?Must be 250 words or more. Everything must be in own words. Must have two or more references. Please make sure to have the a
Must be 250 words or more. Everything must be in own words. Must have two or more references. Please make sure to have the answer well thought out.
one of the references: Parnell, J.A. (2008). Strategic management: Theory and practice (3rd ed). Cincinnati, OH: Cengage
Should the Hampton by Hilton use the same competitive strategy that Motel 6 uses? Explain. Use concepts from the course to make your case. Note that the question is not whether Motel 6 should use the strategies that Hampton uses.
Business Unit Strategies
Chapter Outline 7-1 Porter’s Generic Strategies
7-1a Low-Cost (Cost Leadership) Strategy
7-1b Focus–Low-Cost Strategy
7-1c Differentiation Strategy (No Focus)
7-1d Focus-Differentiation Strategy
7-1e Low-Cost–Differentiation Strategy
7-1f Focus–Low-Cost/Differentiation Strategy
7-1g Multiple Strategies
7-2 Miles and Snow’s Strategy Framework
7-3 Business Size, Strategy, and Performance
7-4 Assessing Strategies
7-5 Global Concerns
7-6 Summary
Key Terms
Review Questions and Exercises
Practice Quiz
Notes
Reading 7-1
7
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A fter a fi rm’s top managers have settled on a corporate-level strategy, their focus then shifts to how the fi rm’s business or businesses should compete. Whereas the corporate strategy concerns the basic thrust of the fi rm—where top managers would like to lead the fi rm—the busi-
ness or competitive strategy addresses the competitive aspect—who the business should serve, what needs should be satisfi ed, and how a business should develop core competencies and be positioned to satisfy customers’ needs.
Another way of addressing the task of formulating a business strategy is to consider whether a business should concentrate its efforts on exploiting current opportunities, exploring new ones, or attempting to balance the two. Exploitation generates returns in the short term; exploration can create forms of sustainable competitive advantage for the long term. The business strategy developed for an organization seeks, among other things, to resolve this challenge.1
A business unit is an organizational entity with its own mission, set of competi- tors, and industry. A single fi rm that operates within only one industry is also considered a business unit. Strategic managers craft competitive strategies for each business unit to attain and sustain competitive advantage, a state whereby its successful strategies cannot be easily duplicated by competitors.2 In most indus- tries, different competitive approaches can be successful, depending on the busi- ness unit’s resources
Each business competes with a unique competitive strategy. In the interest of simplicity, however, it is useful to categorize different strategies into a lim- ited number of generic strategies based on their similarities. Generic strategies emphasize the commonalities among different business strategies, not their differences. Businesses adopting the same generic strategy comprise what is commonly referred to as a strategic group.3 In the airline industry, for exam- ple, one strategic group may comprise carriers such as Southwest Airlines and AirTran that offer low fares and no frills on a limited number of domestic routes, thereby maintaining their low-cost structures (see Figure 7-1). A second strategic group may comprise many traditional carriers such as Continental, United, and American that serve both domestic and international routes and offer extra ser- vices such as meals and movies on extended fl ights.
Because industry defi nitions and strategy assessments are not always clear, identifying strategic groups within an industry is often diffi cult. Even when the industry defi nition is clear, an industry’s business units may be categorized into
F I G U R E S t r a t e g i c G ro u p s i n t h e A i r l i n e I n d u s t r y7-1
Business Unit
An organizational entity with its own unique mis- sion, set of competitors,
and industry.
Generic Strategies
Broad competitive Strategies that can be
adopted by business units to guide their
organizations.
Strategic Group
A select group of direct competitors who have
similar strategic profi les.
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any number of strategic groups depending on the level of specifi city desired. One or two competitors may also seem to be functioning between groups and thus be diffi cult to classify. For these reasons, the concept of strategic groups can be used as a means of understanding and illustrating competition within an industry, but the limitations of the approach should always be considered.
The challenging task of formulating and implementing a generic strategy is based on both internal and external factors. Because generic strategies by nature are overly simplistic, selecting generic approach is only the fi rst step in formulating a business strategy.4 It is also necessary to fi ne-tune the strategy and accentuate the organization’s unique set of resource strengths.5 Two generic strategy frameworks—one developed by Porter and another by Miles and Snow—can serve as good starting points for developing business strategies.
