Please prepare the Literature review. I attached the annonated bibliography that i did. Topic is Design and Resilience. I also at

Name, programme, course, date etc. Final assignment: Literature review and method PART1 Literature review on Crowd communities This literature review starts with a general introduction to crowdsourcing, proceeds to consumer and producer driven influences and developments that lead to its emergence, as well as with current research on the subject matter. Strengths and weaknesses of this new form of product innovation are layed out in a second step, again considering both consumer and producer perceptions. Introduction to Crowdsourcing Howe has posited that “Crowdsourcing isn’t a single strategy. It’s an umbrella term for a highly varied group of approaches that share one obvious attribute in common: they all depend on some contribution from the crowd.” (Howe, 2008, p. 280) a. Crowdsourcing Examples i. Early Forms of Crowdsourcing Considering that the Oxford English Dictionary defines the verb “to crowdsource” as “obtain (information or input into a particular task or project) by enlisting the services of a number of people, either paid or unpaid, typically via the Internet“ (2013) it seems quite noteworthy that the dictionaries’ content itself was once gathered by an early form of crowdsourcing in the 1800s. Volunteers used to send in paper slips of current word usages with which the dictionary was put together. (Dodson, 2013) Even earlier, in 1714, the British government made use of crowd knowledge by putting out a tender for any person who could invent a reasonable way of locating ships on sea. (The Economist, 2008) Nowadays, Fuchs and Schreier point out, the term crowdsourcing appears to be the new buzzword when it comes to forms of Open Innovation and is mostly used in the context of companies that build up strong online communities to which they hand over product development tasks as a form of outsourcing. (Fuchs and Schreier, 2011, p.17) This move is not surprising, considering the long line of developments over the past decades in which consumers have been slowly introduced to take over tasks, which used to be company- provided customer services. Starting with simple ticket machines, and then moving on to e- commerce, and online banking and to participatory design and co-design, these examples show the gradual involvement of the consumer. With the intention of cutting costs, by involving fewer personnel and more technology, companies have empowered their own customers to an extent that there are even user innovation collaborations on the web, driving manufacturers out of the design space. This is especially evident in Open Source software development and other areas of the digital world. ii. Crowdsourcing the Corporation In the early years of computing, a movement arose with the aim of programming and providing a free operating system that stood a chance against Microsoft and Sun Microsystems. Howe explains in his 2008 paper that “In the beginning all source code was open source code” and, therefore, in the early nineties thousands of programmers participated in the development of the Linux software that still exists today. Another example of crowd effort of this extent is Wikipedia. “In much the same way thousands of contributors work together today in a decentralized fashion to form a single reference work”. (Howe, 2008, pp. 47-49). He found that these crowdsourcing efforts can be disruptive for businesses. Linux was developed to be independent of commercial providers and, although Wikipedia is not accepted as an academic source, it has been a threat to traditional dictionaries ever since its emergence.

