What types of tools are used in traditional economic development? How are these tools similar? How are they different? 2. Who
1. What types of tools are used in traditional economic development? How are these tools similar? How are they different?
2. Who is involved in the decision-making process with traditional and neighborhood economic development? Does the composition of the group of decision-makers make a difference?
3. What do we know about the outcomes of traditional economic development projects – who benefits and who doesn't?
4. Moving forward, what are your policy recommendations to overcome some of the shortcomings of traditional economic development?
PADM 7224 1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Edwards & Imrie (2015) Chapters 5 & 6
3
PADM 7224 2
CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY PLANNING AND PARTNERSHIP
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224 3
Community Planning and Partnership
Renew/improve cities through community engagement
How do to it?
Note: Reminder that several parts of this book discuss urban policy outside of the U.S. Most of the examples in this chapter focus on community-based urban policy in the United Kingdom (UK).
PADM 7224 4
Community Planning and Partnership Defining Community
What is community? Complex term with socially constructed boundaries Often seen as positive concept – used by policy-
makers to spur change (e.g., “there is a breakdown in our community, so we need to act)
4 common conceptualizations: Community as a place/geography (e.g., Memphis) Community as an interest group (e.g., Black
community) Community organizations (e.g., nonprofits) Community as process (e.g., community development)
PADM 7224 5
Community Planning and Partnership Community & the Urban Problem
~19th century urbanization was described as antithesis of “community” Conceptualization of the urban “community” was
different than the rural “community” Urban policy typically targets “communities” to
encourage citizens to participate in urban regeneration, or create “community”
Shift in urban policy from social community regeneration (prior late 1970s) to economic community regeneration (post late 1970s)
PADM 7224 6
Community Planning and Partnership Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
Communitarianism – idea that collective bonds with those around us are important to prevent social exclusion, which leads to urban decline
Build social capital – linkages that connect people – to build urban renewal
Communities should be given the responsibility to drive change
PADM 7224 7
Community Planning and Partnership Putting Community Activation into Practice
Community-based urban policy changes governance – private (for-profit and non- profit) organizations have more seats at the governing table
Level of community-involvement can vary substantially from policy to policy – from “add-ons” to “key partners”
All communities (neighborhoods) do not have the existing expertise, knowledge, or ability to engage in policy-making
PADM 7224 8
Community Planning and Partnership Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Unanswered questions – Is community involvement in policy-making
simply tokenism by government or is it of actual value?
Is the policy implemented with the level of community involvement intended in the spirit of the policy?
PADM 7224 9
Community Planning and Partnership Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Looking for answers – Who represents the community? “Community” as conceptualized by policy-makers and
implementers often differs from those living in the community
Who sets the rules for participation? Policy-makers (city or broader) often continue to
create the top-down rules for engagement How is power distributed in community
partnerships? “Expert” knowledge tends to be prioritized over
“localized” knowledge
PADM 7224 10
Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy Web Links
British Library – Community Development and Regeneration https://www.bl.uk/social-
welfare/collection- items?allportalsubjects=community%20de velopment%20and%20regeneration
PADM 7224 11
CHAPTER 6: CULTURE & THE CREATIVE CITY
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224 12
Culture & the Creative City
Key to modern urban policy is promoting the city’s culture and creativity to improve well-being (economic and social) Festivals, sport facilities and events, “place-
marketing” General idea – cultural strategies lead to
economic development Critical question – who benefits from this
policy and what who does the policy attract to the city?
PADM 7224 13
Culture & the Creative City: Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
Growing trend since late 20th century to market/promote culture to grow the city
For many it was a part of a “reinventing” process after loss of manufacturing industry – adapting to a post-industrial world
Challenged traditional urban planning with a shot of innovation
New “cultural” industries (i.e., the arts) to attract – fashion, design, music, film, etc.
PADM 7224 14
Culture & the Creative City: Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen Florida’s “Creative Class” (2002) General idea – to thrive cities need to
attract new class of educated professionals who work in post- industrial tech, knowledge, and cultural industries; to attract them cities need to cater to their “bohemian” lifestyle (three “T’s”)
Highly influential, but controversial Blamed for (or contributed to) large
influx of gentrification and increasing inequality in the 21st century city
U.S counties by “creativity index”
PADM 7224 15
Culture & the Creative City: Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Not one specific “cultural promotion” policy, multiple initiatives and strategies
Culture defined as art vs. culture defined as society – different policy approaches
Typical goal is that these policies lead to economic consumption (e.g., coffee shops, shopping/retail, nightlife, etc.) and vibrant public spaces Typically creates neighborhood pockets
(“cultural quarters” – see figure 6.7, p. 162) Culture and fads change, is it sustainable?
