopamine remains available to bind at receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, causing greater levels of excitation and stimulation of reward pathways in the brain, producing states of pleasure or euphoria.
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The major preventable cause of death
450,000 deaths annually in the U.S.
Accounts for one in five deaths in the U.S.
Decreases average lifespan by 10 years
Responsible for nearly 1 of 3 cancer deaths in the U.S.
Major contributor to serious health problems
Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the U.S. and worldwide.
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Stimulants
Yes
Yes
Risk of Psychological
Dependence
High for
amphetamine and
cocaine overdose
Fatal Overdose
Potential
Drugs
Risk of Physiological
Dependence
Stimulants have moderate to high levels of physical and psychological dependence, as well as risk of fatal overdose.
Other risks include sleep problems, malnutrition, nasal damage (from snorting), hypertension, and respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease and other diseases (from smoking).
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LSD
Mescaline, Psilocybin, and PCP
Marijuana
© Ann Marie Rousseau/The Image Works
Hallucinogens induce sensory distortions and hallucinations that vary in intensity from relatively mild (marijuana) to extreme (LSD).
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Cannabis is the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) are derived. THC, the active chemical ingredient, causes a mild, relaxed euphoria and enhanced sensory awareness. The most potent form is hashish (“hash”) which is derived from the resin of the plant.
More than 40% of American report having used it at least once, with 10% being active current users.
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Marijuana
Unclear
Risk of Physical
Dependence
Yes
Risk of Psychological
Dependence
Low
Fatal Overdose
potential
Drugs
It is unclear what the risk is of physiological dependence on marijuana, however there is potential of psychological dependence.
Other risks asso
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