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Human Behavior and the Social Environment I

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I

SUSAN TYLER

U N I V E R S I T Y O F A R K A N S A S L I B R A R I E S

F AY E T T E V I L L E , A R

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I by Susan Tyler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

All content CC BY-NC-SA unless otherwise noted.

Contents

Introduction 1

Attributions 6

Part I. The Person in Environment

Chapter 1: How We Use Our Expectations 25

Part II. The Biopsychosocial Dimension

Chapter 2: Lifespan Theories 79

Part III. The Sociocultural Dimension

Chapter 3: Theoretical Perspectives 105

Chapter 4: The Elements of Culture 120

Part IV. The Social Change Dimension

Chapter 5: Social Categorization & Stereotyping 161

Chapter 6: In-group Favoritism & Prejudice 191

Chapter 7: Reducing Discrimination 210

Chapter 8: Racial & Ethnic Inequality 233

Part V. Pre-Pregnancy & Prenatal Development

Chapter 9: Heredity, Prenatal Development, &

Birth

Heredity 280

Prenatal Development 291

Birth 320

279

Part VI. Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood

Chapter 10: Physical Development in Infancy &

Toddlerhood

347

Chapter 11: Cognitive Development in Infancy &

Toddlerhood

387

Chapter 12: Psychosocial Development in Infancy

& Toddlerhood

Infant Emotions 429

Forming Attachments 433

425

Part VII. Development in Early Childhood

Chapter 13: Physical Development in Early

Childhood

465

Chapter 14: Cognitive Development in Early

Childhood

502

Chapter 15: Psychosocial Development in Early

Childhood

551

Part VIII. Development in Middle Childhood

Chapter 16: Physical Development in Middle

Childhood

603

Chapter 17: Cognitive Development in Middle

Childhood

630

Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in Middle

Childhood

690

Part IX. Development in Adolescence

Chapter 19: Physical Development in Adolescence 733

Chapter 20: Cognitive Development in

Adolescence

763

Chapter 21: Psychosocial Development in

Adolescence

786

Part X. Development in Early Adulthood

Chapter 22: Physical Development in Early

Adulthood

815

Chapter 23: Cognitive Development in Early

Adulthood

861

Chapter 24: Psychosocial Development in Early

Adulthood

897

Part XI. Development in Middle Adulthood

Chapter 25: Physical Development in Middle

Adulthood

959

Chapter 26: Cognitive Development in Middle

Adulthood

1023

Chapter 27: Psychosocial Development in Middle

Adulthood

1064

Part XII. Development in Late Adulthood

Chapter 28: Physical Development in Late

Adulthood

1135

Chapter 29: Cognitive Development in Late

Adulthood

1197

Chapter 30: Psychosocial Development in Late

Adulthood

1245

Additional Resources 1299

Adopt this book! 1302

Why do people do the things they do?

That’s what we are here to find out – Human Behavior and the Social Environment (HBSE) – How do they connect? How does it shape us? Why do we think and feel the way we do?

This will be explored throughout this course by examining human

behavior throughout life stage developments and our interactions

with the social environment. This course will explore theoretical

perspectives in Social Work to help provide a foundation for

organizing thoughts about client needs and issues they are seeking

supports for. Theories will then be connected to important

developmental, social, and cultural issues that present throughout

each stage of life to create an overall picture of a client’s experience

and how we can use this information to have a better understanding

of how people we work with are influenced and why. Knowledge of

typical development in each stage of life will also inform the Social

Worker if any other supports, resources, or services may be needed.