7-1 Porter’s Generic Strategies Michael Porter developed the most commonly cited generic strategy framework.6 According to Porter’s typology, a business unit must address two basic competi- tive concerns. First, managers must determine whether the business unit should focus its efforts on an identifi able subset of the industry in which it operates or seek to serve the entire market as a whole. For example, specialty clothing stores in shopping malls adopt the focus concept and concentrate their efforts on lim- ited product lines primarily intended for a small market niche. In contrast, most chain grocery stores seek to serve the mass market—or at least most of it—by selecting an array of products and services that appeal to the general public as a whole. The smaller the business, the more desirable a focus strategy tends to be, although this is not always the case.
Second, managers must determine whether the business unit should compete primarily by minimizing its costs relative to those of its competitors (i.e., a low- cost strategy) or by seeking to offer unique or unusual products and services (i.e., a differentiation strategy). Porter views these two alternatives as mutually exclu- sive because differentiation efforts tend to erode a low-cost structure by raising production, promotional, and other expenses. In fact, Porter labeled business units attempting to emphasize both cost leadership and differentiation simulta- neously as “stuck in the middle.”7 This is not necessarily the case, however, and the low-cost–differentiation strategy is a viable alternative for some businesses. Combining the two strategies is diffi cult, but businesses able to do so can per- form exceptionally well.
Depending on the way strategic managers in a business unit address the fi rst (i.e., focus or not) and second (low-cost, differentiation, or low-cost–differentiation) questions, six confi gurations are possible. A seventh approach—multiple strategies— involves the simultaneous deployment of more than one of the six confi gurations (see Table 7-1). The low-cost and differentiation strategies with and without focus comprise those in Porter’s original framework.
7-1a Low-Cost (Cost Leadership) Strategy Businesses that compete with a low-cost strategy produce basic, no-frills products and services for a mass market of price-sensitive customers. Because they attempt to satisfy most or all of the market, these businesses tend to be large and estab- lished. Low-cost businesses often succeed by building market share through low prices, although some charge prices comparable to rivals and enjoy a greater margin. Because customers generally are willing to pay only low to average prices
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TA B L E G e n e r i c S t r a t e g i e s B a s e d o n Po r t e r ’ s Ty p o l o g y7-1
Emphasis on Entire Market or Niche
Emphasis on Low Costs
Emphasis on Differentiation
Emphasis on Low Costs and Differentiation
Emphasis on Various Factors Depending on Market
Entire Market
Low-Cost Strategy
Differentiation Strategy
Low-Cost– Differentiation Strategy
Multiple Strategies
Niche Focus–Low- Cost Strat- egy
Focus- Differentiation Strategy
Focus–Low-Cost/ Differentiation Strategy
for “basic” products or services, it is essential that businesses using this strategy keep their overall costs as low as possible. Effi ciency is a key to such businesses, as has been demonstrated by mega-retailer Wal-Mart in recent years.
Low-cost businesses tend to emphasize a low initial investment and low oper- ating costs. Such organizations tend to purchase from suppliers who offer the lowest prices within a basic quality standard. Research and development efforts are directed at improving operational effi ciency, and attempts are made to enhance logistical and distribution effi ciencies. Such businesses often but not always deemphasize the development of new and improved products or services that might raise costs, and advertising and promotional expenditures will be min- imized (see Strategy at Work 7-1).
S T R A T E G Y A T W O R K 7 – 1
The Low-Cost Strategy at Kola Real
Coca-Cola and PepsiCo enjoy substantial profi t margins on their soft drinks in Mexico’s $15 billion market, where the two have waged intense battles for market share during the past decade. Although Coke usually came out on top, the two collectively controlled sales and dis- tribution in almost all of the country’s major markets. In 2003, Coke had more than 70 percent of Mexican sales, and Pepsi had 21 percent. Consumers in Mexico drink more Coke per capita than those in any other nation.
In the early 2000s, however, both well-known colas have been challenged by an unlikely upstart from Peru known as Kola Real (pronounced “ray-’al”). Launched in Mexico in 2001, Kola Real captured 4 percent of the Mexican market in its fi rst two years.
Bottled by the Ananos family from Peru, Kola Real lacks all of the frills and endorsements associated with Coke and Pepsi. The strategy is simple: Eliminate all possible costs and offer large sizes at low prices. Whereas Coke and Pepsi spend nearly 20 percent of
revenues on concentrates, the Ananos family makes its own. Whereas Coke and Pepsi spend millions on pro- motion and manage their own fl eets of attractive trucks, the Ananos family hires third parties for deliveries— even individuals with dented pickup trucks—and relies primarily on word-of-mouth advertising.