Hopkins quotes iStockphoto as a number example, which has now been incorporated by Getty Images because it posed too much of a threat to their business. It was founded in 2000 by a crowd of amateur photographers, who had the idea of establishing a platform for photo exchange. Anybody who uploaded pictures and made them accessible to the online community was allowed to download and use them at a very low cost. (Hopkins, R., 2011, p.17) Although these three examples have instigators in the background that set up and managed these communities, thus making success possible, it seems as though the company operations are engendered of community work. This is in contrast to already established companies initiating the crowdsourcing process in a community for reasons of product development. iii. Crowdsourcing Products and Services Afuah and Allen in 2012 turned their attention to Netflix, an online movie provider, that “rather than have its own scientists develop an algorithm internally to further improve its movie recommendation system, or contracting the development with a designated contractor, Netflix crowdsourced the task by outsourcing it in the form of an open call to the world.” (Afuah and Allen, 2012, p. 355) Lee 2009 adds Facebook’s approach when it wanted to translate its social media website from English into many different foreign languages. They made a free translation tool accessible to their users and asked them to do the work. They managed to obtain more than 60 translations of the entire website in less than two years. (Lee, C., 2009) It is not surprising, that Google (2012) established its global map services in the exact same manner resorting to “public and commercial data, imagery from every level (satellite, aerial and street level) and the collective knowledge of (…) millions of users.” Similarly, Ritzer 2012 points out, although Google has a large number of paid employees, its major source of profit is prosumers, not consumers. (Ritzer et al, 2012, p. 387) He also stressed that the important and dramatic rise of socialmedia; sites such as Facebook and Twitter simply could not exist without prosumers. (Ritzer et al, 2012, p. 387) In contrast to the online ventures mentioned above, Ogawa and Piller in 2006 mention Threadless as a rare business in the manufacturing industry that operates entirely on crowdsourcing when it comes to product development. They interviewed Jake Nickell, founder of Threadless, to find his entire business idea was built on simply producing what t- shirts his crowd designs and votes for, thus merely providing a platform, production, marketing and distribution. (Ogawa and Piller 2006, p.66) b. Crowdwatching: Current Research While most researchers consider crowdsourcing to be a fairly new phenomenon, allowing the customers to take on a new empowered role in product development, Eric von Hippel, a leading researcher in the field of user innovation, claims that most innovations that have come out of traditional R&D have been invented by users beforehand (von Hippel, E, 2005, pp. 15). His research has shown that users, whether single lead-users or in a community, innovate and build prototypes upon a need. Traditional R&D then scans the market for consumer needs, perfects these prototypes and sells them to a broader pool of consumers. Furthermore, his research touches on areas like, “Development of Products by Lead Users”, “Users Innovate-or-Buy Decisions” and legal issues to do with freely shared knowledge as a result of democratised innovation. (von Hippel, E, 2005, pp. 19-165) While von Hippel tends to focus on the origin and ownership of innovation, Martin Schreier, often in collaboration with various other partners, is more interested in the economical effect of crowdsourcing. He has explored which kind of user-developed innovation can be economically attractive (Franke, von Hippel and Schreier, 2006, p. 301), as well as customers willingness to pay after having been involved in the design process. One of his findings is that “self-designed products generate a significantly higher willingness to pay”. (Franke, Schreier and Kaiser, 2010,p. 125) His research has further shown that crowdsourcing “might also affect the way companies are perceived in the marketplace“ in a positive way as customers “will form more favorable corporate attitudes“ (Fuchs and Schreier, 2011, p.17) and attribute a higher innovation ability as well. (Schreier, Fuchs and

Dahl, 2012, p. 30) On the other hand, he suggests that crowdsourcing cannot replace professional, traditional new product design, but “at least under certain conditions, crowdsourcing might constitute a promising method to gather user ideas that can complement those of a firm’s professionals at the idea generation stage in NPD.“(Poetz and Schreier, 2012, p. 245) Allen and Afuah take a more strategic approach and views crowdsourcing as a business tool for problem solving, arguing that there is a significant cost and time saving potential in outsourcing problems to crowds rather than designated contractors or employees. He classifies it into “tournament-based” and “collaboration-based” crowdsourcing, measuring their effectiveness while juxtaposing the elements of teamwork with competition. (Afuah and Allen, 2012, p.371) Another current research project is Dr. Britta Kalkreuter’s and Dave Robb’s “HeadCrowd”. They explore web and application-based crowdsourcing as a means to generate immediate visual feedback for designers. On the one hand crowdsourced feedback plays the role of filtering out unwanted designs. On the other hand, it promotes potentially successful ones through positive reinforcement, seeming like indirect crowdsourcing with the crowd participating in the product development process through the designer. “Such a scheme shows applications for sustainability in fashion if it can give crowds a concrete sense of ownership of the design process and provide enthusiastic target markets, thereby offering potential to significantly reduce the risks of unwanted product.” (Kalkreuter and Robb, 2012, p. 71) The phenomenon of crowdsourcing is not limited to the digital world, but it is predominantly vibrant there. “Not only did the internet offer a means of reaching a crowd, it also offered a means by which to gather crowd input of various kinds and even a platform through which the crowd could perform specific tasks.” (Hopkins, R., 2011, p.16) The fact that most of the crowdsourcing examples mentioned above have to do with the internet and use it as a tool or means of communication, implies that crowds have the ability to operate in that realm. Why this is the case, is explored in the following section. c. Genesis of the Crowd: Social Prosumers In order to fully understand crowdbehaviour, one has to understand how the crowds emerged. As demonstrated above, “in some cases, sites could not exist without the “work” done by a “crowd” of prosumers.” (Ritzer et al, 2012, p. 386) In the context of internet-based crowdsourcing it seems obvious that these producing consumers feel comfortable in a digital environment. They actively participated in transforming Web 1.0, which is mostly producergenerated content, into Web 2.0 by blogging, sharing information, pictures and videos on online platforms for user-generated content like, Facebook, Youtube, Flikr and Wikipedia. (Ritzer et al, 2012, p. 385) In 2005, the Pew Internet & American Life Project published significant results of their largescale survey called “Teen Content Creators and Consumers”. Having interviewed more than 1,100 US teens between the ages of 12 and 17 on their internet usage, they revealed extraordinary results: “Among internet-using teens, 57% (or 50% of all teens, roughly 12 million youth) are what might be called Content Creators.” (Lenhart and Madden, 2005, p.1) In the aftermath of these findings, Marc Prensky (2006) coined two terms, the “digital natives” describing people who have grown up or are growing up in the internet era and the term “digital immigrants”, meaning those who had to adapt to the internet consciously. Considering that these digital natives are now between 20 and 25 years old, followed by oncoming generations of children who will not grow up with analogue media, crowds will potentially grow not shrink. Howe goes as far as to say, that “Reared on social media, always on internet connections, cell-phone cameras, Machinima, and YouTube, digital natives live on the same planet as digital immigrants, but inhabit a very different universe. They can concentrate on multiple projects simultaneously, they collaborate seamlessly and spontaneously with people they’ve never met and most important, they create media with the same avidity that previous generations consumed it. (Howe, 2008, pp. 261/262)