“Social workers are knowledgeable about human

behavior across the life course; the range of social

systems in which people live; and the ways social

systems promote or deter people in maintaining or

achieving health and well-being. Social workers apply

theories and knowledge from the liberal arts to

understand biology, social, cultural, psychological and

spiritual development.” – CSWE (2008, p.6)

There is no single definition for HBSE. I encourage you to think

Introduction | 1

about what it means to you. In Social Work, rarely do we work with

people whose problems are straightforward. Typically we encounter

problems that are complex and interconnected on several levels

and require looking at the relationships between behaviors and

environments. We like to explore as much as possible in Social

Work and use of theories within various dimensions (biological,

psychological, social, and spiritual) allows us to have a broader

knowledge base in several different areas to have a better

understanding and ability to “put it all together” to assess and

intervene with client concerns.

We will utilize vignettes to work in connecting each theory,

approach, perspective, and life stage of development throughout

this course. Each section will begin with a vignette that will be

incorporated throughout to demonstrate examples of each concept

(that is not covered in your readings). Life stage development

vignettes will be used as an “unfolding case” to allow you to work in

critical thinking of how the theories, approaches, and perspectives

connect throughout each life stage.

Social Work Values:

Service – engage in this by helping people address and hopefully resolve their problems/concerns – also

engage in service through volunteering time to

organizations within the community (boards, mentoring

programs, etc).

Social Justice – advocate and fight against social injustices for individuals/groups – generally focusing in

areas of poverty, discrimination, education,

unemployment, etc.

2 | Introduction

Integrity – We must always work to be trustworthy, honest, and responsible in our work and with our

clients.

Competence – always strive to improve our knowledge and expertise through continuous learning

and education.

Human relationships – connect as partners throughout the process – also work to improve

relationships within the client’s system to help improve

overall functioning through increased connections/

supports.

Dignity – value and respect each person we meet and engage with compassion and respect.

Critical Thinking Skills:

What is it?

• Reasoning – interest in the unknown – what’s going?

• Evaluating – challenging appearances – what do you think you see vs what you actually see?

• Problem-solving/decision making – explore all sides and determine the best decision.

Introduction | 3

• Analyzing – how do they connect? What does it all mean? How does it all add up? Best decision?

Time for reflection.

Why is this important?

1. Theories, approaches, and perspectives help lay the foundation

for any realistic and rational practice in any field. Our

professional values lay the foundation on which social work’s

mission is based. They help guide us in decision making as they

are directed towards a specific purpose and help us to grow

and develop.

2. Justification for your decisions – we must use critical thinking

skills to explore and process how decisions may impact our

clients and we must be able to discuss how our decisions were

determined.

About the Author:

Susan Tyler, MSW, LCSW – Clinical Assistant Professor, University

of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR

Professor Tyler has been teaching at the School of Social Work

since Spring 2018. Before joining the School of Social Work, she

worked in a community based mental health agency for over 10

years with a focus in Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health

and School-Based Mental Health services revolving around issues

4 | Introduction

related to trauma, abuse, attachment, anxiety, depression, domestic

violence, foster care, adjustments, disruptive behaviors, and ADHD,

through use of play therapy techniques and dyadic interventions.

“Be the change you wish to see in the world” – Mahatma Gandhi “You can do it” – Rob Schneider

References:

CSWE Commission on Accreditation. (2008). EPAS Handbook.

Council on Social Work Education.

Introduction | 5

Attributions

The Meaning Behind This Book

I began my career in Social Work working in the mental health field

with a focus in Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health. I realized

during this time just how much a person’s experiences and their

environments impacted all aspects of their lives, including why they

made the choices or responded the way they did. After a little over

a decade of mental health work, I had an opportunity to make a

change in my career and joined the world of academia. During my

first semester teaching, I became aware of the Open Educational

Resources at our university and immediately thought of the benefits

of transitioning this course with providing a free, online accessible

textbook that would support both students and instructors alike

in exploring human behavior, social environment, and life stage

development. I began working with the University library system to

compile different chapters from different open and free textbooks

from other disciplines and then added original content to support

connection to Social Work foundations and practice in the first

four sections, as well as creating vignettes to use throughout each

section. This text will support the reader with a deeper

understanding of Social Work theories, perspectives, and

approaches, life stage development, and connection of how they are

utilized in organizing, assessing, and planning for client support.