Central to Kola Real’s success is the fact that the majority of Mexican cola drinkers are relatively poor and consider price to be a major factor in their pur- chase decisions. In Brazil, so-called B-brands (i.e., low- cost generic or store brands) now account for almost one-third of the country’s cola sales. Fearing this could happen in Mexico, Coke and Pepsi have fought back with price cuts of their own, although they will not be able to challenge Kola Real’s low-cost position on a large-scale basis.
Source: Adapted from D. Luhnow and C. Terhune, “A Low-Budget Cola Shakes Up Markets South of the Border,” Wall Street Journal, 27 October 2003, A1, A18.
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A cost leader may be more likely than other businesses to outsource a number of its production activities if costs are reduced as a result, even if modest amounts of control over quality are lost in the process. In addition, the most effi cient means of distribution is sought, even if it is not the fastest or easiest to manage. It is worth noting that successful low-cost businesses do not emphasize cost minimi- zation to the degree that quality and service decline excessively. In other words, cost leadership taken to an extreme can result in the production of “cheap” goods and services that nobody is willing to purchase.
Low-cost leaders depend on unique capabilities not available to others in the industry such as access to scarce raw materials, large market share, or a high degree of capitalization.8 Manufacturers that employ a low-cost strategy, however, are vulnerable to intense price competition that drives down profi t margins and limits their ability to improve outputs, to augment their products with superior services, or to spend more on advertising and promotion.9 The prospect of being caught in price wars keeps many manufacturers from adopt- ing the low-cost strategy, although it can affect other businesses as well. Other low-cost leaders have bought their suppliers to control quality and distribution. Price cutting in the airline industry led to the demise of several upstarts even before the events of 9/11, and made it even more diffi cult to raise fares shortly thereafter.10
Success with the low-cost strategy can be short lived, however. Low-cost air- line AirTran, for example, boasted a 2003 profi t of $101 million while Delta squabbled with its pilots throughout the year in an effort to reduce costs. Delta dominates Atlanta where AirTran also has a hub, but has had diffi culty cutting costs. In 2004, however, Delta fi nally made headway and began cutting many of its fares, some by as much as 50 percent. By 2005, AirTran, along with other low- cost airlines, began to feel the squeeze as major airlines such as Delta became more price competitive.11
Imitation by competitors can also be a concern when the basis for low-cost leadership is not proprietary and can be easily duplicated. Lego discovered this fact when Canadian upstart Mega Blocks began to steal market share by making colorful blocks that not only look like Legos, but also snap into them and sell for a lower price. Lego responded by launching the Quatro line of oversized blocks aimed at the preschool market and carrying lower prices than traditional Lego playsets.12
Low-cost businesses are also particularly vulnerable to technological obsoles- cence. Manufacturers that emphasize technological stability and do not respond to new product and market opportunities may eventually fi nd that their products have become obsolete.
7-1b Focus–Low-Cost Strategy The focus–low-cost strategy emphasizes low overall costs while serving a narrow segment of the market, producing no-frills products or services for price-sensi- tive customers in a market niche. Ideally, the small business unit that adopts the focus–low-cost strategy competes only in distinct market niches where it enjoys a cost advantage relative to large, low-cost competitors.
The focus concept is clear in theory, but often confusing in practice. In gen- eral, a business rejects a focus approach when it attempts to serve most of the market. In practice, however, virtually every business focuses its efforts, at least to some extent. Because most is a subjective term, scholars sometimes disagree on whether a particular business should be classifi ed as focus or not.
Focus–Low-Cost Strategy:
A generic business unit strategy in which a smaller business keeps overall costs low while producing no-frills products or services for a market niche with elastic demand.
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Aldi is a clear example of a business that pursues a focus–low-cost strategy. Aldi is an international retailer that offers a limited assortment of groceries and related items at the lowest possible prices. Functional operations are tightly coor- dinated around a single strategic objective: low costs. Efforts are targeted to con- sumers with low to moderate incomes.
Aldi minimizes costs a number of ways. Most products are private label, allow- ing Aldi to negotiate rock-bottom prices from its suppliers. Stores are modest in size, much smaller than that of a typical chain grocer. Aldi only stocks common food and related products, maximizing inventory turnover. The retailer does not accept credit cards, eliminating the 2 to 4 percent fee typically charged by banks to process the transaction. Customers bag their own groceries and must either bring their own bags or purchase them from Aldi for a nominal charge. Aldi also takes an innovative approach to the use of its shopping carts. Customers insert a quarter to unlock a cart from the interlocked row of carts located outside the store entrance. The quarter is returned with the cart when it is locked back into the group. As a result, no employee time is required to collect stray carts unless a customer is willing to forego the quarter by not returning the cart!