A second dimension to this issue is the digital natives’ ability to programme and design their own content. They do not simply share it, rather they embrace and make use of tools to create, edit, enhance and remix their work. They do not feel they have to study graphic design or filmmaking, they simply do it by intuition. “Photoshop, Flash and various blog- authoring tools have become standard technological literacy.” (Howe, 2008, p. 271) A third and very important aspect of this discussion is the fact that prosumers are willing to share. They do not merely produce content for themselves. They want other people to see and use it. In his book “Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide” (2006) MIT Professor Henry Jenkins speaks of a “participatory culture (…) [with] relatively low barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement, strong support for creating and sharing one’s creations, and some type of informal mentorship whereby what is known by the most experienced is passed along to novices. [It] is also one in which members believe their contributions matter and feel some degree of social connection with one another.” Considering all these prerequisites for crowdsourcing, it becomes evident why there are communities that are made up of people who want to spend time on creating and sharing content, products or services. “This is the crowdsourcing generation, a demographic perfectly adapted to a future in which online communities will supplant the conventional corporation.” (Howe, 2008, pp. 261/262) And those “conventional corporations” have taken a liking to their helpful prosumers. Research gap/ literature review summary The Literature Review” has introduced many current research areas but has also raised questions that need further examining, such as legal issues, crowd members’ attitudes to commercial fashion, general concepts of production, quality, materials, or even crowd members’ consumption patterns. One fundamental and under-researched difference, when comparing crowdsourcing communities emerged as the fact that some are initiated by a corporation and, therefore, commercially geared while others merely interact and collaborate as non-commercial entities in an open space on the web. PLEASE NOTE THIS REVIEW IS CONSIDERABLY LONGER THAN YOURS WILL BE AND IT IS MISSING ITS HARVARD BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALL TITLES REVIEWED

Design Resilience

Design resilience is most applicable in industries to ensure the innovation of new products is upheld. Designers have been addressing the need for sustainability to ensure there is consistency in consideration of the environmental, economic and social aspects to produce products that meet consumer’s needs. The research perspective focuses on the serious issues that could have affected the consumer perspective in the designed product. During the designing process, the designers are always keen on focusing on the needs, wants and limitations to ensure the designed product creates an emotional attachment to the consumer. Design resilience is the intentional design of products, buildings, regions and communities to respond to uncertain and artificial disturbances. Therefore, this paper uses various sources to provide a broad overview of design resilience.

1.

The article stipulates that the uncertainty of potential future disruptions are the core initials of the possible occurrences and optimizations that lead to the design resilience for the coverage to be satisfied with the incorporated infrastructure. The resilient disturbances call for the balance to prevail, resulting in effective design investment to enhance infrastructural networks that meet the need of the society and improve economic development. The design process is aimed to withstand disturbances to strengthen the reliability of the product to the people. The designers are opted to be innovative to improve recovery chain reliance in the infrastructural development to ensure the regional balances are upheld and that all the consumers are satisfied with the product.