It is my hope you will come away from this course seeing others

through a lens of empathy, compassion, and curiosity, stopping to

ask yourself, “what must they have experienced in their life?” to

gain a better understanding before jumping to conclusions or

assumptions of others.

“We are all unique. Don’t judge, understand instead.” ~ Roy T. Bennett

6 | Attributions

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I is adapted from

various work produced and distributed under the Creative

Commons License. Below, is the list of all adapted chapters used in

the making of this book.

Cover Image: Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay. Chapter 1: Adapted from Chapter 2.2 from Principles of Social

Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 2: Adapted from Chapter 9.2: Lifespan Theories in OpenStax, Psychology. OpenStax CNX. Oct 2, 2019

http://cnx.org/contents/ [email protected] Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/ [email protected]

Chapter 3: Adapted from Theoretical Perspectives by Rice University under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial 4.0 license.

Chapter 4: Adapted from Chapter 3.2 from Sociology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where

otherwise noted.

Chapter 5: Adapted from Chapter 12.1 from Principles of Social Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 6: Adapted from Chapter 12.2 from Principles of Social Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 7: Adapted from Chapter 12.3 from Principles of Social Psychology by the University of Minnesota under the Creative

Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 8: Adapted from Chapter 3.1, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8

Attributions | 7

from Social Problems by the University of Minnesota under the

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International License, except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 9: Adapted from Chapter 2 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and

Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative Commons

Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported license.

Chapter 10 – 12: Adapted from Chapter 3 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 13 – 15: Adapted from Chapter 4 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 16 – 18: Adapted from Chapter 5 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 19 – 21: Adapted from Chapter 6 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 22 – 24: Adapted from Chapter 7 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 25 – 27: Adapted from Chapter 8 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

8 | Attributions

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Chapter 28 – 30: Adapted from Chapter 9 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by

Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported

license.

Attributions | 9

PART I

THE PERSON IN ENVIRONMENT

Learning Objectives:

• Explore the Person in Environment Approach

• Describe the Micro, Mezzo, and Macro

Approach

• Describe the Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual

Approach

• Describe Systems Theory

• Describe Ecological Theory

• Describe Ecosystems Theory

• Introduce Strengths Perspective

The Person in Environment | 11

Photo by Christian Erfurt on Unsplash

Vignette

Jason’s parents have been

called by the school social

worker to discuss concerns

related to fighting with a peer

and declining grades. His

parents also report concerns at

home with poor sibling

relationships, anger issues, and

“a bad attitude, always talking

back, never listening or doing

what we ask him to do”. They report a long family history of substance

abuse and mental health issues (anxiety and depression). They report

increased concerns related to this as they recently found marijuana in

Jason’s room. Jason (14 y/o) reports “My parents don’t know what

they’re talking about. My little brother and sister just get me in trouble

because I don’t let them touch my stuff, besides, my parents don’t care,

they don’t listen to me, they just want me to do what they say. And I

don’t see what the big deal is with me smoking a little weed, it helps

me feel better and not be so mad all the time.”

What comes to mind when you hear Person-In-Environment?

This approach is the concept that people can be heavily influenced

by their environment. It highlights the importance of understanding

an individual and their behavior through their environment. A

person’s environment, along with their experiences, will help shape

the way they view the world, how they think, and why they respond

the way they do. In Social Work, gathering information from our

clients is a foundation piece of the work we do and knowing what

12 | The Person in Environment

information to seek and how to organize it is like gathering pieces

of a puzzle and working to put them together to get the whole

picture (or at least as much of it as we can). This lesson will begin to

introduce some particular approaches, perspectives, and theories

that help build the lens and foundation of the Social Work

profession.

Micro, Mezzo, and Macro

We will first start with the Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Approach. This is simply looking at levels within a person’s system, which will help

give you some direction in what supports may be needed.