Adding a focus orientation to cost leadership can enable a fi rm to avoid direct competition with a mass-market cost leader. In this manner, grocer Save- A-Lot has found a way to compete successfully against Wal-Mart Supercenters. Its prices are competitive with those at Wal-Mart, but Save-A-Lot pursues loca- tions in urban areas that Wal-Mart rejected. Save-A-Lot also generates profi ts by opening small, inexpensive stores catering to U.S. households earning less than $35,000 a year. Save-A-Lot stocks mostly its own brand of high-turnover goods to minimize costs and eschews cost-inducing pharmacies, bakeries, and baggers.13
Like low-cost businesses, those adopting the focus–low-cost strategy are vul- nerable to intense price competition that periodically occurs in markets with no-frills outputs. For instance, several years ago, Laker Airways successfully used the focus–low-cost strategy by providing the fi rst no-frills, low-priced trans- Atlantic passenger service. The major airlines responded by dropping prices, eventually driving Laker out of business. The large competitors, because of their greater fi nancial resources, were able to weather the short-term fi nancial losses and survive the shakeout.14 Southwest Airlines, in contrast, adopted a similar strategy and has been able to perform well despite competitive pressure from its large rivals.
To deter price competition, businesses employing the focus–low-cost strat- egy must continuously search for new ways to trim costs. The Irish no-frills air carrier Ryanair has surpassed Southwest in this regard. Passengers are required to pay for all food, drinks, and newspapers. Employees pay for their own train- ing and uniforms. The airline even incorporates a strict no-refund policy, even if the airline cancels a fl ight. Even with an average ticket price of about $50, Ryanair faces constant pressure from its large rivals. In 2004, Ireland’s state car- rier Aer Lingus added routes and lowered prices in an attempt to model itself after Ryanair.15
Founded in 2003, Hungary’s low-cost airline Wizz Air specializes in trans- porting Hungarians, Poles, and other Eastern Europeans to Britain and Ireland where many seek and fi nd better paying jobs. CEO Jozsef Varadi sees buses—not other airlines—as their primary competition. Sparked by recent expansion of the European Union, Wizz Air makes economic sense for its customer base when considering fares and travel time.16
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Like low-cost businesses that do not adopt a focus approach, focus–low-cost businesses are particularly vulnerable to technological obsolescence. Businesses that value technological stability and do not respond to new product and market opportunities may eventually fi nd that their products have become obsolete and are no longer desired by customers.
7-1c Differentiation Strategy (No Focus) Businesses that utilize the differentiation strategy produce and market to the entire industry products or services that can be readily distinguished from those of their competitors. Because they attempt to satisfy most or all of the market, these businesses tend to be large and established. Differentiated businesses often attempt to create new product and market opportunities and have access to the latest scientifi c breakthroughs because technology and fl exibility are key factors if fi rms are to initiate or keep pace with new developments in their industries.
The potential for differentiation is to some extent a function of its physical characteristics. Tangibly speaking, it is easier to differentiate an automobile than bottled water. However, intangible differentiation can extend beyond the physi- cal characteristics of a product or service to encompass everything associated with the value perceived by customers. Because such businesses’ customers per- ceive signifi cant differences in their products or services, they are willing to pay average to high prices for them.
Of the prospective bases for differentiation, the most obvious is features of the product (or the mix of products) offered, including the objective and subjective differences in product attributes. Lexus automobiles, for example, have been dif- ferentiated on product features and are well known for their attention to detail, quality, and luxury feel. United and other airlines have attempted to differenti- ate their businesses by offering in-fl ight satellite telephone and e-mail services.17 Continental even differentiated itself by emphasizing animal cargo.18
Speed can also be a key differentiator. For example, according to a 2004 survey by Mintel International Group, 64 percent of Americans said that they selected a restaurant based on the amount of time they had to eat. Speed has been an essential part of the Starbucks competitive strategy, but became a key concern when service slowed after breakfast sandwiches were added to the prod- uct line in the mid-2000s. Adding these food items broadened the appeal of Starbucks, but slowed service in a segment of the market where seconds count. In contrast, competitor Caribou Coffee can make a small coffee-of-the-day in only six seconds.19
Timing can also be a key factor, because fi rst movers are more able to establish themselves in the market than those who come later, as was seen for a number of years with Domino’s widespread introduction of pizza delivery.20 Factors such as partnerships with other fi rms, locations, and a reputation for service quality can also be important (see Strategy at Work 7-2).