Turnquist, M. and Vugrin, E., 2013. Design for resilience in infrastructure distribution networks. Environment Systems & Decisions, 33(1), pp.104-120.

2.

The article provides a helpful rationale pf explaining the basis of design resilience. The results showed that design resilience occurs due to the expansion of consumer markets due to the Industrial revolution. The disturbance occurs due to changes in the environment that subject the consumer to change their demands and wants. Therefore, consumer behavior changes, making the designers innovative to explore new ways to enhance the improved design of the products to meet consumers' needs. The shift in technology and social-cultural changes in the community forced the designers to develop a complex rational solution to solve the unsolved problems in the community. Design resilience is essential since it helps the designers to withstand the changes occurring in societies. The management approach to enhance design resilience for the designers is through planning that allows them to be prepared with the strategies to meet the changes in consumer behavior.

Cowley, R., Barnett, C., Katzschner, T., Tkacz, N. and De Boeck, F., 2018. Resilience & design. Resilience, 6(1), pp.1-34.

3.

The journal anticipates that the abrupt changes and unexpected results in business lead to higher risks, especially when the management team is not well planned to have design resilience. The disturbances in the economy result in the paralyzation of the financial market and consequences that result in a low supply of products and materials in the market. Therefore, innovativeness is necessary to adopt the design resilience to respond to the gap to enable the business to recover from the disturbances. Design resilience is considered at the employee level to refer to the ability to bounce back to face the problems and adversity to come up with the solution to help the organizations achieve the best even in uncertain situations. It can only be achieved through thorough planning for the strategies that keep the business running even when the disturbances occur.

Linnenluecke, M.K., 2017. Resilience in business and management research: A review of influential publications and a research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19(1), pp.4-30.

4.

The article explores that design resilience is the ability of the organization to be persistent in facing substantial changes in the economy and environment to withstand disruption and catastrophic events. The occurrence of disruptive events to the organization results in low profitability. Many businesses have to have innovative designers to face the changes and develop solutions. Organizational design resilience is considered a competitive advantage in the manufacturing sector. The profitability is achieved through planned strategies to cope with the situation when disruptive changes occur. Therefore, the organization should be flexible enough to deal with the situation. The employees need to have a conducive environment to adjust their functionality. The organization need to be flexible to change the structure and processes. Design resilient behaviour in the organization incorporates and enhances awareness for the production of products to meet the wants and needs of internal and external consumers.

Morisse, M. and Prigge, C., 2017. Design of a business resilience model for Industry 4.0 manufacturers.

5.

The article articulates the best way to design strategic resilience in the organization. Uncertainty occurs due to economic and environmental changes; hence, there is a need to have strategic stability to design. The organization can maintain and sustain its performance record by having a

strategic plan for resilient design. The need to have a competitive advantage requires the organization to invest in design resilient to achieve customer loyalty to improve performance record. Strategy to design resilience in the organization should have innovative employees, improve the employees in the decision-making process, have financial investments and employ appropriate leadership qualities to take part in management in the organization.

Välikangas, L. and Romme, A.G.L., 2013. How to design for strategic resilience: a case study in retailing. Journal of Organization Design, 2(2), pp.44-53.

6.

Researchers stipulate that there are benefits to the organization when it embraces design resilience. It includes an improved corporation, expanding the market and achieving a competitive advantage. The article states that disruptive events have positive results for the organization as they can be innovative to exploit the opportunities and deal with the threats. The design resilience helps the business focus on risk management to cope with uncertain situations that require strategies to be articulated. In addition, design resilience in the organization supports the organization in maintaining and sustaining its performance record to achieve a competitive advantage.

Ortiz‐de‐Mandojana, N. and Bansal, P., 2016. The long‐term benefits of organizational resilience through sustainable business practices. Strategic Management Journal, 37(8), pp.1615-1631.

7.

The article suggests that the designed approach for supply chain management resilient understands consumers needs. The supply chain can be standardized through understanding the consumer behaviour to produce products that meet the needs of consumers at any convenient time. Meeting consumer expectations results in a continuous supply chain. Design resilient in the organization enables the organization to manage the macro-environment risks that may hinder the continued productivity of the organization. Designing the supply chain resilient reduces the redundancy to risks to enhance the flexibility in the supply base to enhance prolonged profitability in the organization.