The Micro-level represents individual needs and involves direct interactions with clients, which is the most common type of social

work. This level explores aspects related to biology, psychological

needs, social (peer) and interpersonal (family) relationships or

supports, and spiritual beliefs.

Jason’s micro level – Biologically no physical health

issues have been reported but some concerns may be

related to how use of marijuana may affect his physical

health. He is an adolescent which means his body

continues to experience hormonal and physical changes.

Family reports history of substance abuse issues as well as

struggles with mental health issues, which may indicate

possible genetic connections to be explored. This may also

be connected to psychological needs as he may be

experiencing anxiety or depressive symptoms or if he

reports use of marijuana as a coping mechanism. He is

The Person in Environment | 13

also reported to present with anger, fighting with his

siblings and struggling with strained family relationships.

This connects us to social aspects, exploring how he

identifies his relationships and supports. No spiritual

beliefs were reported in the vignette but would need to be

explored when meeting with Jason.

The Mezzo-level represents connections or interactions with small groups, such as family, schools, churches, neighborhoods,

community organizations, and peers/co-workers.

Jason’s mezzo level – Here we would look further into

how his relationships and interactions with various

groups impact him – family, peers, school staff/faculty,

possible spiritual affiliation/church, and any community

groups or organizations he identifies being connected

with.

The Macro-level represents connections to systemic issues within large systems, such as laws/legislation, policy, healthcare systems,

and international associations. This level also explores ethical

frameworks, historical impacts of group experiences, and how

discrimination and prejudice can impact marginalized populations.

Jason’s macro level – Education/school policies, mental

health policies, healthcare systems, culture and historical

14 | The Person in Environment

impacts of group experiences, drug laws and policies, and

possible discrimination and prejudice impacts need to be

explored.

It is important to remember to explore the interconnectedness and

interactions between what information is presenting on each level

for the person and how this may have an impact on their functioning

and development within their environment.

Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual

The Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual Approach assesses levels of functioning within biological, psychological, social, and spiritual

dimensions (and how they are connected) to help understand

human behavior. This approach includes much of the same

information you will find in the Micro level but we are wanting

to take a deeper look at how the individual is functioning in each

dimension as well as how they can impact one another.

The Biological component includes aspects related to overall health, physical abilities, weight, diet, lifestyle, medication/

substance use, gender, and genetic connections/vulnerabilities.

Jason’s biological aspects – No concerns with overall

physical health, developmental aspects of adolescence

need to be considered, substance use concerns and

impacts, identifies as male, and possible genetic

The Person in Environment | 15

connections/vulnerabilities (substance abuse, anxiety,

depression, or any other family history of concern).

The Psychological component includes aspects related to mental health, self-esteem, attitudes/beliefs, temperament, coping skills,

emotions, learning, memory, perceptions, and personality.

Jason’s psychological aspects – Anger, substance use

concerns and impacts, possible esteem issues, poor coping

skills and emotional regulation, cognitive development

and any related concerns, personality and temperament

characteristics, and explorations of how he perceives his

world.

The Social component includes aspects related to peer and family relationships, social supports, cultural traditions, education,

employment/job security, socioeconomic status, and societal

messages.

Jason’s social aspects – Strained family relationships,

school relationships/educational supports, exploration of

socioeconomic impacts, exploration of cultural traditions,

16 | The Person in Environment

and identification/exploration of peer relationships and

supports.

The Spiritual component includes aspects related to spiritual or religious beliefs, or belief in a “higher being” or higher power they

feel connected to or supported by.

Jason’s spiritual aspects – No spiritual aspects were

reported but we would want to explore what this means

to Jason. Does he identify with a church, religion, or

higher power/being? What does it mean to him? Does it

bring any support and comfort or is it causing increased

stress as he is working to “figure out what it all means”?

Looking at each dimension of the Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual

Approach allows you to engage in a more holistic exploration and

assessment of a person as it examines and connects four important

domains of their life.

