CHAPTER 13: Environmental Health Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health

CHAPTER 13: Environmental Health Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health. Health is the science, practice, and study of a human’s well-being and their health and preventing illnesses and human injuries. Other terms referring to or concerning environmental health are environmental public health, and public health protection / environmental health protection. Environmental health and environmental protection are very much related. Environmental health is focused on the natural and built environments for the benefit of human health, whereas environmental protection is concerned with protecting the natural environment for the benefit of human health and the ecosystem. Research in the environmental health field tries to limit the harmful exposures through natural things such as soil, water, air food, etc.

The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components: • Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized

human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature

• Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from civilized human activity

In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such areas where man has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly modified into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert, modify the natural environment into an artificial one. Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams and the works of Mound-building termites are thought of as natural. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform.[2] If, for instance, in an agricultural field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil, but the structure is quite different. The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment. In population biology, carrying capacity is defined as the environment’s maximal load,[1] which is different from the

concept of population equilibrium. Its effect on population dynamics may be approximated in a logistic model, although this simplification ignores the possibility of overshoot which real systems may exhibit. Carrying capacity was originally used to determine the number of animals that could graze on a segment of land without destroying it. Later, the idea was expanded to more complex populations, like humans. For the human population, more complex variables such as sanitation and medical care are sometimes considered as part of the necessary establishment. As population density increases, birth rate often decreases and death rate typically increases. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate is the “natural increase”. The carrying capacity could support a positive natural increase or could require a negative natural increase. Thus, the carrying capacity is the number of individuals an environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and its environment. Below carrying capacity, populations typically increase, while above, they typically decrease. A factor that keeps population size at equilibrium is known as a regulating factor. Population size decreases above carrying capacity due to a range of factors depending on the species concerned, but can include insufficient space, food supply, or sunlight. The carrying capacity of an environment may vary for different species and may change over time due to a variety of factors including: food availability, water supply, environmental conditions and living space. The origins of the term “carrying capacity” are uncertain, with researchers variously stating that it was used “in the context of international shipping” or that it was first used during 19th-century laboratory experiments with micro-organisms. A recent review finds the first use of the term in an 1845 report by the US Secretary of State to the US Senate.

Section 13.1 Overpopulation

Human overpopulation occurs when the ecological footprint of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity of the place occupied by that group. Overpopulation can further be viewed, in a long term perspective, as existing when a population cannot be maintained given the rapid depletion of non-renewable resources or given the degradation of the capacity of the environment to give support to the population.[6]

The term human overpopulation refers to the relationship between the entire human population and its environment: the Earth, or to smaller geographical areas such as countries. Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources. It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a non- existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a desert). Advocates of population moderation cite issues like quality of life, carrying capacity and risk of starvation as a basis to argue against continuing high human population growth and for population decline. Scientists suggest that the human impact on the environment as a result of overpopulation, profligate

consumption and proliferation of technology has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene.

Section 13.2 Air Pollution

Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth’s atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death of humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built environment. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution. Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world’s worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World’s Worst Polluted Places report. According to the 2014 World Health Organization report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide, an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency.

An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies [1] to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become.[2][3] As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe adverse health effects. Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to different national air quality standards. Some of these are the Air Quality Health Index (Canada), the Air Pollution Index (Malaysia), and the Pollutant Standards Index (Singapore). Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a term that refers to the air quality within and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. IAQ can be affected by gases (including carbon monoxide, radon, volatile organic compounds), particulates, microbial contaminants (mold, bacteria), or any mass or energy stressor that can induce adverse health conditions. Source control, filtration and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most buildings. Residential units can further improve indoor air quality by routine cleaning of carpets and area rugs. Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to pollutants, collection of samples on building surfaces, and computer modelling of air flow inside buildings. IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality (IEQ), which includes IAQ as well as other physical and psychological aspects of life indoors (e.g., lighting, visual quality, acoustics, and thermal comfort). Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard.[2] A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass (e.g. wood, charcoal, dung, or crop residue) for heating and cooking.[3] The resulting exposure to high levels of particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000.[4]

Section 13.3 Climate Change

Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather within the context of longer-term average conditions. Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change, often referred to as global warming.