PADM 7224 16
Culture & the Creative City: Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Flagship urban development Revitalizing urban areas with large
construction and architecture projects (such as inner city, waterfront, etc.)
“…even the most landlocked cities have done their best to find some sort of waterfront” (p. 163)
Place-marketing (“re-branding”) Promote distinctive cultural features that set
apart the city, attract investment Brand decay? Does the image represent all
local identities?
PADM 7224 17
Culture & the Creative City: Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
Cultural Events and Festivals Large-scale, short-term events that attract
tourism and investment Also used to increase concept of
“community”, improve social bonds, and reduce social exclusion
Example – Memphis in May Example – soccer stadium in Chester, PA Competitive example – Olympic Games
bidding process
PADM 7224 18
Culture & the Creative City: Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
What much weight should we put into cultural-led regeneration efforts? Exists a knowledge gap in actual impact –
both economic and social Further exploration needed in trickle-down
effects and sustainability of efforts Multiple different types of strategies (i.e.,
policies) that fall within this “bucket” with multiple different outcomes
PADM 7224 19
Culture & the Creative City: Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
“The evidence shows that community- based participatory cultural projects are likely to be far more beneficial in sustaining urban regeneration, but in the eyes of city marketers and management, such projects are less glamorous and unlikely to project a city onto the world stage.” (p. 170)
PADM 7224 20
Culture & the Creative City: Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Whose culture is being promoted? Tension between successful cultural
marketing (what attracts economic development) and real social inclusion (what brings all people together)
Not always mutually exclusive, but can be Political power struggles lie at the center of
this question
PADM 7224 21
Culture & the Creative City: Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
Does cultural marketing eventually result in “sameness” promotion? All cities are promoting the same type of
cultural regeneration which “homogenizes urban environments”
Fast policy transfer – X policy worked in City A so why can’t it work in City B; flawed logic
Florida’s creative class thesis neglects importance of city context in policymaking and implementation
PADM 7224 22
Culture & the Creative City: Web Links
Charles Landry (prolific author on creative cities https://charleslandry.com/about-charles-
landry/biography/
Urban Studies Special Issue on Culture- led Regeneration https://journals.sagepub.com/toc/usja/42/
5-6
- Edwards & Imrie (2015)�Chapters 5 & 6
- Chapter 5: Community Planning and Partnership
- Community Planning and Partnership
- Community Planning and Partnership�Defining Community
- Community Planning and Partnership�Community & the Urban Problem
- Community Planning and Partnership�Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
- Community Planning and Partnership�Putting Community Activation into Practice
- Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
- Community Planning and Partnership�Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
- Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy Web Links
- Chapter 6: Culture & the Creative City
- Culture & the Creative City
- Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
- Culture & the Creative City:�Origins of Culture-Led Urban Policy & Regen
- Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
- Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
- Culture & the Creative City:�Deploying Culture: Strategies & Practices
- Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
- Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
- Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
- Culture & the Creative City:�Debating Culture-led Urban Policy
- Culture & the Creative City: �Web Links
,
PADM 7224 1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Euchner & McGovern (2003) Chapter 3 – Economic Development and the
Construction of Opportunity
3
PADM 7224 2
Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
Economic development: “Stimulating business investment to expand
employment and tax revenues” Promote economic activity that spurs the
involvement of multiple groups of city citizens into productive city life
Most city leaders view economic growth as the key to urban revitalization
Key question – growth is typically viewed as a good thing, but how to promote growth that is equitable for all city citizens?