Systems Theory

Systems Theory states behavior is influenced by a result of factors that work together as a system and are interconnected – each part

plays an important role in the function of the whole, and the whole

in turn supports and sustains the parts. A person’s family, friends,

school, work, economic class, home environment, and other factors

all influence how a person thinks and acts. A social worker must

The Person in Environment | 17

observe and assess all of the systems a person experiences, as they

contribute to their behavior and well-being, and work to strengthen

those systems as they are connected and influence one another.

This is used to develop a holistic view of individuals within their

environment, which is then used to lead to the most appropriate

practice intervention.

Within Systems Theory we will also explore roles (routine tasks

and behaviors of people within a system). We all have roles and

engage in them whether we recognize it or not. Some examples of

roles are leader, caretaker, parent, child, sibling, enabler, scapegoat,

citizen, spouse, and worker. Many people feel their roles identify

them. This may reinforce behaviors when positive feelings or

experiences are associated with the role(s) or maybe a motivator for

change when the role(s) are connected to more negative feelings or

experiences. Knowing what roles a person is engaged in, and how

they perceive each role, will support your work in understanding

their experiences and what needs are presenting.

Ecological Theory

Ecological Theory focuses on the interaction between the individual and their environment. It discusses the active

involvement of people with their environments and development as

well as both (environment/development) continuously changing.

“Thoughts become perception, Perception becomes reality. Alter your thoughts, Alter your reality.” ~ William James

An important reminder of this theory is to remember the

importance of perception – how people perceive or interpret their

environment and experiences influences their overall functioning

or well-being. This is also regardless of how problems or concerns

may appear to the social worker. You will need to explore how the

client views their situation before assuming certain situations are

problematic. We need to try and see it through their eyes and get

18 | The Person in Environment

an understanding of how they were feeling. It is their story and

their reality. In social work practice, this can best be understood by

looking at individuals, families, policies, communities, and cultures

and identifying strengths and weaknesses in the transactional

processes between the systems.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model used to explore Ecosystems Theory:

https://www.slideshare.net/CLMontecarlo/

bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory-54149823

Bronfenbrenner believed an individual’s development was affected

by everything in their surrounding environment and divided the

environment into five different levels: the microsystem, the

mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the

chronosystem.

The microsystem is the system closest to the individual and the one in which they have direct interactions. Some examples include

home, school, or work. A microsystem typically includes family,

peers, or caregivers. Relationships in a microsystem are bi-

directional, meaning, how you respond and react to the people will

affect their response and reaction to you. This is the most influential

level within the theory.

The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems are interconnected and influence one another. These interactions have

an indirect impact on the individual, which can be positive or

negative depending on the elements of the system working together

(positive) or working against each other (negative).

The exosystem refers to a setting in which the person is not an active participant, but still affects them. This includes decisions

The Person in Environment | 19

that affect a person, but they have no decision-making abilities. An

example of this would be a child affected by a parent losing a job.

The macrosystem is the cultural environment in which the person lives and all other systems that affect them such as economy,

cultural values, and political systems.

The chronosystem encompasses transitions and shifts throughout a person’s life. It looks at the timing of the event in

relation to a person’s development, such as how death affects

children of different ages. Historical events that occur during a

person’s life are also explored such as the impacts of the September

11th attacks.

Jason’s story – With use of Systems Theory, we will

want to look at aspects of micro, mezzo, and macro levels

as well as bio-psycho-social-spiritual dimensions above

and how they interact and influence one another. Here we

will also explore what roles Jason feels he engages in (son,

brother, student, friend) as well as roles he may not

recognize or identify (leader, caretaker (if he is asked to

help with caring for younger siblings), or role model). We

will also want to explore how Jason perceives each role

(positive or negative) to gain a better understanding of his

experience and work in supporting his needs. With use of

Ecological Theory, we add the addition of looking at how

development and environment continue to grow and

change, and how this continues to impact our clients as

they enga

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