Global warming is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid- 19th century, and in paleoclimate proxy records covering thousands of years. In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that “It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.” The largest human influence has been the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century, the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C (0.5 to 3.1 °F) in the lowest emissions scenario, and 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in the highest emissions scenario. These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing. Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe. Anticipated effects include increasing global temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation, and expansion of deserts in the subtropics. Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic, with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall; ocean acidification; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels.[17][18] Because the climate system has a large “inertia” and greenhouse gases will remain in the atmosphere for a long time, many of these effects will persist for not only decades or centuries, but for tens of thousands of years to come. Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate engineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),[20] whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change.[21] Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required[22] and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 °C

(3.6 °F) compared to pre-industrial levels,[b] with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F).[24]

Section 13.4 Water

Drought is a natural phenomenon during which regions or communities experience shifts in the balance between precipitation and evapotranspiration (the processes of evaporation and transpiration)—a balance that is inherent to the earth’s water cycle (see the Understanding Natural Cycles in Water Distribution section). Several factors affect the impact of drought on humans and other life forms, including the timing of precipitation events, effectiveness of the rain that is falling (i.e., rainfall intensity and the number of rain events), characteristics of the built environment in the affected area, and local demand for water. Individual areas or communities can be affected differently by drought depending on several additional variables, including ➤ the structure and capacity of existing water systems, ➤ economic development, ➤ the at-risk populations living within the affected area, ➤ local governance of water use, and ➤ other societal factors, such as the presence of local social networks. Because the conditions that signify drought can vary substantially by U.S. region and locality, drought should ultimately be defined based on the context and location in which the water shortage is occurring. Although drought most commonly is defined climatologically, drought can also be exacerbated by human activities. For example, even when precipitation is occurring at average rates within a specific area, urban expansion and development without regard to existing water supply and water system capacity can trigger a human-induced drought. Drought can occur anywhere in the world, and it is considered a transient environmental hazard except in arid geographical regions that historically receive very limited amounts of rainfall. In addition, because of the substantial amount of time that elapses between the warning signs of drought and any measurable negative consequences to human and environmental health, drought should be considered a chronic or “low rise” natural event rather than an acute emergency for public health preparedness and response purposes. Drought is unlike other natural emergencies such as hurricanes, floods, or earthquakes; drought-related conditions can take years to escalate to the point at which water supply becomes severely limited, and the length of time that drought conditions may persist and impact communities is unknown.

Water Recycling and Reuse

Because freshwater is only a minimal percentage of the total global water supply and water treatment and distribution are costly, water should be considered a scarce and valuable resource. Many groups are advocating new approaches to water use and distribution. For example, the U.S. Green Building Council has proposed that traditional water distribution systems could be modified to limit the distribution of potable water and that parallel systems be developed to enable the collection and redistribution of gray water. Some municipalities have installed distribution systems that encourage households and commercial operations to use recycled water in lieu of treated freshwater for specific applications (e.g., irrigation), thus conserving the freshwater that is available within their watersheds. However, this is an expensive option because it requires the establishment of separate piping systems for the recycled water. Alternative methods for using rainwater also are being developed. For example, buildings are increasingly being engineered with the capability to collect and use rainwater for non-potable applications (such as for flushing toilets and landscape irrigation).

Section 13.5 Waste Management

Waste management or waste disposal are all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.[1] This includes amongst other things collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and regulation. It also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling. The term normally relates to all kinds of waste, whether generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, or other human activities,[1] including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial), agricultural, and social (health care, household hazardous waste, sewage sludge).[2] Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural area), and sectors (residential and industrial).[3]

Waste Hierarchy

The waste hierarchy refers to the “3 Rs” reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste; see: resource recovery. The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is for policy to take action first and prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to reduce the generation of waste i.e. by re-use. The next is recycling which would include composting.

Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. Energy can be recovered from processes i.e. landfill and combustion, at this level of the hierarchy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste which has not been prevented, diverted or recovered.[5][page needed] The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is the disturbing noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles engines and trains. Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, side- by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Documented problems associated with urban environment noise go back as far as Ancient Rome. Noise from roadways and other urban factors can be mitigated by urban planning and better design of roads. Outdoor noise can be caused by machines, construction activities, and music performances, especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss.[5]

References Environmental Health, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health National Center for Environmental Health, https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/

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