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Peter C. Kratcoski

Correctional Counseling and Treatment Sixth Edition

Correctional Counseling and Treatment

Peter C. Kratcoski

Correctional Counseling and Treatment

Sixth Edition

Peter C. Kratcoski Kent State University Kent, Ohio, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-54348-2 ISBN 978-3-319-54349-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-54349-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935719

© Duxbury Press 1981, A Division of Wadsworth, Inc. © Waveland Press, Inc., 1989, 1994, 2000, 2004 © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book is dedicated to the memory of my brother, John E. Kratcoski

Preface

Correctional Counseling and Treatment, Sixth Edition, is designed to provide

information on the counseling and treatment methods currently being used in

community and institutional corrections in the United States. The treatment

methods and approaches that are most often used by criminal justice agencies are

presented. The book is not comprehensive, since some treatment and counseling

methods are not included. Those that appear to be the most useful to correctional

personnel who provide supervision and counseling to those under supervision of

justice agencies are examined. The treatment methods presented in the chapters and

illustrated through information obtained from interviews with practitioners

employed in criminal justice agencies appear to be those most relevant to the

current practices of correctional agencies.

In the Sixth Edition of Correctional Counseling and Treatment, all of the

chapters are new and original, written by the author of the book or by invited

authors.

When the first edition of Correctional Counseling and Treatment was published in 1981, there was a debate over the purposes and effectiveness of correctional

treatment. Kratcoski (1981, p.vii) noted, “A key element in the controversy that has

arisen over the comparative effectiveness of various treatment programs is the fact

that the purpose of correctional treatment has come to be regarded as prevention of

recidivism.” This statement on the purposes of corrections was not accepted by

everyone. Kratcoski, (1981, p.vii) noted “At that time, many of the persons

employed in correctional agencies maintained that the goals of correctional treat-

ment must be more broadly defined, and that successful treatment should be

measured not only in terms of a lack of recidivism, but also by such progress as

improved mental health, ability to perform adequately in a work situation, success-

ful adjustment in the community, and appropriate handling of interpersonal

relationships.”

The debate over the purposes and effectiveness of correctional counseling and

treatment continued during the latter part of the twentieth century. The direction the

criminal justice system took in regard to punishment and treatment of juvenile and

vii

adult criminal offenders was influenced by research conducted at that time that

supported the contention that the treatment of offenders in the least restrictive

setting possible would, in the long run, be likely to lead offenders toward becoming

productive members of the community and help create a more secure society than if

offenders were harshly punished through long sentences in correctional facilities.

In 2004, the year the fifth edition of Correctional Counseling and Treatmentwas published, it was noted by Kratcoski (2004, p. xiii) that, “The trend in recent years

toward determinate sentencing and retributive justice seemed for a time to reduce

the importance of treatment and counseling in corrections. However, when prisons

became overcrowded alternatives to the handling of criminal offenders had to be

found. This corrections dilemma had the latent effect of stimulating the develop-

ment of new innovative approaches in community corrections and growth of the use

of tried and trustworthy older approaches to community corrections. New commu-

nity based programs, often labeled ‘intermediate sanctions,’ emphasized

‘enhanced’ supervision and mandatory involvement in treatment programs.

Although the strongest emphasis of these programs was on supervision of the

offender, the treatment goals of the programs were also apparent.”

The current emphasis in corrections embraces many of the original goals.

However, the goals have been expanded, and new approaches to providing super-

vision and treatment have been added. The emphasis on providing restorative

justice in the processing of juvenile and criminal offenders through the criminal

justice system has continued and gained widespread acceptance during the first part

of the twenty-first century. This approach addresses the needs of the offender, the

needs of the victim, and the needs of the community in the decisions pertaining to

the treatment and sanctioning of offenders, and attempts to balance the treatment

goal of corrections with appropriate sanctioning of the criminal offenders in the

correctional process.