PADM 7224 3
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
1900th century – golden age of cities due to industrialization and urbanization
Early 20th century – too much success led to countertrend in growth and rise of complex urban problems
Middle 20th century – widespread deindustrialization decimated many cities Evidence – manufacturing declined between 51-
64% in major cities Factory closings rippled throughout
neighborhoods Suburbanization sky-rocketed
PADM 7224 4
The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
Suburbanization Many of those who could afford to move out of
the city did so Racial discrimination drastically limited the
mobility of people of color (e.g., “redlining”) Perfect storm – unemployment rises and tax
revenue falls City leaders feared raising taxes would
cause further erosion of tax base; but cutting of services would reduce quality of life and also cause further erosion
PADM 7224 5
Urban Renewal
1960s and 70s – city leaders focused on drawing business investment through improving downtown business districts; need not focus on neighborhoods decimated by deindustrialization Believed this was the only way for renewal Put faith in trickle down economics Wanted to create a post-industrial economy
based in professional jobs with large corporate headquarters (information technology, services, communications)
PADM 7224 6
Urban Renewal
Public-private partnerships (3Ps) drove downtown redevelopment with the support of the Housing Act of 1949 (aka “urban renewal”) City government would use eminent domain to take
“blighted” from private residents to clear it for redevelopment by private investors
“Blight” clearing often meant destroying stable Black neighborhoods, and displacing residents to scattered public housing projects
Private investors often built profitable buildings, rather than affordable housing
Civil Rights movement in late 1960s helped to slow eminent domain and urban renewal
“Urban renewal” program was consolidated in the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) in 1974
PADM 7224 7
Inducing Business Investment
1970s onward – city leaders continued to follow “logic of growth politics”; “attract and retain capital investment by persuading businesses to locate downtown”
How does city hall attract businesses? Change city tax policy to create a favorable
business tax culture (low overall tax burden and tax incentives/breaks)
Costs vs. benefits to the city of changing city tax policy to attract businesses continues to be debated
PADM 7224 8
Inducing Business Investment
Downsides to downtown development: Gentrification prices current residents out of
their neighborhoods Exacerbates income inequality – usually includes
high-paying and low-paying jobs, but few middle-class jobs
Downtown growth doesn’t trickle to the neighborhoods that need assistance
Linkage policies have attempted to force downtown development to community revitalization, with mixed results
PADM 7224 9
Enticing Visitors to the City
Economic development driven by city tourism gained traction in the 1990s Widespread building of convention centers, arts and
entertainment buildings, music venues, museums, sports arenas, etc.
Marketing existing arts and cultural opportunities more aggressively
Waterfront development Large bourgeois city shopping malls
Goal: attract visitors with a single “attraction”, get them to go to other attractions/retail, and ultimately get them to come back with more visitors
PADM 7224 10
Enticing Visitors to the City
Tourism-based urban policy is not the solution to community revitalization, but can serve as a “catalyst” to spur city growth and create city pride (think sports teams)
Even better when such policy encourages mixing of different city populations in civic spaces
Major criticisms: Doesn’t do anything for actual city growth Tourism buddle can burst – new attractions
become old, lose appeal Turns cities into artificial Disney Worlds
PADM 7224 11
Neighborhood Revitalization
Neighborhoods decimated by deindustrialization received little attention until 1950s/60s civil rights movement and 1960s race riots
Federal response was a “War on Poverty” and LBJ’s “Great Society”
1970s/80s – spending on Vietnam War, inflation, rising unemployment and perception that government was the problem not the solution quickly led to retreat of the Great Society ideals
PADM 7224 12
Neighborhood Revitalization
Economic development hasn’t aligned well with community development – “Cities should return to the traditional strategy for fighting poverty of tending to people’s material needs by providing income support, food stamps, housing vouchers, and basic health care.” (p. 117, via Lemann’s 1994 NYT article “The Myth of Community Development”)
People-based policies that enhance an individual’s opportunity for their own economic growth
PADM 7224 13
Neighborhood Revitalization
Other people-based policies: Residential dispersion (HUD’s MTO) Improve transportation options (including public
transit) for inner-city residents Address racial discrimination in hiring practices
Place-based policies haven’t had their intended effect on revitalization: 1980s Enterprise Zones 1990s Empowerment Zones
2000s and 2010s business improvement districts (BIDs) are place-based policies with substantial private involvement – mixed results
PADM 7224 14
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Economic development that focuses on “downtown” and ignores neighborhoods doesn’t work “Widespread poverty in the neighborhoods
will always be a drain on public resources, a source of upward pressure on taxes, a reason for continuing middle-class flight from the city, and a deterrent to future investment.” (p. 124)
PADM 7224 15
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Potential policy responses to improve economic growth in neighborhoods: Cooperate – not compete – with other cities
to attract investment Linkage policies tying business investment to
neighborhood revitalization efforts (local jobs, affordable housing, mass transit, etc.)