Agigi, A.F.A., Niemann, W. and Kotze, T.G., 2016. Supply chain design approaches for supply chain resilience: A qualitative study of South African fast-moving consumer goods grocery manufacturers.

8.

The article explores the failure due to their businesses' lack of design resilience. Resilience is the ability of the firm and entrepreneur to remain stable even after the occurrence of a loss or disruptive event that led to the company incurring more losses. The lack of design resilience hinders the business in achieving the competitive advantage due to a lack of strategies to cope with the uncertain situation. During the adverse event, the entrepreneur needs to have set plans and strategies to adjust the working condition. In an atmosphere where many employees are involved, the need for adjustments in the organization structure is essential to cope with the traumatic events. The entrepreneurs are always urged to be resilient and innovative to develop the strategies to design products or the environment to be able to be sustainable in its activities.

Corner, P.D., Singh, S. and Pavlovich, K., 2017. Entrepreneurial resilience and venture failure. International Small Business Journal, 35(6), pp.687-708.

9.

The article explores the business's outcomes when the design resilient is adopted in the organization. The entrepreneur aims to have the skill of doing the company, is resilient, and be innovative to have strategic ideas to conform to the changes in the environment. The design process is continuous due to uncertain events that are risky to the business when they happen in the stage where the company is not aware. Entrepreneurs are prone to innovativeness and creativity to ensure that they design the product as per the needs of the consumers. The ideology of product design is to remain sustainable even when traumatic events occur. The expected outcome when the business employs design resilience is achieving a competitive advantage in the manufacturing market.

Kunaka, C. and Moos, M.N., 2019. Evaluating mentoring outcomes from the perspective of entrepreneurs and small business owners. The Southern African Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 11(1), pp.1-11.

10.

The journal stipulates that organizations are open systems probing to substantive changes and turbulence risks due to uncertain working environments. Therefore there is a need to achieve stability and balance in such situations through design resilient. The latter can be achieved through innovation, cooperation, benchmarking and planning to ensure that the organization is ready to go hand in hand with the changes. To gain a competitive advantage, it has to be stable even when turbulent risks happen. Therefore the need to have a pre-plan and strategies to enhance adjustment in working performance would be practical.

Carayannis, E.G., Grigoroudis, E., Sindakis, S. and Walter, C., 2014. Business model innovation as an antecedent of sustainable enterprise excellence and resilience. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 5(3), pp.440-463.

Reference list

Agigi, A.F.A., Niemann, W. and Kotze, T.G., 2016. Supply chain design approaches for supply

chain resilience: A qualitative study of South African fast-moving consumer goods

grocery manufacturers.

Carayannis, E.G., Grigoroudis, E., Sindakis, S. and Walter, C., 2014. Business model innovation

as an antecedent of sustainable enterprise excellence and resilience. Journal of the

Knowledge Economy, 5(3), pp.440-463.

Corner, P.D., Singh, S. and Pavlovich, K., 2017. Entrepreneurial resilience and venture

failure. International Small Business Journal, 35(6), pp.687-708.

Cowley, R., Barnett, C., Katzschner, T., Tkacz, N. and De Boeck, F., 2018. Resilience & design.

Resilience, 6(1), pp.1-34.

Kunaka, C. and Moos, M.N., 2019. Evaluating mentoring outcomes from the perspective of

entrepreneurs and small business owners. The Southern African Journal of

Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, 11(1), pp.1-11.

Linnenluecke, M.K., 2017. Resilience in business and management research: A review of

influential publications and a research agenda. International Journal of Management

Reviews, 19(1), pp.4-30.

Morisse, M. and Prigge, C., 2017. Design of a business resilience model for Industry 4.0

manufacturers.

Ortiz‐de‐Mandojana, N. and Bansal, P., 2016. The long‐term benefits of organizational resilience

through sustainable business practices. Strategic Management Journal, 37(8), pp.1615-

1631.

Turnquist, M. and Vugrin, E., 2013. Design for resilience in infrastructure distribution

networks. Environment Systems & Decisions, 33(1), pp.104-120.

Välikangas, L. and Romme, A.G.L., 2013. How to design for strategic resilience: a case study in

retailing. Journal of Organization Design, 2(2), pp.44-53.