Closely related to the restorative justice approach is the recognition that victims

of crime have rights and that these rights of victims should be considered in any

decisions made regarding the processing of criminal offenders. Recognition of the

rights of victims to be present or heard at any stage of the processing of criminal

offenders has had an effect on the types of sentences convicted criminal offenders

receive and the provisions of their sanctions.

The emphasis on restorative justice has resulted in the creation of many new

programs and approaches to the processing of offenders. The mental health

approach in the treatment of some categories of offenders, particularly the mentally

ill, homeless, and substance abusers, has gained more acceptance by the legislators

who provide funding for special programming for such offenders as well as by law

enforcement agency personnel and judicial officials. Programs and special courts

for the mentally ill, drug and alcohol abusers, some categories of sex offenders,

abusers of family members, mentally disturbed military veterans, and others have

been established. The goals of these special programs are to provide counseling and

treatment for the purpose of rehabilitating these offenders by diverting them from

criminal justice processing or by having them processed and treated in community-

viii Preface

based programs. If they are sentenced to prison, special treatment programs for

these offenders have been established in institutions.

During the first part of the twenty-first century, many new approaches to

correctional treatment and programs have been created. The large majority of

these pertain to community corrections, with the emphasis on diversion and pro-

grams for special problem offenders.

The current emphasis on providing community sanctions, such as probation, or

commitment to a community-based residential treatment center in place of sen-

tencing to a correctional facility for a large number of offenders, particularly, those

convicted of minor drug offenses, has led to questions about the effectiveness of the

treatment programs provided. Critics of those who embrace the treatment (rehabil-

itation) approach to corrections can cite numerous correctional treatment programs

started in the past that, despite the huge amounts of funding given to implement and

operate the programs, showed minimal positive results when critically evaluated.

The current emphasis on evidence-based programming has gone a long way toward

reducing the probability that a new approach to correctional treatment and the

establishment of programs will result in failure. Currently, proposals for federal and

state funding require pretesting and evaluation before being fully implemented. It

must be shown that they are based on theory and research. For example, institution

of a statewide case management system for probation may take several years of

evaluations and feedback before the final version is decided upon and adopted.

Kent, Ohio Peter C. Kratcoski

Feburary 2017

References

Kratcoski, P. (1981). Correctional counseling and treatment (1st ed.). Monterey, CA:

Duxbury Press.

Kratcoski, P. (2004). Correctional counseling and treatment (5th ed.). Long Grove, IL:

Waveland Press, Inc.

Preface ix

Acknowledgments

The writing of this book would not have been possible without the assistance of the

many individuals who contributed their time and ideas and who provided invalu-

able information.

Special thanks is extended to Susan Crittenden, Debra White, and Susan

Worstall. These former Kent State students had illustrious careers working with

either federal or state correctional agencies. When asked to co-author a chapter for

this book, they eagerly accepted the offer. There is no better way to learn about an

occupation than to gain knowledge about the work through experience. If this is not

possible, a second approach is to have an experienced worker provide the

information.

In addition to those who contributed to the book by writing a chapter, there were

many others who contributed by way of interviews or provision of forms, docu-

ments, policies, and information on programs. I am proud to announce that many of

these individuals were my former students at Kent State University or are current

students. They include:

Dr. Thomas Anuszkiewicz, president of Marion Psychological Services and psy-

chologist in Stark County Jail

Melissa S. Bleininger, student, Kent State University

Jennifer Boswell, reentry specialist, Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and

Correction

Christa Cross, chief forensic interviewer, Stark County Job and Family Services

Kelly Crowl, police officer/student resource officer, Louisville Police Department,

Louisville, OH, Kent State student

Arlune R. Culler, program director of Intensive Supervision Probation, Stark

County, OH, Adult Probation Department

John G. Haas, judge of Stark County Common Pleas Court, former judge of Drug

Court

Alison Jacob, director of Day Reporting Program, Stark County Common Pleas

Court

xi

James J. Lawrence, president and CEO of Oriana House, Inc.