Create performance agreements with business investments
PADM 7224 16
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
Imbroscio’s (1997) alternative approach to economic growth in neighborhoods Entrepreneurial-mercantilist strategy City officials identify new market opportunities to
improve public ends (i.e., be entrepreneurial) Municipal-enterprise strategy City owns economic enterprises (utilities, airports,
hospitals, etc.) to maintain control over profits Community-based strategy Support grassroots, community-owned nonprofits to
lead neighborhood redevelopment (e.g., CDCs, community land trusts, worker cooperatives)
PADM 7224 17
Redirecting Economic Development Policy
What’s needed? Urban policy rooted in communitarian principles “The redirection in economic development may
require a more active role for government to ensure a more equitable distribution of the costs and benefits of economic growth, a stronger effort to give all citizens a meaningful stake in decision-making processes, and a renewed commitment to revitalizing urban places.” (p. 134)
- Euchner & McGovern (2003)�Chapter 3 – Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
- Economic Development and the Construction of Opportunity
- The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
- The Rise and Fall of the Urban Economy
- Urban Renewal
- Urban Renewal
- Inducing Business Investment
- Inducing Business Investment
- Enticing Visitors to the City
- Enticing Visitors to the City
- Neighborhood Revitalization
- Neighborhood Revitalization
- Neighborhood Revitalization
- Redirecting Economic Development Policy
- Redirecting Economic Development Policy
- Redirecting Economic Development Policy
- Redirecting Economic Development Policy
,
PADM 7224 1
MODULE
Seminar in Urban Problems
PADM 7224
University of Memphis Department of Public &
Nonprofit Administration
Edwards & Imrie (2015) Chapters 5 & 6
3
PADM 7224 2
CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY PLANNING AND PARTNERSHIP
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224 3
Community Planning and Partnership
Renew/improve cities through community engagement
How do to it?
Note: Reminder that several parts of this book discuss urban policy outside of the U.S. Most of the examples in this chapter focus on community-based urban policy in the United Kingdom (UK).
PADM 7224 4
Community Planning and Partnership Defining Community
What is community? Complex term with socially constructed boundaries Often seen as positive concept – used by policy-
makers to spur change (e.g., “there is a breakdown in our community, so we need to act)
4 common conceptualizations: Community as a place/geography (e.g., Memphis) Community as an interest group (e.g., Black
community) Community organizations (e.g., nonprofits) Community as process (e.g., community development)
PADM 7224 5
Community Planning and Partnership Community & the Urban Problem
~19th century urbanization was described as antithesis of “community” Conceptualization of the urban “community” was
different than the rural “community” Urban policy typically targets “communities” to
encourage citizens to participate in urban regeneration, or create “community”
Shift in urban policy from social community regeneration (prior late 1970s) to economic community regeneration (post late 1970s)
PADM 7224 6
Community Planning and Partnership Reinvigorating Community in the 1990s
Communitarianism – idea that collective bonds with those around us are important to prevent social exclusion, which leads to urban decline
Build social capital – linkages that connect people – to build urban renewal
Communities should be given the responsibility to drive change
PADM 7224 7
Community Planning and Partnership Putting Community Activation into Practice
Community-based urban policy changes governance – private (for-profit and non- profit) organizations have more seats at the governing table
Level of community-involvement can vary substantially from policy to policy – from “add-ons” to “key partners”
All communities (neighborhoods) do not have the existing expertise, knowledge, or ability to engage in policy-making
PADM 7224 8
Community Planning and Partnership Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Unanswered questions – Is community involvement in policy-making
simply tokenism by government or is it of actual value?
Is the policy implemented with the level of community involvement intended in the spirit of the policy?
PADM 7224 9
Community Planning and Partnership Critiquing Community Involvement in Regeneration
Looking for answers – Who represents the community? “Community” as conceptualized by policy-makers and
implementers often differs from those living in the community
Who sets the rules for participation? Policy-makers (city or broader) often continue to
create the top-down rules for engagement How is power distributed in community
partnerships? “Expert” knowledge tends to be prioritized over
“localized” knowledge
PADM 7224 10
Privatization & Entrepreneurial Urban Policy Web Links
British Library – Community Development and Regeneration https://www.bl.uk/social-
welfare/collection- items?allportalsubjects=community%20de velopment%20and%20regeneration
PADM 7224 11
CHAPTER 6: CULTURE & THE CREATIVE CITY
Edwards & Imrie (2015) The Short Guide to Urban Policy
PADM 7224 12
Culture & the Creative City
Key to modern urban policy is promoting the city’s culture and creativity to improve well-being (economic
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