When customers are relatively price insensitive, a business may select a differen- tiation strategy and emphasize quality throughout its functional areas. Marketing materials may be printed on high-quality paper. The purchasing department emphasizes the quality and appropriateness of supplies and raw materials over their per unit costs. The research and development department emphasizes new product development (as opposed to cost-cutting measures).
Differentiated businesses are vulnerable to low-cost competitors offering simi- lar products at lower prices, especially when the basis for differentiation is not well defi ned or it is not valued by customers. For example, a grocer may empha- size fast checkout, operating on the assumption that customers are willing to pay
Differentiation Strategy
A generic business unit strategy in which a larger business produces and markets to the entire industry products or services that can be readily dis- tinguished from those of its competitors.
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a few cents more for additional cashiers and checkout lanes. If customers tend to be more concerned with product assortments and prices than with waiting times, they may shop at other stores instead.
Instituting a change in competitive strategy can be a diffi cult process, espe- cially when the nature of the change involves a heightened emphasis on dif- ferentiation. For example, in 2002, Volkswagen entered the luxury market with the Phaeton, complete with doors trimmed in Italian leather, brushed chrome and chestnut, and a price tag of $70,000. Consumers found it diffi cult to associ- ate Volkswagen with such refi nement and the company sold only about three thousand Phaetons that year. Interestingly, upscale carmakers including such notables as BMW and Jaguar began to produce smaller, less expensive “luxury” cars, a move that received a greater welcome from consumers.21
7-1d Focus-Differentiation Strategy Firms utilizing the focus-differentiation strategy produce highly differentiated products or services for the specialized needs of a market niche. At fi rst glance, the focus-differentiation strategy may appear to be a less attractive strategy than the no-focus differentiation strategy, because the former consciously limits the set of customers it seeks to target. However, unique market segments often require distinct approaches. For example, The Limited operates retail outlets to address multiple demographic segments simultaneously. Men are served by its Structure stores, women by its Lane Bryant stores, and children by its Limited Too stores. The Limited even targets trendy consumers with Express stores. U.S. chain Torrid features fi fty-two stores and specializes in plus-size clothing for young, fashion- conscious women, a niche nonfocused retailers have not fi lled effectively.22 In some cases, however, large business units are simply not interested in serving smaller, highly defi ned niches.
S T R A T E G Y A T W O R K 7 – 2
The Differentiation Strategy in Residential Real Estate
Implementing a differentiation strategy can be diffi – cult in a highly regulated industry in which competi- tors are forced to follow rules and even work together. Residential real estate is an example of such an indus- try. In most cases, a real estate agent who lists a home for a seller must work with agents from other fi rms who represent prospective buyers. Buyers and sellers are interested in working only with agents who can negotiate successfully with other agents to complete the transaction. When one also considers the myriad of federal, state, and local regulations concerning prop- erty disclosure, confi dentiality, and the like, one can easily see why it is diffi cult for an agent or real estate fi rm to differentiate service.
Differentiation in such an industry is possible, how- ever. Boyd Williams Real Estate Company (www.boyd- williams.com) operates in the southeastern Mississippi community of Meridian, a city of about forty thousand
people. To distinguish himself from his rivals, Boyd brings his mobile offi ce to clients’ homes, offi ces, hotel lobbies, and even restaurants over lunch break. He is always equipped with a laptop computer, portable printer, cell phone, and digital camera. Prospective buyers can view full-color pictures of virtually every home in the market from the mobile offi ce. This approach seeks to provide maximum effi ciency and convenience to the buyer.
Interestingly, commissions available to Boyd Williams are the same as those available to other agents who do not offer the same amenities. Clearly, Williams seeks to fi nance his additional investment in the mobile offi ce by allowing consumers to move through the buying process more effi ciently—saving him time as well—and by increasing his volume.
Source: Adapted from Boyd Williams Real Estate Company home page, accessed March 29, 2002, www.boydwilliams.com.
Focus-Differentiation Strategy
A generic business unit strategy in which
a smaller business produces highly dif-
ferentiated products or services for the
specialized needs of a market niche.
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Firms can focus their efforts in several ways. Popular retailer Cabela’s has even successfully targeted its efforts to men who hate to shop! The Cabela’s in Michigan draws an estimated 6 million visitors to its retail store each year, mixing its outdoorsman-oriented merchandise with an aquarium, indoor waterfall stocked with trout, and realistic nature scenes. As a result, Cabela’s has secured a customer base …
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