Stacie Manfull, coordinator of Victim Services-Adult Division, Prosecutor’s Office Stark County

Allison Pollard, student, Kent State University

Susan Watkins, municipal court/youth court judge, Independence and Jackson

County, MO

Special thanks to Katherine Chabalko, editor of Springer, Inc., for her invaluable

guidance and to Neil and Carol Rowe of Waveland Press, Inc., for their support in

publication of the earlier editions of Correctional Counseling and Treatment and facilitation of the production of this sixth edition by Springer, Inc.

And very special thanks to my wife, Lucille Dunn Kratcoski, for her assistance

and support during the many years we have co-authored books, book chapters, and

journal articles.

xii Acknowledgments

Contents

Part I Correctional Counseling and Treatment: Past and Present

1 The Scope and Purposes of Correctional Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Punishment vs. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The Focus of Correctional Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Assessment of the Effectiveness of Correctional

Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Applying Restorative Justice Models in the

Correctional Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Restorative Justice: The Balanced Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Restorative Justice Development Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Community Restitution and Service Work as a Form

of Restorative Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Approaches to Restorative Justice Applications Within

Groups and Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Restorative Justice Conferencing with Juvenile

Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Police Diversion of Juvenile Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Mediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Definition and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

The Mediation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

xiii

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 The Criminal Justice System in Transition:

Assisting Victims of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Introduction: Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Training of Police in Servicing Victims of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Services Provided by Victim Services Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Duties of Victim Advocates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Community Service Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Elderly Victims of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Victims with Intellectual and Developmental

Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Part II The Diverse Roles of Counselors in Correctional Treatment

4 Continuity and Change in the Roles of Correctional

Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Introduction: Nature and Scope of Correctional Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

The Correctional Worker’s Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Preparation for Positions in Correctional Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Education and Training for Correctional Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Education and Training for Correctional Officer Work . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Educational and Training for Professional Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Correctional Work with Children and Juveniles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Correctional Work with Adult Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Role Conflict in Correctional Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5 Treatment of Juvenile Offenders: Diversion

and Formal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Police Diversion of Delinquent Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

School Resource Officer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Juvenile Court Diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Teen (Youth) Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Treatment Programs for Special Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Treatment for Sexual Abusers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Drug Courts for Juvenile Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Mission of Juvenile Drug Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Residential Treatment for Juvenile Delinquents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

xiv Contents

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6 Diverting Special Categories of Offenders to Community Treatment Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Mentally Ill Criminal Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Diverting the Mentally Ill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Processing the Mentally Ill Criminal Offender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Drug Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

The Stark County CHANCE Drug Court Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Diversion of Minor Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Community Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Veterans’ Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Programming for the Older Offender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

7 The Functions of Classification and Assessment

Models in Correctional Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Introduction: The Development of Classification

Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Use of Classification in the US Probation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

State Classification Systems for Probation and Parole . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

The Wisconsin Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

The Ohio Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Comparison of Evidence-Based Classification

Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Institutional Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Classification of Juvenile Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

8 Community-Based Sanctions: Probation

and Post-release Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Historical Development of Probation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Types of Probation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Probation Officer Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

County/State Probation Services: Structure/Organization

of Dallas, Texas, Probation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Dallas County Judicial System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Texas Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Contents xv

Offenses for Which the Code Does Not Allow

Community Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Types of Community Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Felony Community Supervision Punishment Ranges, Sanctions,

and Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Pretrial/Sentence Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Problems and Issues Relating to the Dallas Community

Supervision Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

The US Probation and Pretrial System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Federal Pretrial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Federal Sentencing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Structure of the US Probation and Pretrial Services

System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Probation Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Levels of Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Post Conviction (US Probation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Problems and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Conditional Release, Parole, and Post-incarceration

Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

A State-Supervised Reentry Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

9 Community Residential Treatment and Institutional

Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Introduction: Development of Community Residential

Housing for Criminal Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Current Status of Halfway Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Specialized Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

The Community Corrections Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Oriana House History and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Programming in Institutional Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

The US Bureau of Prisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Units for Veterans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

The Prison Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Special Programming for Older Inmates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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